Reconstruction of the city of Wroxeter in Roman Britain
Ivan Lapper/British Heritage/Heritage Images/Getty Images
During Roman rule, the health standards of Britain’s populace declined, particularly in city environments.
There’s a common conception that the Romans introduced civilization and its various advantages, exemplified by a scene in Monty Python’s Life of Brian, where Reg, portrayed by John Cleese, rhetorically asks, “Aside from hygiene, medicine, education, wine, security, irrigation, roads, freshwater systems, and sanitation, what have the Romans ever done for us?”
However, researchers have recognized health issues for at least a decade. A study titled Declining public health in Iron Age Britain indicates that after the Romans arrived in 43 AD, the population continued to thrive even after their departure.
Currently, Rebecca Pitt and her team at the University of Reading in the UK analyzed 646 ancient human bones, with 372 belonging to children under three and a half years at death, and 274 from adult women aged 18 to 45. These remains originated from 24 Iron Age and Romano-British sites in southern and central England, spanning from the 4th century before Roman arrival to the 4th century AD, coinciding with the Roman exit.
Pitt evaluated age based on the pelvic features of adults and the teeth of children. By studying both potential mothers and their infants, she aims to gain insights into the stressors that impacted different generations during Roman dominance.
“A mother’s health significantly affects her child’s well-being, and environmental factors during crucial developmental stages can have enduring effects on health,” remarks Pitt.
Pitt scrutinized the bones and teeth for irregularities such as lesions or fractures indicative of conditions like tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, or dental diseases. She utilized X-rays to investigate the internal bone structure, highlighting changes in development stemming from malnutrition or deficiencies in vitamins C and D.
Her findings suggest that the adverse health outcomes linked to Roman occupation were especially apparent in two major urban centers: the Roman administrative town of Venta Belgarum (now Winchester) and Corinium Duvennorm (Cirencester).
Overall, 81 percent of urban Roman adults exhibited bone abnormalities compared to 62 percent of Iron Age individuals, while no significant differences were noted between Iron Age and rural Roman populations. Furthermore, only 26% of Iron Age children presented such issues, in contrast to 41% from Roman rural areas and 61% in Roman urban settings.
“A notable issue among non-adults in urban settings was rickets, indicating insufficient vitamin D from sunlight,” states Pitt.
She proposes that these health challenges, which persisted across generations, were attributable to new diseases brought by the Romans, along with the class disparities and infrastructure they established, which led to restricted resource access and overcrowded, polluted living conditions for those of lower social standing.
“My father enjoys telling jokes. Life of Brian reveals, however, that the Romans had a significantly negative impact on our health, affecting numerous generations,” observes Pitt.
Martin Millett, a professor at Cambridge University, expressed that this discovery is fascinating, suggesting that the effects may be underestimated if the buried individuals belonged to higher social classes who might have experienced better health, although he does not believe the observations are strictly urban-related.
“These urban settings are not the vast medieval towns known for deep poverty and high population densities,” he notes. “What we may be witnessing is an expanding divide between the wealthy and impoverished, with the Roman Empire’s economic and social systems exacerbating this gap over time.”
Richard Maggwick, a professor at Cardiff University, also remarked that the Roman legacy did not equitably benefit everyone. “While we gained better sanitation, hygiene, and medical knowledge, accessibility remains a crucial question,” he states. “The truth is that not everyone benefited, and it took time for these advantages to reach various social strata.”
Research conducted on Anopheles mosquitoes, native to Tanzania, shows promising results in malaria control.
James Gathany/CDC via AP/Alamy
A genetic technology known as gene drive has the potential to aid in malaria prevention by transferring genes to wild mosquitoes that inhibit parasite transmission. Recent tests in a Tanzanian lab have indicated that one specific gene drive could be effective if released within the country.
“This technology is poised to be transformative,” states George Christofides from Imperial College London.
Typically, a portion of an organism’s DNA is passed to only half of its offspring due to the halving of DNA in eggs or sperm. By enhancing this inheritance rate using gene drives, small segments of DNA can proliferate swiftly within a population, even if they do not confer any evolutionary advantages.
Many natural gene drives function through various means, potentially even in some human communities. In 2013, scientists engineered an artificial gene drive utilizing CRISPR gene-editing technology, allowing DNA segments to be copied from one chromosome to another.
The objective is to disseminate DNA segments that impede malaria transmission, but the question remains: which segments? Christofides revealed in 2022 that the development of malaria parasites in mosquitoes could be notably curtailed by two small proteins, one derived from honeybees and another from Xenopus. The genes linked to these anti-malarial proteins correspond with those that produce enzymes aiding in blood digestion, so the proteins are synthesized post-blood meal, secreted into the intestine.
However, these tests used lab strains of mosquitoes and malaria pathogens collected decades ago, leaving uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of this method in contemporary Africa.
Currently, Christofides and Dixon Rwetoihera from the Ifakara Health Research Institute in Tanzania have updated local data. The Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, derived from this strategy, produced gene drive components that were maintained separately to prevent spreading, all within a secure setting.
Initial tests revealed significant suppression of malaria parasites collected from infected children, alongside successful gene replication for anti-malarial proteins. “We can now confidently assert this technology has field application potential,” states Christofides.
The forthcoming phase involves releasing mosquitoes that create anti-malarial proteins onto islands in Lake Victoria and monitoring their behavior in a natural setting. Rwetoijela notes that the team is conducting risk assessments and engaging local communities. “Thus far, political and public backing has been robust.”
The expectation is that gene drives will significantly contribute to the eradication of malaria in endemic regions. A. gambiae is the only species responsible for malaria transmission, and “gene drives could change the course,” claims Christofides.
Multiple organizations are also exploring gene drives for malaria control, alongside various strategies aimed at managing other pest populations.
Genetically modified mosquitoes have already been deployed in certain countries to manage wild mosquito numbers, but these strategies generally depend on continuously releasing high quantities of insects.
Elon Musk assisted the U.S. government in slashing science budgets
Jason C. Andrew/Bloomberg via Getty Images
One of the most iconic images of 2025 features billionaire Elon Musk, a special adviser in President Donald Trump’s administration, brandishing a gleaming red chainsaw and proclaiming a message about reducing federal funding. This heavy-handed metaphor captured the impending cuts that would have profound impacts on scientific funding, leading to the cancellation of space missions and critical public health and climate programs.
President Trump’s rapid dismantling of decades of American leadership in science has been astonishing, with effects likely to last far longer than anticipated. It began with fervor—just a week after Trump took office in January, he signed an order that temporarily halted grants and loans from federal agencies. This led to thousands of NIH grants being suspended or terminated, which is one of the world’s leading biomedical research funders. According to Grant Witness, a platform tracking changes in federal funding during the Trump era, the contraction in funding from entities such as NIH and NSF totals nearly $3 billion.
Following that initial wave, Musk led an independent task force known as the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE), which was charged with slashing government expenditures. While DOGE aimed to cut costs across the federal landscape, many of its moves directly impacted scientists and researchers. There were significant job cuts at agencies such as the CDC, NASA, the EPA, and the NOAA, among others. In October, the Trump administration announced additional cuts targeting major scientific institutions including the US Geological Survey and the National Park Service, which play crucial roles in monitoring the health of the nation’s agriculture and natural resources and protecting biodiversity.
This all reflects a sweeping policy overhaul during Trump’s presidency. Since WWII, the U.S. has championed scientific research as a pillar of progress and prosperity, a notion conceptualized in the 1940s by the architects of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the predecessor to the NSF. This ethos, dubbed the “Endless Frontier,” was a revolutionary framework for establishing global leadership in research and technology development. Trump’s administration has systematically dismantled it.
Not only did Trump shrink federal research agencies, but his administration pressured universities to ensure their educational and research agendas reflected government interests. Moreover, he took aggressive actions against established scientific principles. Almost predictably, Trump initiated the withdrawal of the U.S. from the Paris Agreement, the preeminent global accord on climate change, shortly after assuming office. Later that year, during a speech at the UN, he labeled climate change “the largest fraud ever perpetrated” and maligned renewable energy as “scams.”
Unsatisfied with these actions, the Trump administration also dismantled key climate data resources and reports previously generated by the government. Staff reductions in many scientific organizations led to the cancellation of essential climate teleconferences at NOAA, and crucial assessments like the U.S. National Climate Assessment were halted. Remaining personnel adhered to Trump’s narrative—for instance, NOAA scientists shocked external climate experts when they dismissed connections between global warming and climate change earlier this year.
U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. doubts established scientific views
Thomas/NurPhoto/Shutterstock
Furthermore, public health records saw significant damage. In April, key scientists running the National Survey on Drug Use and Health were dismissed. Later, layoffs occurred at the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, which monitors nationwide food security to guide aid allocation. The National Center for Health Statistics also faced cuts, significantly undermining its ability to track important metrics such as births, deaths, and maternal health. The National Death Index was also minimized, eliminating a vital resource for public health studies.
Health policy has become especially murky and devoid of evidence due to President Trump’s selection of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. as head of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Kennedy, a longtime vaccine skeptic, presided over more than 10,000 layoffs in government agencies and fueled conflict with public health authorities, leading to many resignations. He perpetuated the discredited notion that vaccines cause autism and even promoted the unfounded claim that Tylenol during pregnancy contributes to autism. In June, President Kennedy bypassed standard procedures to inform that the CDC would no longer endorse COVID-19 vaccinations for children and pregnant individuals. His leadership has embedded the U.S. anti-vaccine movement within the government, damaging public trust in health institutions post-COVID-19.
Under Trump, the U.S. is also retreating from its leadership role in space exploration. Although the president’s budget request delivered in May hasn’t yet been enacted, it hints at a 47% cut to NASA that would stifle scientific progress and eliminate various missions, including ones already underway. For instance, samples collected from Mars by the Perseverance rover will not return to Earth, the Da Vinci probe intended to study Venus will not land, and the Osiris-Apex spacecraft will not gather data on an asteroid, vital for tracking potential threats to Earth. Additionally, NASA is experiencing leadership turmoil, with the U.S. Secretary of Transportation unsuccessfully attempting to manage it, compounded by President Trump’s inconsistent support for his nomination of billionaire Jared Isaacman.
The private sector is also gaining influence amid the Trump administration’s policies. Major tech companies are attempting to forge closer ties with the administration, showcasing their executives at various functions and providing lavish gifts during Trump’s inauguration. They may be looking to gain favor, as evidenced by a new $300 million ballroom in the White House. Their motives could involve seeking exemptions from antitrust regulations or simply reaping the benefits of relaxed environmental standards, while also pushing for developing major data centers for AI projects.
Nearly a year into Trump’s second term, the outlook for scientific progress remains unclear, particularly since the 2026 federal budget is still pending Congressional approval. Even if all proposed cuts do not pass, the administration’s erratic and often antagonistic stance toward science and its practitioners could result in further turmoil, prompting more scientists to exit the U.S. and diminishing critical funding for research essential for public health and ecological sustainability. The demise of the Endless Frontier will reduce America’s global influence, with consequences likely to be felt for years, if not decades.
Comet Lemon photographed from northern Italy on October 26, 2025
Marcel Clemens/Alamy
Although no one has officially stated it, 2025 has certainly been an exceptional year for comets. There’s Comet Lemon, discovered in January and making headlines for nine months. Each time I encountered that striking long tail formed by the comet’s solar heat, I was captivated.
In September, C/2025 R2 (SWAN) was discovered, radiantly bright even when near the moon on Halloween, making it easily visible. Then came Comet 3I/Atlas, which gained notoriety after a Harvard astronomer—primarily a cosmologist—identified it as an alien probe.
As a cosmologist who recognizes my limited expertise in comet studies, I fully trust the specialists asserting that Comet 3I/Atlas is not some extraterrestrial object. This isn’t a regret; this comet is still scientifically intriguing. Unlike lemons and SWANs, it hails from beyond our solar system, categorizing Comet 3I/Atlas as an interstellar comet.
Its entry into our solar system offers a thrilling opportunity. While pinpointing its exact trajectory may be unattainable, its composition can reveal a wealth of information about its parent star. Essentially, we can learn about the makeup of an enigmatic star even when its identity remains unknown.
Our expedition with this year’s comet reflects a long historical pattern of human fascination with enigmatic celestial phenomena. Most notably, Halley’s Comet’s passage in 1066 was illustrated in the Bayeux Tapestry, symbolizing the onset of the Norman invasion of England. Nowadays, we understand that humanity is not the universe’s focal point, and the universe lacks a center—but it’s easy to entertain the notion that the comet of 2025 could be conveying a message.
Reflecting on this year, filled with distressing and unfortunate occurrences, it’s tempting to ponder whether these comets hint at an impending apocalypse. The state of science in the United States faces turmoil, as the current administration cuts funding and initiatives (see page 20). Moreover, anti-immigrant sentiments have gained a mainstream foothold in both the United States and the United Kingdom.
As a Black and Jewish queer scientist, and an immigrant’s child, maintaining an open heart daily is a struggle. I recognize that there are those who wish to silence me. Contrary to my previous scientific education, I could interpret the comet as a sign to surrender. Yet, alternative paths exist. As a scientist, I perceive comets as sources of hope. They are breathtaking visual havens. The quest to observe them has fostered community. My astrophotography group eagerly anticipates sharing our experiences. While it’s frustrating to encounter rampant misinformation in various media concerning questions like “Are they aliens?”, I feel grateful that attention is being drawn to these phenomena.
For 2026, my aspirations are immense. Scientifically, I yearn for groundbreaking observations of dark matter. Socially, I aim to ensure that all children have access to essential resources—food, shelter, education, and healthcare—in environments that affirm their identities. While these are monumental dreams, they likely won’t manifest by year’s end. Nevertheless, comets remind us of the vast universe, brimming with marvelous surprises. Just as we strive to discover comets, we must also endeavor to create the better world we desire.
The trillions of microorganisms that inhabit our intestines significantly impact our health.
Tom Leach/Science Photo Library
We frequently hear about the benefits of certain foods for your microbiome and overall health. However, the exact composition of a healthy gut microbiome has not been fully understood until now. A recent study involving over 34,000 individuals has advanced our knowledge of the microbial combinations that indicate low inflammation, robust immunity, and healthy cholesterol levels.
The gut microbiome influences various aspects of health, including the immune system, aging, and mental well-being. While many home testing kits claim to analyze gut composition, their effectiveness remains questionable, as defining a “healthy” microbial balance is complex.
Earlier efforts have mainly concentrated on species diversity, under the assumption that a greater variety of bacteria is beneficial. However, since microbiomes differ significantly between individuals, pinpointing specific microbial communities linked to particular health outcomes is challenging.
“The interplay between our diet, gut microbiome composition, and health is intricate. The only way to unravel these connections is through large sample sizes,” explains Nicola Segata from the University of Trento, Italy.
To develop a comprehensive understanding, Segata and his team analyzed data from over 34,500 participants in the PREDICT program, conducted in the UK and the US by the microbiome testing company Zoe, and cross-referenced the findings with data from 25 additional cohorts in Western nations.
Among the thousands of bacterial species in the human gut, researchers focused on 661 species present in over 20% of Zoe participants. They identified 50 bacteria closely linked to health markers, such as BMI and blood glucose levels, as well as 50 associated with poor health.
The 50 “good” bacterial species (22 of which are newly identified) seem to affect four key areas: inflammation and immune function, body fat distribution, and blood sugar regulation.
Healthy participants, with no known medical issues, carried approximately 3.6 more of these beneficial species than those with health conditions, while individuals at a healthy weight had about 5.2 more species compared to those who were obese.
Among the species analyzed, most bacteria classified as either “good” or “bad” belong to the genus Clostridium. Within this group, 40 species from the family Lachnospiraceae were highlighted; 13 showed positive impacts while 27 were linked to negative effects.
“This research identifies a subset of bacteria worth further exploring for their potential impacts on health conditions like high blood sugar and obesity,” states Ines Moura from the University of Leeds, UK.
The connection between these microorganisms and diet is analyzed through food questionnaires and data collected via the Zoe app, which suggests aiming for at least 30 different plant types each week and consuming three servings of fermented foods daily, promoting fiber intake and reducing ultra-processed food consumption.
The findings indicate that most microorganisms tend to enhance health with a balanced diet or exacerbate health issues with a poor diet. However, 65 of the 661 microorganisms exhibited an inconsistent relationship.
“These 65 bacteria highlight the complexity of our microbiome,” remarks Segata, who also consults for Zoe. “Their effects might depend on the presence of other microorganisms, specific bacterial strains, or particular dietary factors.”
This classification of “good” and “bad” bacteria enables researchers to assess an individual’s gut health on a scale from 0 to 1000, which is already being applied in Zoe’s gut health assessments.
“Think of a healthy gut microbiome as a network of chemical factories. We need a diverse range of species and a predominance of beneficial bacteria to generate health-promoting chemicals that benefit the entire body,” says Tim Spector, PhD from King’s College London and co-founder of Zoe.
Nonetheless, establishing a definitive model of a healthy gut microbiome is challenging. “Defining a healthy microbiome is not straightforward, as gut composition is impacted by diet and can shift due to environmental factors, age, and health conditions requiring long-term treatment,” adds Moura.
“We need to view our bodies and microbiomes as two intricate systems that combine to create an even more complex system,” says Segata. “A change in one element can subtly affect everything else. Understanding the causative relationships is often quite complicated.”
Segata advocates for larger studies to further clarify these links and represent a wider global population. However, once a health and microbiome baseline is set, he believes it should be feasible to recommend specific foods to optimize gut bacteria.
“This site, dating back 400,000 years, represents the earliest known evidence of fire not just in Britain and Europe but across the globe,” stated Nick Ashton, co-author of the study and curator at the British Museum. He noted that this discovery pushes back the timeline of when our ancestors might have first harnessed fire by approximately 350,000 years.
Researchers are uncertain about the uses of fire by these hominin ancestors. They may have roasted meat, crafted tools, or shared narratives under its glow.
Understanding when our ancestors mastered the use of fire is crucial to unraveling the complexities of human evolution and behavior.
One hypothesis suggests that the ability to start fire contributed to the increase in brain size among early humans, as cooking facilitates easier digestion and boosts caloric intake. Another theory posits that controlling fire may have fostered social gathering spots at night, boosting social behavior and cognitive evolution.
“We know brain size was increasing towards its current capacity during this period,” remarked Chris Stringer, research head in human evolution at London’s Natural History Museum and another author of the Nature study. “The brain is energetically costly, consuming about 20 percent of the body’s energy. Thus, the ability to use fire enhances nutrient absorption from food, provides energy for the brain, and allows for the evolution of larger brains.”
Stringer emphasized that this finding does not signify the beginning of fire usage among humans but is merely the earliest instance researchers can confidently point to. Other early indications of fire use have been found in regions of South Africa, Israel, and Kenya, though these are contentious and open to interpretation.
From an archaeological standpoint, it’s challenging to ascertain the cause of wildfires or whether they were initiated by humans.
“The key question is whether they collected it from a natural source, managed it, or created it themselves. On the surface, this appears to be a robust case suggesting that the group knew how to start fires,” noted Dennis Sandogyas, a senior lecturer in the archaeology department at Simon Fraser University in Canada, who was not part of the study.
In the recent Nature study, researchers highlight the presence of deposits with fire residue, fire-cracked stone tools including a flint hatchet, and two small fragments of pyrite likely brought to the site by humans for fire-making, as indicated by geological analysis.
The prehistoric hatchet stone tool was discovered near a 400,000-year-old fire site that researchers believe was frequently used by Neanderthals. Road to Ancient Britain Project
Other outside researchers expressed skepticism.
Much of the evidence presented is “circumstantial,” wrote Will Loebloeks, a professor emeritus of paleolithic archaeology at Leiden University in the Netherlands, in an email.
Lowbrokes pointed out that later Neanderthal sites, dating to around 50,000 years ago, showed flint tools with wear signs indicating they had been struck against pyrite to produce sparks, an indication of humans creating fire. This evidence isn’t present in the current study.
“While the authors conducted thorough analysis of the Burnham data, they seem to be overstating claims by suggesting this is the ‘earliest evidence of a fire outbreak,'” Lobruks noted.
For our ancestors, fire was vital for warmth, nutrition, deterring predators, and even melting resins used in adhesives.
However, Sandgate emphasized that the evolution of fire-starting is not a straightforward path; it included sporadic adaptations and innovations. Evidence exists that early groups who learned to create fire sometimes lost that ability or ceased its use for cultural reasons.
“We must be cautious not to generalize any single instance … as proof that from this moment forward everyone will know how to start a fire,” Sandogyas remarked, referencing nearly 100 modern hunter-gatherer groups that have been meticulously observed. Some lacked the ability to generate fire.
“It’s probable that the art of fire-making was discovered, lost, rediscovered, and lost again across various groups over time. Its history is undoubtedly intricate.”
This festive season, whatever you may do, chances are you didn’t have to hunt it or gather it from the wilderness yourself. We owe this to our ancestors, who underwent one of humanity’s most significant transformations around 10,000 years ago, transitioning from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of farming.
The reasons behind this shift remain puzzling, especially since our species thrived for roughly 300,000 years without practices like milking, sowing, or shepherding. Various theories have been proposed. Perhaps agriculture provided a more dependable food source, or it reduced reliance on neighbors. Maybe the significance of a particular location related to spirituality, or perhaps a desire to remain close to buried loved ones played a role.
Or was it social friction that shaped this change? It might sound humorous, but just as today, alcohol could have served as a social lubricant. Maintaining relationships often involves sharing drinks, and if our ancestors wished to facilitate these connections, they would have needed to produce cereals. So could it be that alcohol motivated our ancestors to change their way of life?
Anthropologists have pondered this possibility since the 1950s, but at that time, technology was lacking to test such ideas. One challenge is differentiating between beer and bread, with many believing bread was more likely to kick-start agricultural growth. The archaeological evidence shows that both baking and brewing involved similar processes. Wang Jiajing from Dartmouth College and others needed to figure out how to distinguish the starches from beer and bread and determine which appeared first.
This led a select group of archaeologists, including Wang, on a quest to uncover the earliest known signs of alcoholic beer production.
One promising starting point is ancient settled societies, such as Egypt, where beer production was clearly established. Archaeologists frequently uncover distinctive pottery that resembles fermentation tanks. “They simply refer to it as ‘beer bottle’,” Wang explains. Recently, she and her colleagues confirmed these vessels were used for brewing and storing alcohol by identifying characteristic microscopic remains found inside. At Hierakonpolis in southern Egypt, for instance, fragments of beer bottles were discovered containing starch granules from grains, yeast cells, and “beer stones” made of calcium oxalate. Evidence suggests beer was brewed there from a mixture of wheat, barley, and grasses around 5,800 to 5,600 years ago, predating the first pharaohs by over 2,000 years.
A rice wine pot built 8,700 to 9,000 years ago in Qiaotou, Zhejiang Province, southern China
Wang Jiajing
“They were producing beer on an almost industrial scale,” said Wang. However, these early brews were not like today’s ales or lagers. “They sprouted the grains, cooked them, and used wild yeast to convert sweetness into alcohol,” she explains. The result was not a clear liquid, but rather a “slightly fermented sweet porridge.”
Such findings offer a template for the kind of evidence needed to confirm prehistoric beer production. The next obstacle was identifying how far back such evidence could reach.
In 2016, Li Liu from Stanford University, along with Wang and colleagues, uncovered ceramic vessels at the Mijiayao archaeological site in northern China. They identified traces of beer brewing from 5,000 years ago. This culture used unique plant mixtures for their beer, including broom sorghum millet, Job’s tears millet, barley, and tubers. Five years later, Wang and Liu identified further evidence of ancient drinking at the Xipu ruins near Xi’an, which belonged to the Yang Shao culture. Large pots fermented rice and grains using a fungus called red mold, which is still involved in making fermented foods like rice wine using the starter Kuu. They theorized that elites may have consumed beer at “competitive feasts.”
Oldest Alcoholic Beer
However, the earliest evidence comes from the mountain culture in the lower Yangtze River in southern China, discovered by Liu, tracing back to one of the earliest agricultural societies from approximately 10,000 to 8,500 years ago. In 2021, Wang’s team highlighted findings from the Kaminoyama site, showing that rice and Job’s tears, along with unidentified tuber remnants, were likely used for beer brewing during funerary feasts, indicating a practice highly integrated into their culture.
Just a year ago, Liu and her team described the earliest evidence of brewing in East Asia, analyzing 12 pottery shards from the Kaminoyama site’s deepest layer, dating back 9,000 to 10,000 years. “This depicts the early stages of the Ueyama culture,” she notes. The fragments featured rice, Job’s tears, traces of acorns, lilies, and remnants of carcasses. The Kuu starter included both Monascus and yeast.
At this juncture, Liu confirms, “domestication was already in progress,” and beer production was clearly a factor as well. “When we have surplus grain, we also produce surplus alcohol,” she adds.
Yet while there’s a strong connection, evidence is still elusive. Surprisingly, the oldest bread predates Ueyama beer and actually relates to the establishment of agriculture. Archaeologists discovered evidence of bread-like products, created by the Natufians at Shubaika 1 in Jordan, who generally maintained a foraging lifestyle despite some periods of settlement.
Rice terraces in Guangxi province, China
Sébastien Lecoq / Alamy Stock Photo
To add complexity, evidence has emerged suggesting that these hunter-gatherers may also have brewed beer. At the Rakefet Cave in Israel, a Natufian burial ground with around 30 interred individuals, Liu, Wang, and their colleagues discovered three stone mortars filled with various wild plants, including wheat, barley, and beans, which were fermented to create a porridge-like beer. These vessels date back between 11,700 and 13,700 years, indicating that brewing predates agriculture.
The ongoing debate about which came first, beer or bread, remains unresolved. “We don’t have conclusive evidence to clarify that yet,” Liu remarked. Similarly, it’s uncertain whether beer, bread, or another factor played the most significant role in the agricultural revolution, which ultimately laid the foundation for our food and drink traditions today.
“I wouldn’t be astonished if both were motivating factors,” Wang stated. After all, history is rarely straightforward—especially prehistory.
Instagram alerts that accounts for users under 16 will be terminated
Stringer/AFP (via Getty Images)
Australia’s groundbreaking social media restrictions on users under 16 have officially started, unveiling some contentious issues from the inaugural day of the new law. Notably, some minors managed to sidestep age verification measures intended to prevent them from accessing their accounts.
This initiative has garnered backing from numerous parents who hope it will mitigate online harassment, promote outdoor activities, and lessen exposure to inappropriate material. However, critics argue that the ban may be ineffective or even counterproductive, as highlighted by a variety of satirical memes.
Andrew Hammond, associated with KJR, a consultancy in Canberra where he oversaw age verification initiatives for the Australian government, is keenly observing how the current situation evolves. He mentioned having spoken to several parents of children covered by the ban, none of whom had lost access to their accounts yet. “Some have reported they circumvented it or haven’t yet been prompted,” Hammond stated, though he anticipates more accounts will be disabled next week.
Meta, the parent company of Instagram and Facebook, has initiated account removals about a week ago. A spokesperson affirmed, “As of today, we have disabled all accounts confirmed to be under 16.” They confirmed, “As the social media ban in Australia takes effect, we will preclude access to Instagram, Threads, and Facebook for teenagers known to be under this age and will restrict newcomers under 16 from setting up accounts.”
While Meta did not disclose the specific number of accounts terminated, a representative referred to earlier data indicating that approximately 150,000 users aged 13 to 15 are active on Facebook, and around 350,000 on Instagram in Australia. This implies that at least half a million accounts belonging to young Australians have been deleted on these two platforms alone.
The company stated its dedication to fulfilling its legal responsibilities, yet many concerns voiced by community organizations and parents have already manifested on the first day of the ban. These include risk of isolating vulnerable youth from supportive online communities, nudging them towards lesser-regulated apps and web areas, irregular age verification practices, and minimal concern for compliance among numerous teenagers and their parents, according to the spokesperson.
Mr. Hammond raised further questions, particularly regarding the status of minors under 16 who are vacationing or studying in Australia. The government has clarified that this regulation applies equally to visiting minors. While Australian accounts have been deleted, Mr. Hammond suspects that visitors’ accounts may simply be momentarily suspended. “It’s been merely a few hours since the ban was enacted, so there remains substantial uncertainty about its implementation,” he stated.
Australia and other nations are closely monitoring the repercussions as the law is fully enforced. “We will soon discover how attached minors under 16 are to social media and the actual situation that unfolds,” he said. He speculated that perhaps “they will venture outside to play sports.” Nonetheless, he warned, “if their lives are deeply intertwined with it, we may witness a plethora of attempts to evade these restrictions.”
Should I store my car keys in a Faraday box? Perhaps. With the advent of keyless entry, you can unlock your car just by approaching it, which is particularly handy when you’re carrying shopping and need to access the trunk.
However, depending on electromagnetic signals for locking and unlocking your vehicle—rather than using a traditional key—means there’s a risk. With the right technology, someone could intercept and misuse that digital communication.
In the UK, there were almost 130,000 vehicles stolen from April 2023 to March 2024. Furthermore, more than half of these incidents involved thieves manipulating the signal from the car key without ever having physical access to it.
This problem mainly affects vehicles with passive keyless entry systems, which enable you to unlock the door just by being within a certain range of the car without pressing any buttons. These systems work by emitting a signal detectable by nearby cars.
The distance at which this works varies by manufacturer, but theoretically, if your keys are inside the house and your car is in the driveway, the keys and the car are far enough apart that no signal should reach them.
Nevertheless, thieves may use devices to extend the key’s signal range, executing what’s known as a relay attack, which typically involves multiple devices.
The first thief situates themselves outside the house within range of the keys and captures the signal to relay it to a second accomplice positioned next to your vehicle.
While keyless cars offer convenience, they also present potential security vulnerabilities – Credit: Getty
They utilize their devices to capture the exact data contained within the signal, which is then relayed to their accomplice with a second device near your car. The vehicle recognizes the key-specific signals and unlocks as if the key were present.
To prevent this scenario, apart from switching to a lower-tech vehicle, ensure that your key doesn’t emit any signals when you don’t need to unlock your car.
Some manufacturers are offering “sleeping fobs” in newer models that employ motion-sensor technology to halt signal transmission when the key is not likely to be needed.
Additionally, some companies are developing keys that operate on bandwidths much more difficult to relay.
One day, we may eliminate keys entirely, replacing them with biometric technologies like fingerprint or facial recognition for car access.
For now, if your vehicle employs keyless entry and a sleep mode isn’t available, it’s advisable to find alternative ways to block the signal.
This is where a Faraday box or pouch becomes useful. These containers are lined with conductive material to prevent signals from entering or exiting.
You might also wrap the key in aluminum foil or store it in a microwave or refrigerator—just ensure the latter is turned off.
This article addresses the query (submitted by Radhika Bhatia): “Should I keep my car keys in a Faraday box?”
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In 1986, NASA’s Voyager 2 conducted the sole direct measurement of Uranus’ radiation environment. These findings revealed a well-recognized system characterized by a weak ion emission band and an unexpectedly strong electron emission band. Nevertheless, these observations might not have been taken under standard conditions. A recent study by scientists at the Southwest Research Institute compared Voyager 2’s data with comparable phenomena on Earth. Their findings, in conjunction with a new interpretation of the Voyager 2 flyby, suggest that the interaction of solar wind with Uranus’ magnetosphere may have amplified electromagnetic waves, enabling electrons to reach relativistic speeds. This opens new avenues for exploration at Uranus and emphasizes the necessity for missions orbiting the planet.
Allen et al. The researchers compared the effects on space weather of the high-speed solar wind structures that caused intense solar storms on Earth in 2019 (first panel) (second panel) with conditions observed on Uranus by Voyager 2 in 1986 (third panel), revealing a potential solution to a 39-year-old mystery regarding the extreme radiation belts discovered. Image credit: SwRI.
In 1986, during its unique flyby of Uranus, Voyager 2 recorded unexpectedly high levels of electron emission bands.
These electron emission belts were surprising, based on extrapolations from other planetary systems.
Since then, scientists have puzzled over how Uranus could maintain such a tightly constrained electron emission belt, making it distinct from other planets in the solar system.
Robert Allen and his colleagues from the Southwest Research Institute hypothesize that the observations made by Voyager 2 might closely resemble processes occurring on Earth due to significant solar wind storms.
They propose that a solar wind structure, known as a corotating interaction region, was traversing the Uranus system at that time.
This accounts for the exceptionally high energy levels detected by Voyager 2.
“Science has progressed significantly since Voyager 2’s flyby,” stated Dr. Allen.
“We aimed to analyze the Voyager 2 data in relation to Earth observations gathered in the years that followed.”
A recent study indicates that during Voyager 2’s mission, the Uranian system may have undergone a space weather event that triggered powerful radio frequency waves—the most intense recorded throughout Voyager 2’s journey.
“In 1986, scientists believed these waves would dissipate and scatter the electrons within Uranus’ atmosphere,” Dr. Allen noted.
“However, they have come to understand that under specific conditions, these same waves can accelerate electrons and contribute additional energy to the planetary system.”
“In 2019, Earth experienced a similar event that resulted in a significant acceleration of radiation belt electrons,” said Sarah Vines from the Southwest Research Institute.
“If a comparable mechanism interacted with the Uranus system, it would explain the unexpected additional energy observed by Voyager 2.”
Nonetheless, these revelations also raise numerous questions regarding the fundamental physics and the sequence of events that allow the emission of such powerful waves.
“This underscores the importance of launching a mission focused on Uranus,” Dr. Allen emphasized.
“This discovery also holds significant implications for analogous star systems like Neptune.”
The results are published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
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RC Allen et al. 2025. Unraveling the mystery of Uranus’ electron radiation belts: Using insights from Earth’s radiation belts to reassess Voyager 2 observations. Geophysical Research Letters 52 (22): e2025GL119311; doi: 10.1029/2025GL119311
Illustration of a sauropod depicting skin pigment structure as observed under an electron microscope (inset)
Tess Gallagher
Microscopic features discovered in the fossilized skin of sauropods indicate that these colossal dinosaurs might have exhibited colors as vibrant as certain modern birds.
Tess Gallagher, a professor at the University of Bristol in the UK, analyzed sauropod skin fossils estimated to be around 145 million years old, retrieved from the Mother’s Day Quarry in Montana during 2019 and 2022.
While the exact species of the fossil remains uncertain, it is presumed to possibly belong to diplodocus.
The researchers used a scalpel to extract small fragments from the fossil’s four scales, which they investigated with a scanning electron microscope, enabling them to observe cellular details.
Gallagher explained that the skin had been preserved in three dimensions, rather than as mere impressions. Additionally, it exhibited signs of various melanosomes, cellular structures that store melanin, responsible for pigmentation in skin, hair, eyes, and feathers.
“We anticipated finding only minimal melanin traces,” she remarks. “What we uncovered is evidence suggesting sauropods harbored diverse melanosome shapes, which ultimately implies a broad spectrum of color possibilities.”
Every specimen examined by the research team contained melanosomes, primarily in two configurations: rectangular and disc-shaped. Nevertheless, the precise coloration of these sauropods’ skin remains unconfirmed; the structural variety merely indicates potential for numerous shades.
“A diplodocus would have possessed a highly textured exterior showcasing latent color patterns and a wide range of hues,” declared Gallagher.
According to Gallagher, the closest analogy for a disc-shaped structure is the platelet melanosome found in the feathers of contemporary birds. These findings suggest that diplodocus melanosomes might have facilitated the development of various colors. “These creatures could have boasted more striking color patterns, as opposed to the drab gray commonly attributed to ancient fossils.”
Mike Benton, another researcher from the University of Bristol not involved in the study, noted that the shape of the described structures and their preservation suggest they are likely melanosomes.
The researchers are “understandably cautious in their conclusions, but this could represent the first documented instance of colored melanosomes in a sauropod dinosaur,” he remarked.
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This rubbery material is a first for space observations and likely originated during the early formation of the solar system as Bennu’s parent asteroid heated up. Initially soft and pliable, it hardened into an ancient “space gum” made up of a polymer rich in nitrogen and oxygen. The presence of such complex molecules may have contributed essential chemical precursors for the emergence of life on Earth, making their discovery in Bennu’s pristine samples crucial for scientists studying the origins of life and the potential for life beyond our planet.
Electron micrograph of particles taken from a Bennu sample. Image credit: Sandford et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02694-5.
Bennu’s parent asteroid originated from material in the solar nebula (the rotating cloud of gas and dust that formed our solar system) and was composed of various minerals and ice.
As the asteroid warmed from natural radiation, compounds known as carbamates were created through reactions involving ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Despite being water-soluble, carbamates can persist long enough to polymerize and interact with other molecules, forming larger, more complex chains that are water-resistant.
This indicates that the parent asteroid formed before it became a watery environment.
“With this unusual material, we may be observing one of the earliest transformations that occurred in this rock,” stated Dr. Scott Sandford, a researcher at NASA’s Ames Research Center.
“In this ancient asteroid, formed in the early epochs of our solar system, we are witnessing events close to the dawn of time.”
The study explored the properties of this gum-like substance from Bennu.
As more information was revealed, it became apparent that the material was deposited in layers over ice and mineral grains present on the asteroid.
This material was also flexible, resembling the texture of used gum or soft plastic.
During their analysis, researchers observed that this peculiar material could bend and create indentations when pressure was applied.
The object was translucent and became brittle upon radiation exposure, reminiscent of a lawn chair left outdoors for several seasons.
“Analyzing its chemical composition shows that it contains similar chemical groups found in polyurethane on Earth, thus making this Bennu material comparable to ‘space plastic’,” Dr. Sandford explained.
“However, the material from ancient asteroids goes beyond just being polyurethane, which is a structured polymer.”
“It has a more random assortment of connections, with varying elemental compositions for each particle.”
The team’s findings were published in the Journal on December 2, 2025, in Nature Astronomy.
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SA Sandford et al. Nitrogen- and oxygen-rich organic material indicates polymerization in preaqueous low-temperature chemistry in Bennu’s parent body. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02694-5
Utilizing ESA’s XMM-Newton along with the X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM)—a collaborative endeavor led by JAXA, ESA, and NASA—astronomers detected an ultrafast outflow from the supermassive black hole in NGC 3783, moving at 19% the speed of light (57,000 km/s).
An artist’s conception of NGC 3783’s wind-blown supermassive black hole. Image credit: ESA/ATG Europe.
NGC 3783 is a luminous barred spiral galaxy located about 135 million light-years away in the Centaurus constellation.
This galaxy was initially discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on April 21, 1835.
Also referred to as ESO 378-14, LEDA 36101, or 2XMM J113901.7-374418, it is a prominent member of the NGC 3783 group, which contains 47 galaxies.
NGC 3783 hosts a rapidly rotating supermassive black hole with a mass of 2.8 million solar masses.
“We have never witnessed a black hole producing winds at such speeds before,” stated Dr. Li Gu, an astronomer at the Netherlands Space Research Organization (SRON).
“Swift bursts of X-ray light from a black hole immediately provoke superfast winds, and for the first time, we observe how these winds develop within just a day.”
During 10 days of observations, mainly using the XRISM space telescope, astronomers monitored the emergence and acceleration of a burst from NGC 3783’s supermassive black hole.
While such explosions are typically attributed to intense radiation, in this instance, the likely cause is a sudden shift in the magnetic field, akin to solar flares caused by the Sun’s outbursts.
It is known that supermassive black holes emit X-rays, but this marks the first occasion where astronomers have distinctly observed rapid ejections during these X-ray bursts.
This finding emerged from the longest continuous observation conducted by XRISM to date.
Over these 10 days, scientists noted fluctuations in the brightness of the X-rays, particularly within the soft X-ray band.
Such fluctuations, including explosions lasting three days, are not uncommon for supermassive black holes.
What sets this explosion apart is the simultaneous expulsion of gas from the black hole’s accretion disk—a swirling disc of matter in orbit around the black hole.
This gas was expelled at astonishing speeds, hitting 57,000 km/s, or 19% of the speed of light.
Researchers identified the origin of this gas as a region approximately 50 times larger than the black hole itself.
Within this chaotic region, gravitational and magnetic forces are in extreme interaction.
The emission is believed to be the result of a phenomenon known as magnetic reconnection, which occurs when the magnetic field rapidly reorganizes and releases vast amounts of energy.
“This is an unparalleled opportunity to explore the mechanisms behind ultrafast ejections,” Dr. Gu remarked.
“The data indicate that magnetic forces, resembling those involved in coronal mass ejections from the Sun, are responsible for the acceleration of the outflow.”
“A coronal mass ejection occurs when a hefty plume of hot solar plasma is hurled into space.”
“In contrast, supermassive black holes can produce similar events, but these eruptions are 10 billion times more potent and far smaller than solar phenomena we’ve observed.”
Scientists propose that the black hole activity observed may mirror its solar counterpart, driven by an abrupt burst of magnetic energy.
This challenges the widely-held theory that black holes expel matter predominantly through intense radiation or extreme heat.
These findings provide fresh insights into how black holes not only consume matter but can also expel it back into space under specific conditions.
This feedback process plays a critical role in galaxy evolution, affecting nearby stars and gas and potentially contributing to the structure of the universe as we know it.
“This discovery highlights the effective collaboration that underpins all ESA missions,” noted XMM-Newton project scientist and ESA astronomer Dr. Eric Courkers.
“By focusing on an active supermassive black hole, the two telescopes unveiled something unprecedented: rapid, ultrafast flare-induced winds similar to those generated by the Sun.”
“Interestingly, this suggests that solar physics and high-energy physics may operate in surprisingly similar fashions throughout the universe.”
The team’s paper was published in the December 9, 2025 issue of the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Gu Lee Yi et al. 2025. Investigating NGC 3783 with XRISM. III. Emergence of ultra-high-speed outflow during soft flares. A&A 704, A146; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557189
Europa, Jupiter’s frigid moon, is an oceanic environment that stands out as a key player in the quest for extraterrestrial life. Its surface is characterized by various landforms believed to originate from salty water sources beneath its icy crust, potentially making it the most accessible body of liquid water in the solar system. Notably, the asterisk-shaped “spider” located in the center of Manannan Crater was identified during NASA’s Galileo mission. Planetary scientists have recently introduced a novel hypothesis regarding the formation of this spider-like structure, drawing on morphological analysis and initial analog modeling. They propose that it may have formed through a process akin to the creation of dendritic “lake stars,” a seasonal phenomenon observed in frozen terrestrial ponds and lakes.
Damkhan Alla topographic map of Manannan. Image credit: McCune et al., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0.
“The spider-like feature may have resulted from an eruption of molten salt water following the Manannan impact,” explains Dr. Elodie Lesage from the Planetary Science Institute.
“This presents an opportunity to understand the subsurface characteristics and the salt water composition at the impact’s time.”
Dr. Lesage and colleagues are also researching similar “spiders” on Mars, which are tree-like formations in the regolith near the planet’s south pole.
Their findings on Mars have been applied to other celestial bodies, including Europa.
Martian spiders develop as a result of gases escaping beneath a seasonal dry ice layer; however, the Europa study speculates that the “asterisk-shaped” features could have emerged post-impact.
“Lake stars are radial branching designs that occur when snow accumulates on a frozen lake, creating holes in the ice due to the snow’s weight, allowing water to flow through and spread out energetically,” stated Dr. Lauren McCune from the University of Central Florida and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“We believe a similar process could have happened on Europa, with subsurface brine erupting after the impact and dispersing through the porous surface ice.”
The research team has informally designated the Europa feature as Damhan Alla, which translates to “spider” in Irish, differentiating it from Martian spider formations.
To validate their hypothesis, they studied lake stars in Breckenridge, Colorado, and conducted field as well as lab experiments using a cryogenic glovebox equipped with a Europa ice simulator cooled by liquid nitrogen.
“In our experiments where we passed water through these simulants at various temperatures, we observed similar star-like formations even at extremely low temperatures (-100 degrees Celsius or -148 degrees Fahrenheit), lending support to the idea that such mechanisms could occur on Europa after the impact,” Dr. McCune remarked.
Scientists also created models showing how the saltwater beneath Europa’s surface would react following an impact, including an animation illustrating the process.
While observations of Europa’s icy features are primarily reliant on images captured by the Galileo spacecraft in 1998, the researchers aim to explore this further with high-resolution images from NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, anticipated to arrive at the Jupiter system in April 2030.
“Although lake stars offer significant insights, terrestrial conditions differ vastly from those on Europa,” Dr. McCune notes.
“Earth possesses a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, while Europa’s environment features extremely low pressures and temperatures.”
“This investigation combined field data and laboratory trials to better simulate Europa’s surface conditions.”
The team will further examine how low-pressure systems affect the formation of these landforms and explore whether such structures can form beneath Europa’s icy crust, akin to how flowing lava generates smooth, rope-like textures known as pahoehoe on Earth.
While the primary focus was geomorphology, this discovery sheds light on subsurface activity and habitability, crucial for future astrobiological studies.
“By employing numerical modeling of saline reservoirs, we assessed the potential depth of the reservoir (up to 6 km, or 3.7 miles below the surface) and its longevity (potentially several thousand years post-impact),” Dr. Lesage stated.
“This data is invaluable for upcoming missions investigating viable ecosystems beneath ice shells.”
The team’s results were published in Planetary Science Journal.
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Lauren E. McCune et al. 2025. A lake star as an Earth analogue of Europa’s Manannan Crater Spider feature. Planet. Science. J 6,279; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0
This year brought many revelations about our ancient human relatives
WHPics / Alamy
This is an excerpt from Our Human Story, a newsletter about the revolution in archaeology. Sign up to receive it in your inbox every month.
If we try to summarize all the new fossils, methods, and ideas emerging from the study of human evolution in 2025, we might still be here in 2027. This year has been packed with developments, and I doubt it’s feasible for one individual to digest everything without isolating themselves from other distractions. This is particularly true in human evolution, which is a decentralized field. Unlike particle physicists, who often unite in teams for large-scale experiments, paleoanthropologists scatter in diverse directions.
There are two ways this year-long endeavor can falter. One risk is getting overwhelmed by an insurmountable amount of research, rendering it indecipherable. The other is simplifying the information to the point where it becomes incorrect.
With that in mind, here are three key points I want to clarify as we head into 2025. First, there have been remarkable discoveries about the Denisovans, reshaping our understanding of this mysterious group and challenging some of our previous assumptions. Second, we’ve seen a variety of new discoveries and ideas regarding how our distant ancestors created and utilized tools. Finally, we must consider the broader picture: how and why our species diverged so significantly from other primates.
The Denisovan Flood
Hebei Geography University
This year marks 15 years since we first learned about the Denisovans, an ancient group of humans that inhabited East Asia tens of thousands of years ago. My fascination with them has persisted, and this year, I was excited to witness a surge of discoveries that broadened our knowledge of their habitats and identities.
Denisovans were initially identified primarily through molecular evidence. The first fossil discovered was a small finger bone from Denisova Cave in Siberia, which defied identification based solely on its morphology, but DNA was collected in 2010. Genetic analyses revealed that Denisovans were closely related to Neanderthals, who lived in Europe and Asia, and that they interbred with modern humans. Currently, populations in Southeast Asia, particularly Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, possess the highest concentration of Denisovan DNA.
Since then, researchers have been on the hunt for additional Denisovan remains, though this endeavor has progressed slowly. Until 2019, the second identified example was a jawbone excavated from Baisiya Karst Cave in Xianghe, located on the Tibetan Plateau. Over the next five years, several more fossils were tentatively attributed to Denisovans, notable for their large size and pronounced teeth compared to modern humans.
Then came 2025, which brought numerous exciting findings. In April, Denisovans were confirmed in Taiwan, when a jawbone dredged from the Penghu Strait in 2008 was finally identified using preserved proteins. This discovery significantly extends the known range of Denisovans to the southeast, aligning with where their genetic markers remain today.
In June, the first Denisovan facial features emerged. A skull discovered in Harbin, northern China, was described in 2021 and designated as a new species, named Homolonghi. Initially presumed to belong to Denisovans due to its large size, proteins extracted by Qiaomei Fu and her team from the bone and mitochondrial DNA from dental plaque confirmed its Denisovan origins.
So far, these findings align well with genetic evidence indicating that Denisovans roamed extensively across Asia. They also contribute to a coherent image of Denisovans as a larger species.
However, two additional discoveries in 2025 were surprising. In September, a crushed skull thought to belong to an early Denisovan was reconstructed in Unzen, China, dating back approximately 1 million years. This finding suggests that Denisovans existed as a distinct group much earlier than previously believed, indicating that their common ancestor with Neanderthals, known as Ancestor X, must have lived over a million years ago. If confirmed, it implies a longer evolutionary history for all three groups than previously thought.
Just a month ago, geneticists released a second high-quality Denisovan genome extracted from a 200,000-year-old tooth found in Denisova Cave. Notably, this genome is distinctly different from the first genome described recently, as well as from modern Denisovan DNA.
This indicates the existence of at least three groups of Denisovans: early ones, later ones, and those that hybridized with modern humans—this latter group remains a total archaeological enigma.
As our understanding of Denisovans deepens, their history appears much longer and more diverse than initially assumed. In particular, Denisovan populations that interbred with modern humans remain elusive.
For the past 15 years, Denisovans have captivated my interest. Despite their widespread presence across continents for hundreds of thousands of years, only a handful of remains have been documented.
Fortunately, I have a penchant for mysteries. Because this puzzle won’t be solved anytime soon.
Tool Manufacturing
TW Plummer, JS Oliver, EM Finestone, Houma Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project
Creating and using tools is one of humanity’s most critical functions. This ability isn’t unique to our species, as many other animals also use and even make tools. Primatologist Jane Goodall, who passed away this year, famously demonstrated that chimpanzees can manufacture tools. However, humans have significantly elevated this skill, producing a more diverse array of tools that are often more complex and essential to our survival than those of any other animal.
As we delve deeper into the fossil record, we’re discovering that the practice of tool-making dates back further than previously thought. In March, I reported on excavations in Tanzania revealing that an unidentified ancient human was consistently creating bone tools 1.5 million years ago, well over a million years before bone tools were believed to become commonplace. Similarly, while it was previously thought that humans began crafting artifacts from ivory 50,000 years ago, this year, a 400,000-year-old flake from a mammoth tusk was discovered in Ukraine.
Even older stone tools have surfaced, likely due in part to their greater preservation potential. Crude tools have been identified from 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi, Kenya. Last month in Our Human Story, I mentioned excavations in another part of Kenya demonstrating that ancient humans consistently produced a specific type of Oldowan tools between 2.75 million and 2.44 million years ago, indicating that tool-making was already a habitual practice.
Often, tools are found without associated bones, making it challenging to determine their makers’ identities. It’s tempting to assume that most tools belong to our genus, Homo, or perhaps to Australopithecus, our more distant ancestors. However, increasing evidence suggests that Paranthropus—a hominin with a small brain and large teeth, which thrived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years—could also have made tools, at least simple ones like the Oldowans.
Two years ago, Oldowan tools were discovered alongside Paranthropus teeth in Kenya—admittedly not definitive evidence, but strongly suggestive. This year, a fossil of Paranthropus revealed that its hand exhibited a combination of gorilla-like strength and impressive dexterity, indicating capable precision gripping essential for tool-making.
How did these ancients conceive of their tools? One possibility, suggested by Metin Eren and others this year, is that they didn’t consciously create them. Instead, tool-like stones form naturally under various conditions, such as frost cracking rocks or elephants trampling them. Early humans may have utilized these “natural stones,” knowledge of which eventually led to their replication.
As humans continued to develop increasingly complex tools, the cognitive demands of creating them likely escalated, potentially facilitating the emergence of language as we needed to communicate how to make and use these advanced tools. This year’s research explored aspects like the difficulty of learning various skills, whether close observation is necessary, or if mere exposure suffices. The findings suggest two significant changes in cultural transmission that may correlate with technological advancements.
Like most aspects of evolution, tool-making appears to have gradually evolved from our primate predecessors, reshaping our cognitive capabilities in the process.
Big Picture
Alexandra Morton Hayward
Now let’s address the age-old question of how and why humans evolved so distinctly, and which traits truly set us apart. This topic is always challenging to navigate for three main reasons.
First, human uniqueness is multifaceted and often contradictory. Social scientist Jonathan R. Goodman suggested in July that evolution has forged humans to embody both “Machiavellian” traits—planning and betraying one another—and “natural socialist” instincts driven by strong social norms against murder and theft. Claims that humans are inherently generous or instinctively cruel tend to oversimplify the matter excessively.
Second, our perceptions of what makes us unique are shaped by the societies in which we exist. For instance, many cultures remain predominantly male-focused, leading our historical narratives to center around men. While the feminist movement is working to amend this imbalance, progress remains slow. Laura Spinney’s article on prehistoric women suggested that “throughout prehistory, women were rulers, warriors, hunters, and shamans,” a viewpoint made viable only through dedicated research.
Third, reconstructing the thought processes of ancient people as they adopted certain behaviors is inherently difficult, if not impossible. Why did early humans bury their dead and enact funerary rituals? How were dogs and other animals domesticated? What choices shaped ancient humans’ paths toward change?
Still, I want to spotlight two intriguing ideas surrounding the evolution of the human brain and intelligence. One concerns the role of placental hormones that developing babies are exposed to in the womb. Preliminary evidence suggests these hormones may contribute to brain growth, equipping us with the neural capacity to navigate our unusually complex social environments.
Another compelling possibility proposes that the genetic changes associated with our increased intelligence may have also led to vulnerabilities to mental illness. In October, Christa Leste-Laser reported that genetic mutations linked to intelligence emerged in our distant ancestors, followed by mutations associated with mental disorders.
This notion has intrigued me for years, rooted in the observation that wild animals, including our close relatives like chimpanzees, do not appear to suffer from serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Perhaps our brains operate at the edge of our neural capabilities. Like a finely-tuned sports car, we can excel but are also prone to breakdowns. While still a hypothesis, this concept is difficult to shake off.
Oh, one more point. Although we often shy away from discussing methodological advancements, as readers generally prefer results, we made an exception in May. Alexandra Morton Hayward and her colleagues at the University of Oxford developed a method to extract proteins from ancient brains and potentially other soft tissues. Though such tissues are rarer in the fossil record compared to bones and teeth, some remain preserved and may offer a wealth of information. The first results could be available next year.
Homo floresiensis A recent study indicates that Liang Bua, the cave where this diminutive hominin species resided for approximately 140,000 years, was deserted during a significant drought between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Danes.
Homo floresiensis was first identified in 2003 in Liang Bua, Flores Island, Indonesia.
This species, often referred to as hobbits due to their small size, challenged prevailing theories regarding human evolution.
It vanished from the fossil record around 50,000 years ago, but the reasons for its disappearance are still unclear.
“In 2003, excavations in the Liangbua rock trench unveiled the skeletons of a previously unknown small hominid species, Homo floresiensis,” stated Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan and colleagues from the University of Wollongong.
“Originally, the period of occupation was estimated to be between 95,000 and 12,000 years ago, suggesting the possibility of interaction with early modern humans (Homo sapiens), who inhabited islands in Southeast Asia and were contributing to species extinctions.”
“However, following a revision of the stratigraphy and chronology at this site, all Homo floresiensis human bones are now believed to be approximately 100,000 to 60,000 years old.”
“Associated stone artifacts and megafaunal assemblages typically suggest that Homo floresiensis went extinct around 50,000 years ago.”
“The revised timeline indicates they disappeared from the record around 46,000 years ago, coinciding with the arrival of modern humans at Liang Bua, and there was a significant shift in the types of materials used for making stone tools.”
In the study, the authors integrated chemical records from cave stalagmites with isotope data from the fossilized teeth of a pygmy elephant species, Stegodon florensis insularis, which Homo floresiensis hunted.
The findings reveal a large-scale drying trend that commenced around 76,000 years ago and peaked in severe droughts between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago, near the time when the species went extinct.
Prolonged drought and heightened competition for resources may have led to their abandonment of Liang Bua and, ultimately, their extinction.
“At that time, the ecosystem surrounding Liang Bua experienced significant drying. Homo floresiensis vanished,” remarked the lead author of the study, Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan from the University of Wollongong.
“The summer rains caused the riverbed to become dry seasonally, placing stress on both the hobbits and their prey.”
The population of pygmy elephants saw a drastic decline around 61,000 years ago, signaling the loss of a crucial food source for the hobbits.
“Surface freshwater, along with Stegodon and Homo floresiensis, all diminished simultaneously, showcasing the compounded effects of ecological stress,” stated Dr. Gerd van den Bergh from the University of Wollongong.
“Competition for the scarce water and food likely forced the hobbits to vacate Liang Bua.”
“Meanwhile, the fossils of Homo floresiensis predate the earliest evidence of modern humans on Flores, Homo sapiens, who were traversing the Indonesian archipelago when the hobbits went extinct.”
“It’s possible that the hobbits encountered modern humans while migrating in search of water and food,” Professor Gagan noted.
“In that context, climate change may have set the stage for their eventual extinction.”
The study was published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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MK Gagan et al. 2025. The onset of summer dryness and forest decline of Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua 61,000 years ago. Communication Earth and Environment 6,992; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02961-3
Timing chemotherapy properly can reduce side effects.
Paul Springett/Alamy
It is often said that timing plays a crucial role, and cancer treatment might be no exception. Researchers have discovered that adjusting the timing of immunotherapy drugs administered to cancer patients can enhance survival rates, adding to the evidence that our body’s internal clock affects cancer treatment efficacy.
The activities of cells and tissues within our bodies follow a 24-hour cycle termed the circadian rhythm, which governs everything from hormone release to cell division and repair timing. These rhythms are frequently disrupted in cancer cells, which tend to divide uncontrollably rather than at set intervals.
This has led to efforts aimed at alleviating chemotherapy side effects by targeting quickly dividing cells while the healthy tissue is less active. However, researchers are also exploring whether administering cancer drugs at particular times can enhance their efficacy.
One class of drugs under scrutiny is immune checkpoint inhibitors, which enable immune T cells to more effectively identify and target tumors. “T cells and other immune agents are naturally more active in the morning, making them more responsive,” explains Dr. Celine Ismail Sutton at Easbeatty Gwynedd Hospital in Bangor, England, who was not part of the study. “Administering immune checkpoint inhibitors during this window may bolster antitumor effects and enhance effectiveness.”
Earlier this year, ze fan and colleagues from Central South University in Changsha, China, documented that giving the checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab before 11:30 a.m. alongside chemotherapy to patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) resulted in a survival rate that nearly doubles compared to those receiving treatment primarily in the afternoon.
To assess whether timing treatments in accordance with circadian rhythms, termed chronotherapy, could benefit patients with rapidly dividing, aggressive small cell lung cancer, the same team analyzed data from 397 individuals treated with the checkpoint inhibitors atezolizumab or durvalumab alongside chemotherapy from 2019 to 2023.
“Patients treated before 3 p.m. exhibited significantly longer progression-free survival and overall survival in comparison to those treated later in the day,” reported team members. Zhang Yongchang, also at Central South University, noted.
After accounting for numerous confounding variables, early treatment appeared to be associated with a 52% reduced risk of cancer progression and a 63% decreased risk of mortality.
Zhang suspects that this effect may manifest in additional tumor types, referencing evidence from studies on renal cell carcinoma and melanoma. Research on NSCLC trials illustrated that morning dosing boosts circulating T cell levels and activation, while later dosing does the opposite. Mouse studies have shown that the behavior of tumor-infiltrating T cells fluctuates throughout the 24-hour cycle and that circadian clocks in adjacent endothelial cells influence when immune cells migrate into tumors.
While larger randomized controlled trials are essential, this investigation “adds further support to a growing number of studies globally that indicate improved outcomes when immunotherapy drugs are administered earlier in the day,” states Pasquale Innominato from the University of Warwick, UK.
But is it feasible for hospitals to implement this? When it comes to modifying treatment schedules, “adjusting infusion times is a straightforward clinical decision that incurs minimal costs,” asserts Zhang.
Nevertheless, treating everyone early in the day isn’t practical. According to Robert Dalman, also at the University of Warwick, each person’s body clock varies. “For instance, the biological time discrepancy between an ‘early bird’ and a ‘night owl’ can span several hours.”
Nonetheless, biomarkers that accurately assess individuals’ chronotypes are currently in development. Once established and validated, chronotherapy could emerge as a “cost-effective, resource-efficient innovation with the capability to significantly enhance treatment outcomes. A simple shift in timing can unveil a new facet of precision medicine,” concludes Ismail Sutton in a recently published perspective on this innovative strategy.
Ceramic roof tiles and tuff blocks uncovered at an ancient construction site in Pompeii
Pompeii Archaeological Park
A recently uncovered ancient building site in Pompeii, preserved since the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, has enabled archaeologists to finally understand the process behind Roman concrete production.
Located near Naples, Pompeii was entombed under layers of volcanic ash in 79 AD. Excavation efforts commenced in the 1880s but were halted until early 2023, when extensive new diggings began.
The latest excavations revealed a nearly intact concrete workshop, featuring inscriptions on the walls detailing work schedules and material quantities. Numerous concrete tools, heaps of quicklime, and salvaged roof tiles were also discovered.
Admija Masic of the MIT research team expressed amazement at the site’s remarkable preservation, stating it provides insights into Roman concrete techniques that “laboratory recreations simply cannot achieve.”
“The material was just as it was at the moment the eruption halted the city,” Masic mentioned. “Studying it felt as if I were transported back to 79 A.D., standing beside the workers mixing and pouring concrete.”
The team’s revelations indicate that established assumptions about Roman concrete production should be reconsidered.
Historical records suggest that Romans utilized slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) for concrete, combining it with water before mixing it with other components like volcanic ash.
Contrarily, chemical analyses of dry, premixed materials found in Pompeian workshops show that ancient builders actually employed a hot mixing technique using quicklime, or calcium oxide. This method involved combining the lime with all other ingredients including volcanic ash and minerals, before adding water, which was heated as a result of the chemical reaction, causing some concrete to set.
“Our findings demonstrate that quicklime was crucial to structural concrete,” Masic states. “In contrast, slaked lime was typically used for finish mortar and plaster, where a smooth surface and workability were paramount.”
The hot-mixing method offers the advantage of lime remnants, known as crusts, remaining in the concrete post-hardening, which can autonomously heal small cracks and defects.
“These lime fragments serve as reservoirs of calcium that can dissolve and recrystallize in crevices and fractures, or interact with volcanic ash to enhance the microstructure of the concrete,” Masić explains.
A modern concrete worker would easily understand the Roman concrete-making technique at Pompeii and could seamlessly transition into the workshop to start working, he states. “The chemistry is ancient, yet the technology is readily recognizable.”
Historic Herculaneum – explore Vesuvius, Pompeii, and ancient Naples
Embark on a captivating expedition through the remnants of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, where history and archaeology unfold.
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DGDImages / Alamy Stock Photos
As I embarked on this story, I pondered whether my subject should be included in my research. I envisioned a striking introduction: “Meet the longest-living animal on Earth. And yes, it’s edible.”
The creature in question is a type of shellfish, namely the ocean quahog, best known for its role in dishes like spaghetti alle vongole. While they are quite tasty, considering the moral implications of harvesting and consuming our fellow beings, as well as the harmful impact on marine ecosystems, I came to realize it raises deeper issues. This extraordinary mollusk can live for over 500 years. Killing it for food seems unjust. Thus, I must alter my introduction: This is the world’s longest-living animal, and my objective is to unravel its mysteries.
If the ocean quahog, also referred to as the Icelandic cyprin, is unfamiliar to you, don’t fret; it isn’t exactly a household name. This sizable bivalve is found buried in sandy beaches all around the North Atlantic, from the warm coasts of Florida and Cadiz, Spain, to the frigid waters of Canada and Norway. If you’ve ever tasted clam chowder in the USA, you’ve likely encountered this species. Its shell showcases fine lines akin to a tree’s annual growth rings, allowing one to determine its age by counting them.
The oldest known specimen, named Hafrun—an Icelandic term that translates to “mystery of the sea”—was born in 1499. It led an unremarkable life, living modestly on a diet scavenged from the shores of Iceland, just as its ancestors had done for generations. Its long life, however, was anything but ordinary. Sadly, Hafrun’s existence came to an abrupt end in 2006 when a team from the University of Exeter, UK, retrieved it from the ocean for research on aging by chronologist Paul Butler. The study aimed to analyze bivalve shells to devise a timeline of the surrounding environment.
“Initially, we estimated its age to be slightly over 400 years. But after a more meticulous examination of its growth lines and comparisons with other shells, we realized it was actually 507 years old,” Butler revealed. It’s possible that even older specimens exist, especially in the colder waters around Iceland, where they tend to grow more slowly and live exceedingly longer. Is there a maximum age limit? “It’s astounding that they can survive for such an extended period,” Butler noted, embodying the enthusiasm of a true mathematician.
The longevity of the quahog seems to stem from its mitochondria—the tiny structures within our cells that convert food into energy. This applies to all eukaryotes, from yew trees and beetles to jellyfish and rabbits.
“Strong mitochondria, which Arctica islandica possesses, are vital for healthy aging across various model species,” comments Enrique Rodriguez, who studies mitochondria at University College London.
The mitochondria of quahogs exhibit enhanced resilience. Their membranes are sturdier than those of other species. These membranes house a protein apparatus that handles electrons and protons to produce ATP, the body’s universal energy currency. The quahog’s mitochondria are larger and more organized, making them even more durable. “Their proteins possess greater molecular weights and intricate structures,” Rodriguez adds. “They are interconnected more efficiently.”
This specialized structure allows the quahog to mitigate mitochondrial damage. It carefully orchestrates the countless protons and electrons that traverse these membranes every second. When electrons leak, they can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide, causing cellular harm. Rodriguez likens this process to cars stuck in traffic: in regular mitochondria, a red light up front triggers a back-up, resulting in exhaust emissions that harm the environment. Yet in quahog mitochondria, protein complexes (the traffic lights) facilitate smoother flow, resulting in diminished exhaust.
However, robust membranes are just part of what allows quahogs to enjoy lengthy lifespans. They also excel in eliminating the ROS they produce. Using Rodriguez’s analogy, this equates to cleaning a car’s exhaust.
A woman hunts quahogs on the Massachusetts coastline.
Boston Globe (via Getty Images)
Rodriguez compared the antioxidant abilities of the quahog to several of its short-lived relatives and found it had a notably superior capacity to eliminate ROS—3-14 times more effective. This finding aligns with the Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress Theory of Aging, also seen in the extraordinary lifespans of other species like naked mole rats, which can live up to 40 years—over six times longer than rodents of comparable size.
Pierre Blier, a researcher focused on animal metabolism and aquaculture genetics at the University of Quebec, raises quahogs in labs to investigate longevity mechanisms. He adds that the ocean quahog showcases a remarkable capacity to buffer oxidants. “Their mitochondria are incredibly durable and resistant to ROS,” he states, supporting the MOSTA theory.
While this provides insights into how these creatures achieve such extended lifespans, it also raises questions about the “why.” In other words, what evolutionary pressures contributed to the development of such robust mitochondria?
A possible explanation lies in the low levels of oxygen in the environments where these clams thrive. “Naked mole rats can remain confined in their burrows for about a week without needing gills for oxygen,” Rodriguez observes. Mitochondria have adapted to endure low oxygen conditions (known as anoxia) for extended periods, subsequently requiring robustness to handle sudden oxygen influxes and the correlative spike in oxidative stress. This similar adaptability is evident in naked mole rats, as their subterranean habitats often have diminished oxygen levels. Rodriguez notes a like pattern in their mitochondrial resilience under both oxygen deprivation and subsequent reoxygenation stress, suggesting that selection pressure related to low oxygen could lead to increased longevity almost inadvertently.
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My advice to live longer is to exercise, eat well, and take cold showers. “
The pressing question is whether we can bolster our own mitochondria. Back in 2005, a team at the University of California, Irvine, created transgenic mice with enhanced production of the “scavenging” antioxidant enzyme catalase in their mitochondria, extending their lifespans by around five months—a notable increase considering their average lifespan of two years. Although gene editing in human mitochondria is now feasible, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how to safely extend lifespan, prompting the necessity for alternative methods.
Regular exercise is known to improve mitochondrial function. Interestingly, Tibetan Sherpas, who dwell at high altitudes, exhibit distinct mitochondrial characteristics compared to lowland dwellers. A 2017 study examining indigenous lowlanders and Sherpas attempting to climb Mount Everest Base Camp, situated roughly 5,300 meters above sea level, found that Sherpas demonstrated superior oxygen utilization and greater defenses against oxidative stress—attributed to their stronger mitochondria, with genetic foundations for these traits.
Blier argues that Arctica islandica offers valuable insights into longevity. “To enhance your lifespan, focus on your mitochondria: engage in regular exercise, maintain a balanced diet, and incorporate cold showers… Cold showers seem to invoke mitochondrial quality control mechanisms.”
If it works for quahogs…
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Karl Remström made his way down the mountain, feeling frozen and drained. It had taken him four hours to summit, followed by hours spent thawing out and fixing his gear. The trek home took another four challenging hours through the snow, a routine he repeated nearly every day for almost a month. But he was determined, undeterred by the frigid temperatures.
Upon returning to the small shelter he fashioned from branches at the mountain’s base, Remström checked his instruments and waited. Immediately, the galvanometer’s needle moved. He noted his findings and stepped outside to witness a massive beam of light reaching from the mountaintop into the sky.
It was December 29, 1882, and Remström was in northern Lapland, attempting to validate his theory regarding the origins of the aurora borealis. Few believed him then, but his findings would soon change that. He was convinced he had generated an artificial replica of the Northern Lights.
Lemström, a Finnish physicist, had become captivated by the aurora at the age of 30. While a postdoctoral researcher in Sweden in 1868, he participated in a scientific expedition to Svalbard, Norway—deep within the Arctic Circle. Although from southern Finland and having witnessed the aurora before, this marked his first experience with such a display at this latitude, and he was completely enthralled.
During that period, the cause of the aurora remained a mystery, spurring heated scientific discourse. Many of Remström’s contemporaries sought ways to create miniature simulations, with some achieving success. For instance, Swiss physicist Auguste de la Rive showcased in 1860 that a jet of violet light could be produced within a vacuum-sealed glass tube. He asserted it faithfully duplicated the phenomena of the Northern Lights, regardless of the primary color actually being green.
Two primary theories circulated about the nature of the Northern Lights. Some believed they stemmed from meteorite dust drawn by the Earth’s magnetic field, burning up in the atmosphere. Others theorized they were some form of electromagnetic occurrence, though the specifics remained hazy.
Lemström sided with Team Electromagnetics, positing that aurora borealis formed when electrical currents in the atmosphere flowed into cooler mountain peaks. Many researchers dismissed him as misguided or eccentric. Fiona Amery, a science historian at Cambridge University, stumbled upon Lemström’s nearly forgotten paper while researching auroral science of the 19th century.
Lemström was fueled to prove his detractors wrong. Instead of relying on small-scale simulations, he aimed to manifest a full-scale aurora in its natural environment: the frigid Lapland mountains.
By 1871, he held a lecturer position at what is now the University of Helsinki. He convinced the Finnish Scientific Association to back him in an expedition to Finnish Lapland’s Inari region, where he set up his device on Luosmavaara mountain on November 22 of the same year. His apparatus comprised a two-square-meter copper wire spiral secured over a two-meter high steel column, with metal rods pointing skyward connected to it. A copper wire route extended four kilometers down the mountain, linking to a galvanometer for current measurement and a metal plate for grounding. This intricate mechanism was designed to transmit and amplify electrical currents Lemström firmly believed were descending from the atmosphere, thus creating the aurora borealis.
Karl Lemström’s watercolor of the Olantunturi mountaintop experiment.
Finnish Cultural Heritage Agency
According to Amery, Remström likened the aurora borealis to lightning, suggesting that his device functioned similarly to a lightning rod. “He described lightning as sudden, while the aurora was gradual and spread out. He believed he could capture the aurora much like he could attract lightning.”
That evening, following his strenuous climb, Remström spotted a beam of light above the summit, and upon analyzing its spectrum, he discerned it matched the distinct yellow-green wavelength characteristic of the aurora borealis. He was certain he had evoked the Northern Lights. Unfortunately, no one acknowledged his findings due to the absence of photographic proof or independent witnesses. “He was regarded as quite obscure,” Amélie states.
This would have remained the case were it not for a fortunate turn of events. In 1879, the newly formed International Polar Commission announced plans for an International Polar Year—a year-long scientific initiative in the Arctic. “Suddenly, he could secure funding for aurora research,” Amélie says, “and he found himself in the right place at the right time.”
Arctic Mission
Recognizing the opportunity, Remström attended a planning conference in St. Petersburg, campaigning for the establishment of a meteorological observatory in Lapland. The committee approved, and Lemström opted for a site near the small Finnish town of Sodankyla. The Finnish Meteorological Observatory was founded in September 1882, with Lemström appointed as its first director.
He immediately sought a location to resume his aurora experiments, eventually settling on Olantunturi mountain, roughly 20 kilometers from the observatory. In early December, with a mere three hours of daylight and average temperatures around -30°C (-22°F), he and three helpers trekked to the summit and assembled a larger version of his previous device, spanning approximately 900 square meters.
The conditions were severe. Lemström later noted that it took four hours to reach the observatory from the summit, after which he needed to thaw out and frequently fix the wires, which crumbled under the weight of frost. He could work only a few minutes before his hands became numb, and this apparatus, too, operated briefly before freezing up again.
However, the effort proved worthwhile. Once the device was operational on December 5, Remström and his assistants witnessed a “yellow-white light surrounding the mountaintop; contrarily, no such brightness was found in the vicinity.” Spectroscopic analysis indicated the light matched the natural aurora’s properties.
Over the following weeks, similar occurrences transpired nearly every night. The most breathtaking display occurred on December 29, when a beam of light ascended 134 meters skyward. Lacking photographs, Remström resorted to creating drawings. His watercolor depicted a radiant beam surging to the mountain’s peak. He also erected two smaller aurora conductors on another mountain, Pieterintonturi, claiming to have observed comparable phenomena there.
Lemström was finally ready to share his triumph with the world. He sent a telegram to the Finnish Academy of Sciences, which gained widespread attention. The journal Nature published threedetailed accountsin its May and June 1883 issue, where Remström proclaimed that “experiments… unmistakably demonstrate that the aurora is an electrical phenomenon.”
Painting of physicist Karl Lemström, who endeavored to recreate the aurora borealis.
Public Domain
If he anticipated universal acclaim, he was gravely mistaken. Although his endeavors captured media attention, few colleagues concurred with his claims of having instigated the aurora borealis. “Some speculated he might have generated other intriguing electrical phenomena, such as St. Elmo’s fire or zodiacal lights,” Amery notes. “Others suggested it resembled an odd type of lightning more akin to ball lightning, and there were those who believed he may have fabricated it altogether.”
In early 1884, Danish aurora expert Sophus Tromholt attempted to replicate Remström’s experiment on Mount Esja in Iceland, but his device registered “no signs of life whatsoever.” A subsequent replication effort in the French Pyrenees in 1885 also faltered, except for civil engineer Célestin-Xavier Vossena, who narrowly escaped electrocution.
Unfazed, Lemström boldly asserted to have recreated the aurora again in late 1884, this time employing sturdier wires and adding a mechanism to inject electricity into the circuit, believing it would boost its energy. Nature published another report detailing these findings, yet Lemström’s zeal for working in extreme conditions began to wane, leading him to pursue new ventures (his next project involved using electricity to enhance crop growth). He passed away in 1904, still resolute in his conviction that he had generated the aurora borealis.
However, he did not. His hypothesis was flawed. Auroras arise from charged particles entering Earth’s atmosphere from space, rather than emanating from the ground. Still, Amery suggests he might have created something significant. “I suspect it could have been St. Elmo’s Fire, a form of luminous discharge,” she notes. “That’s my prevailing theory.” However, she also observes, “Perhaps there was a hint of wishful thinking.” The reality remains elusive, and we may never know—unless someone is inspired to construct a vast array of copper wire atop a frigid mountain during the Arctic winter.
It rhymes with Eeny, meeny, minnie, moo, catch a tiger by its toes. Yet even children realize counting rhymes like this are ineffective for making genuinely random choices. Remember when you first discovered you could influence the outcome by selecting your starting point carefully?
You might think flipping a coin or rolling a die is better, but proving these outcomes are random is a challenge. These methods are not genuinely random; knowing the precise conditions like positioning, trajectory, gravity, or friction lets you predict the results. True randomness is indeed elusive.
The exciting part is that randomness is an inherent aspect of the universe, evident in quantum mechanics. Quantum particles like electrons and photons choose paths based on pure randomness, with no discernible cause behind quantum events. The University of Colorado Randomness Beacon, affectionately known as Kirby, exploits this phenomenon. This year, it launched as the first publicly available source of traceable, verifiable true random numbers.
You might question who requires such high levels of randomness. After all, dice and coins have entertained us for millennia. However, some scenarios demand maximum randomness. “People don’t realize it, but without randomness, digital life lacks safety and fairness,” says Nemitali Azienka, a computer scientist from Nottingham Trent University in the UK. He explains that whenever you access a secure webpage or create a strong password, randomness plays a role. Even machine learning incorporates randomness in its training.
Randomness also supports democratic processes. For instance, in Chile, politicians face random audits, but those targeted often feel victimized. “Everyone claims it’s a witch hunt,” says Christer Shalm, one of the CURBy creators at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). When random beacons are used to derive numbers from genuinely random sources, such claims become much harder to substantiate.
Currently, the Chilean government relies on various factors, like seismic activity and a local radio station’s output, for randomness, but these aren’t entirely random either—after all, seismic events occur for specific reasons and the radio playlist is curated. Moreover, such methods lack full traceability as seismic data isn’t regularly accessible. This is where CURBy shines.
Quantum Randomness Generator
A decade ago, Schalm noted that the system was “held together by duct tape and hopes.” At that time, researchers had just begun to verify CURBy’s principles. Since then, they’ve worked to enhance the system’s speed, automation, and accessibility for all internet users.
Today, CURBy boasts a cutting-edge facility that handles thousands of requests daily. It may bolster democracy, enhance trust in justice systems, and even bring tranquility to family game nights. “CURBy embodies a practical, accessible quantum technology. This development excites me,” says Peter Brown, a physicist at the Polytechnic University of Paris.
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People don’t realize it, but without randomness, your digital life isn’t secure. “
Generating genuinely random numbers is tricky. Apart from quantum methods, most number-generation mechanisms rely on some underlying processes, making true randomness rare in the universe. Computer games often utilize “pseudo-random numbers” to form secure passwords from a seeded number; knowing this seed and algorithm eliminates randomness in your passwords.
One could delve deeper and use “high entropy” randomness sources, like the unpredictable timing of radioactive decay in materials like cobalt-60 or strontium-90. While this constitutes a random quantum event, it’s difficult to make user-friendly, and proving the legitimacy of generated numbers is a challenge without an observer present.
Physicists entangle photons to generate random numbers (from left to right) Jasper Palfrey, Gautam Kavri, Christer Shalm
Rebecca Jacobson/NIST
While this creates a high-stakes game of Yahtzee, CURBy allows you to do away with the dangers associated with radiation. Instead, CURBy utilizes pairs of photons interconnected by a quantum phenomenon called quantum entanglement.
When two entities are entangled, they behave as if they were a single entity. This compelling occurrence happens when you measure one, and then similarly measure the other. The first measurement can influence the second, even if the quantum objects are far apart. It’s akin to rolling two dice such that one consistently results in six when the other is one.
This entanglement, which Albert Einstein famously referred to as “spooky action at a distance,” defies typical understanding. Neither object transmits any signals, yet they remain connected in this way. The exact mechanism remains a mystery.
At CURBy, entanglement appears in the measurement of a property called polarization. Entangled photon pairs are separated and sent through optical fibers to two different locations, 100 meters apart. Measurements of polarization occur in quick succession at both sites.
The results of these measurements are compared, revealing subtle correlations. Under “classical” conditions, this correlation has limitations; however, if it’s genuinely quantum and random, it allows for generating numbers outside those constraints. CURBy purifies this inherent randomness using a method called Trevisan extraction. It can handle around 250,000 polarization measurements per second, requiring approximately 15 million measurements for a single output—a string of 512 utterly random binary digits (bits) ready for use.
Rolling the dice is never random
RLB Photography / Alamy Stock Pho
If you’re curious about the randomness of these bits, there’s an algorithm for that. For a string with 512 bits, each either a 0 or a 1, there are 2512 potential combinations. “The possibilities are immense,” Shalm remarks.
While all combinations are equally probable, Shalm and his team assessed the probability of specific bit strings appearing. Uniformity isn’t complete, yet it can be quite high. Consider aiming for an even road. If the incline is 1 in 10, it becomes a steep rise. Even a 1 in 100 slope or a 1 meter bump in a 100-meter stretch is noticeable. The randomness slope of CURBy is 1 in 184 quintillion, which is as random as one might need.
Proof of Randomness
CURBy’s standout feature isn’t just its randomness. The ability to trace the source and verify the randomness of the numbers is crucial. “Currently, there’s no reliable method for any random number generator,” Schalm asserts.
To ensure traceability, CURBy employs blockchain mathematics, known for securing digital assets like NFTs and cryptocurrencies. This method facilitates transparency about actions taken, timings, and the responsible parties in scenarios devoid of trust, linking everything back to the experiment’s original results.
However, the system’s accessibility is limited since the entire process involves multiple organizations. NIST forwards quantum data to facilities at the University of Colorado Boulder, which processes it, while an independent cryptographic service, the Distributed Randomness Beacon Daemon, adds its factors to extract genuine randomness from the measurements, generating the final uniform binary string.
“It’s like a chronological web,” observes Schalm. “No single entity has complete control over the random bits, allowing scrutiny for foul play or alterations.”
According to Brown, the integration of comprehensive physics with high-level security analysis is “quite remarkable.” He notes that quantum technologies are still emerging, with few complete products available. Yet will CURBy prove valuable? Absolutely, he argues, but there are situations where traceable randomness should be avoided. “You wouldn’t want to base your passwords on publicly accessible random sources,” he expounds.
Nonetheless, in contexts like jury selections, judge appointments, lottery outcomes, and random sampling in clinical trials, traceable randomness holds significant potential. Mathematician Artur Ekert from Oxford University expresses admiration too. The CURBy team’s melding of quantum and classical physics to produce innovative, accessible technology signals an exciting future.
Furthermore, CURBy is designed to adapt to future technologies, ensuring that genuine randomness embeds itself in our lives, promoting fairness and safety. It certainly surpasses a coin toss.
A significant tsunami could strike the U.S. coast unexpectedly, with experts cautioning that cities are insufficiently prepared. Here’s what we’re learning about the impending major earthquake likely to impact the Pacific Northwest.
Understanding Social Anxiety
Researchers are uncovering evidence that social anxiety is deeply embedded in our biology rather than being solely a psychological issue. As it has biological origins, there are strategies available to help you conquer it during party season.
Defend Against Winter Flu
The holiday season can significantly weaken our immune systems, making it crucial to consider the natural cycles influencing it. The cold, dark winter combined with the warmth of December presents a favorable environment for illness. However, there are methods to bolster your body’s immunity in anticipation of this challenge, leveraging the latest insights from science.
Exploring Near-Death Experiences
By examining individuals who have encountered near-death experiences, scientists are starting to unravel the brain’s activities at the end of life. Remarkably, our brains seem to have a protective mechanism that allows us to transition peacefully, devoid of fear, which is quite reassuring.
Also
Super Agers: Experts are eager to identify traits among ‘superagers’ that might unveil the secrets to sustaining memory. Although various genetic and lifestyle factors are in play, certain shared characteristics of superaging are emerging that we can all adopt during the festive season.
Holiday Gift Guide:This is an unapologetic Christmas gift guide tailored for tech enthusiasts this year.
Q&A: I’ve got answers to your queries. This month, we’re curious: Do any animals use others for play? Is it possible for them to swallow their tongues? Why are marine fossils found atop Mount Everest? Are board games beneficial for the brain? How can we enhance our persuasive skills? What would it entail to navigate through an asteroid belt? How improbable is our universe? If a python consumed you, what would occur? How does the moon’s gradual distancing from Earth affect us?
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured breathtaking new images of the blue, compact dwarf galaxy Markarian 178.
This Hubble image showcases the blue compact dwarf galaxy Markarian 178. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / F. Annibali / S. Hon.
Markarian 178 is situated roughly 13 million light years away in the constellation Ursa Major.
This galaxy, commonly referred to as Mrk 178, LEDA 35684, and UGC 6541, spans a diameter of 5,700 light years.
“MRK 178 is one of over 1,500 Markarian galaxies,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“These galaxies are named after Benjamin Markarian, an Armenian astrophysicist who compiled a catalog of galaxies that exhibit unusual brightness in ultraviolet light.”
“While most galaxies appear blue due to a plethora of young, hot stars and minimal dust, Mrk 178 presents a reddish hue. This concentration of massive stars is particularly abundant in the brightest, reddish areas near the galaxy’s edge.”
“This azure nebula houses numerous unique entities known as Wolf Rayet stars.”
“A Wolf-Rayet star is a massive star whose atmosphere is expelled by intense stellar winds,” the astronomers clarified.
“Mrk 178 features such an abundance of Wolf-Rayet stars that vivid emission lines from the hot stellar winds of these stars are inscribed into the galaxy’s spectrum.”
“In this image, captured using some of Hubble’s specialized optical filters, ionized hydrogen and oxygen are notably represented as red in Mrk 178.”
“Massive stars transition into the Wolf-Rayet stage immediately before collapsing into a black hole or neutron star.”
“We understand that some event must have instigated Mrk 178’s recent surge in star formation, as Wolf-Rayet stars have lifespans of merely a few million years.”
“At first glance, it remains uncertain what is instigating this phenomenon. Mrk 178 does not appear to have any neighboring galaxies that could disrupt its gas and promote new star formation.”
“Instead, we hypothesize that either a gas cloud collided with Mrk 178, or that the gas was affected as the galaxy traversed through the intergalactic medium, energizing this small galaxy with waves of brilliant new stars.”
This year is poised to be the second hottest on record, following 2024, with numerous areas facing extraordinary storms, wildfires, and heat waves.
The European Union’s Copernicus Climate Change Agency (C3S) reports that the average temperature in 2025 is currently 1.48 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial baseline. If this holds, it will tie with 2023, falling only behind 2024, which recorded a rise of 1.6 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels.
While the planet warmed during the El Niño phase in 2024, it is now experiencing a La Niña phase, where the upwelling of cold water in the tropical Pacific Ocean typically results in lower global temperatures. However, fossil fuel emissions are projected to set a new record in 2025, leading to rising temperatures and exacerbating catastrophic weather events.
“The truth is that extreme events impact communities, societies, and ecosystems. We understand that in a warmer world, these extreme events will be more frequent and intense,” explains Samantha Burgess from C3S. “The storms will intensify due to increased moisture in the atmosphere.”
This summer, a heatwave in Europe resulted in an additional 16,500 fatalities associated with climate change. In October, Hurricane Melissa, the strongest hurricane to strike Jamaica, claimed over 80 lives and caused significant damage, with financial losses reaching $8.8 billion. Research from World Weather Attribution indicates that climate change enhanced Melissa’s rainfall by 16% and reduced wind speed by 7%.
In November, a series of cyclones and storms triggered landslides and flooding in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Vietnam, resulting in over 1,600 deaths.
Currently, Arctic sea ice extent is at its lowest recorded level for this time of year, and Antarctic sea ice is also below normal levels.
According to C3S, the three-year moving average temperature is projected to surpass 1.5 degrees Celsius for the first time since the pre-industrial era. Scientists anticipate that global warming will exceed the long-term average of 1.5°C by 2029, falling short of the Paris Agreement objectives.
“There isn’t a clear boundary at 1.5 degrees, but we know that impacts worsen beyond that threshold,” Burgess states. “We are also nearing a critical tipping point.”
According to an October report, a tipping point has seemingly been reached, leading to the irreversible decline of tropical coral reefs, and the world could soon face additional tipping points, including the demise of the Amazon rainforest and the collapse of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, along with the decline of Antarctic sea ice.
Recent studies reveal that vitamin C concentrations in the skin are closely linked to blood (plasma) levels, and can be enhanced by increasing fruit consumption. This research, involving 20 healthy individuals from New Zealand and Germany, demonstrated that eating two kiwifruits rich in vitamin C daily boosts plasma levels, elevates the vitamin content in the skin, enhances skin thickness (collagen production), and supports the regeneration of the skin’s outer layer.
Vitamin C (ascorbate) is found in all parts of the skin. Puller et al. conducted an extensive study to correlate plasma and skin ascorbic acid levels, emphasizing key skin compartments. Image credit: Pullar et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2025.10.587.
“The strength of the link between skin thickness and vitamin C intake is striking,” remarked Professor Margriet Vissers from the University of Otago.
“We were taken aback by the significant correlation between plasma and skin vitamin C levels, which was notably stronger than that in other organs we examined.”
“For the first time, we have shown that circulating vitamin C penetrates all skin layers and correlates with enhanced skin function.”
“I’m incredibly proud of my team’s work and thrilled by the insights from our findings.”
The results imply that true beauty emanates from within, suggesting that vitamin C delivered through the bloodstream effectively supports skin function holistically.
“Vitamin C is essential for collagen synthesis.”
“This understanding has prompted the inclusion of vitamin C in numerous skincare formulations.”
“However, due to its high water solubility, vitamin C is not easily absorbed through the skin’s outer barrier.”
“Our findings indicate that the skin effectively absorbs vitamin C from blood circulation.”
“The uptake into the outer epidermal layers seems to be prioritized.”
The researchers utilized healthy skin samples from patients undergoing elective surgeries to establish the connection between plasma and skin vitamin C levels.
They carried out a pre- and post-dietary vitamin C intervention study involving 12 healthy participants in Christchurch, New Zealand, and Germany.
“Participants were instructed to consume two kiwifruits (equivalent to 250 micrograms of vitamin C) daily for eight weeks,” explained Professor Vissers.
“We collected skin samples before and after the dietary intervention, enabling us to analyze the basal skin layer in Christchurch and the integumentary skin layer alongside skin functionality tests in Germany.”
The researchers assessed skin sample regeneration, including skin thickness, elasticity, UV protection, and epidermal cell regeneration via ultrasound, to provide a comprehensive understanding of skin function.
“A significant finding was that participants’ skin thickness levels showed a notable increase, indicating enhanced collagen production and epidermal cell regeneration, essentially reflecting skin regeneration,” stated Professor Vissers.
Scientists propose that boosting dietary vitamin C intake can enrich all regions of your skin.
“It’s crucial to maintain optimal plasma levels, and we know that healthy individuals can easily reach these levels with approximately 250mg of vitamin C daily,” commented Professor Vissers.
“Nonetheless, vitamins are not stored by the body. Therefore, a healthy habit is to consume at least five servings of fruits and vegetables daily, including foods high in vitamin C.”
Refer to the study published on October 28, 2025, in the Journal of Research Dermatology.
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Juliet M. Puller et al. Dietary intake of kiwifruit, a high vitamin C food, improves vitamin C levels and skin function in human skin. Journal of Research Dermatology published online October 28, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2025.10.587
Nanotyrannus lansensis — For years, many believed these specimens were juvenile tyrannosaurus rex — However, a team of American paleontologists analyzed the ceratobranchia (hyoid bone) and concluded that it was actually a distinct, fully grown small tyrannosaurid. This finding shed light on the growth history of Nanotyrannus lansensis.
Encounter between adults of Nanotyrannus lansensis (left) and two juvenile tyrannosaurus rex, with a sub-adult tyrannosaurus rex watching from a distance. Image credit: Jorge Gonzalez.
Nanotyrannus lansensis measures 5.5 meters (18 feet) tall, which is relatively small compared to its length of over 12 meters (40 feet) compared to tyrannosaurus rex.
Initially discovered in 1942, Nanotyrannus lansensis was first classified as gorgosaurus, but through further scientific investigation, it was redefined as a separate species in 1988.
The main cause of the lengthy debate over the classification is that the holotype consists solely of an isolated skull, while traditional assessments of maturity often rely on limb bones.
Until recently, studies on other more complete fossils of Nanotyrannus lansensis yielded conflicting conclusions.
In a recent study, paleontologist Christopher Griffin from Princeton University and his team discovered that the microstructure of small bones in the throat ceratobranchial can accurately indicate the age and skeletal maturity of fossil specimens.
“At the time, there was a general consensus that the holotype skull of Nanotyrannus represented an immature tyrannosaurus rex rather than a distinct species,” Dr. Griffin stated.
“We initially aimed to follow that consensus, but upon examining samples of the hyoid bone and noticing characteristics strongly indicating maturity, we realized we needed to reevaluate that notion.”
The researchers found that in both modern archosaurs (like ostriches and crocodiles) and extinct theropods, the ceratobranch bones retain unique signals of growth and maturation, making them particularly useful for determining the developmental stage of fully mature individuals.
Using this technique, the team studied the holotype of Nanotyrannus lansensis and analyzed three sections of its ceratobranchia, identifying several features that suggest near-complete skeletal maturity.
This indicates that Nanotyrannus lansensis is a taxonomically distinct species that coexisted with tyrannosaurus rex, suggesting a greater diversity of predators in Late Cretaceous ecosystems than previously understood.
“This smaller-bodied tyrannosaurus rex indicates that the carnivore’s hyoid displayed a growth pattern suggesting it had reached or was close to maturity,” remarked paleontologist Ashley Poust of the University of Nebraska State Museum.
“We can now confidently affirm our classification of Nanotyrannus as separate from tyrannosaurus rex.”
“This implies the presence of at least two carnivores of different sizes in the same environment, which has significant implications for dinosaur ecology and extinction,” he added.
“Understanding what existed helps us gauge the size of the fossil record and how species have evolved over time.”
“Furthermore, it’s crucial to comprehend the complexity of the ecosystem.”
Results from this study are published in the journal Science.
_____
Christopher T. Griffin et al. A small Tyrannosaurus rex lived alongside tyrannosaurus rex. Science published online on December 4, 2025. doi: 10.1126/science.adx8706
A recently uncovered galactic filament measures at least 50 million light-years in length and is situated 140 million light-years away. A galaxy orbits around the filament’s core, making it one of the largest rotating structures found to date.
Illustration depicting the rotation (right) of neutral hydrogen in a galaxy situated within an elongated filament (center). The galaxies demonstrate coherent bulk rotational motion that traces a large-scale cosmic web (left). Image credit: Lyla John.
Cosmic filaments stand as the largest known structures in the universe, comprising extensive thread-like formations of galaxies and dark matter that serve as the framework of the cosmos.
They also function as “highways” through which matter and momentum funnel into galaxies.
A nearby filament, home to numerous galaxies spinning in the same direction, represents an excellent opportunity to investigate how galaxies developed their current spin and gas content.
This structural arrangement could also provide a basis to test theories regarding how the universe’s rotation accumulates over vast distances.
In a recent study, astronomer Lyra Jung and colleagues from the University of Oxford discovered that 14 nearby hydrogen-rich galaxies form a slender line stretching approximately 5.5 million light-years long and 117,000 light-years wide.
This alignment exists within a considerably larger cosmic filament, about 50 million light-years long, which encompasses over 280 additional galaxies.
Notably, many of these galaxies seem to rotate in the same direction as the filament itself, a pattern that exceeds what would be expected if their rotation were random.
This observation challenges existing models and implies that the universe’s structure may have a more potent and prolonged impact on galaxy rotation than was previously assumed.
Astronomers observed that galaxies flanking the filament’s core were moving in opposite directions, suggesting that the entire formation is in motion.
The team employed a model of filament mechanics to estimate a rotational speed of 110 km/s and calculated the radius of the filament’s dense core region to be about 163,000 light-years.
“What makes this structure remarkable is not just its size, but also the interplay of spin arrangement and rotational motion,” stated Dr. Jung.
“You can liken it to a teacup ride at a theme park. Each galaxy represents a spinning teacup, but the entire platform, the cosmic filament, is also in rotation.”
“This dual motion provides valuable insights into how galaxies acquire rotation from the larger structures they inhabit.”
The filaments appear to be relatively young and undisturbed.
The significant number of gas-rich galaxies, minimal internal motion, and their so-called dynamically cool state imply that the galaxy is still in its formative stages.
Hydrogen serves as the fundamental material for star formation, meaning that galaxies rich in hydrogen gas are actively gathering and retaining the necessary fuel to create stars.
Thus, exploring these galaxies could yield insights into both the early and ongoing phases of galaxy evolution.
Hydrogen-rich galaxies also serve as excellent indicators of gas flow along cosmic filaments.
Due to atomic hydrogen’s susceptibility to motion, its presence aids in mapping how gas is directed through filaments and into galaxies, shedding light on how angular momentum travels through the cosmic web and influences galaxy shape, rotation, and star formation.
“This filament serves as a fossil record of the universe’s flow,” remarked astronomer Dr. Madalina Tudrache from the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford.
“It helps us comprehend how galaxies gain rotation and evolve over time.”
The researchers used data from the MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa, one of the most powerful telescopes globally, comprising an array of 64 linked satellite dishes.
This rotating filament was detected via an extensive sky survey known as MIGHTEE.
By integrating this data with optical observations from the DESI and SDSS surveys, the study revealed cosmic filaments displaying both spin alignment and bulk rotation in coherent galaxies.
Professor Matt Jarvis from the University of Oxford stated: “This highlights the ability to combine data from various observatories to achieve a deeper understanding of how vast structures and galaxies form in the Universe.”
The findings are detailed in the following article: paper in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
_____
Madalina N. Tudrache and others. 2025. A 15 Mpc rotating galactic filament with redshift z = 0.032 is available for purchase. MNRAS 544 (4): 4306-4316; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf2005
Paleontologists have undertaken a thorough anatomical reevaluation of the fossilized remains of two coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs that inhabited South America during the Early Cretaceous period: Santanaraptor Placidus and Milischia asymmetrica.
Hypothetical reconstruction of Milischia asymmetrica (left) and Santanaraptor Placidus (right), focusing on lizards that existed in what is now northeastern Brazil approximately 112 million years ago. Image credit: Guilherme Gehr.
The holotypes of these coelurosaurs were discovered in Romualdo Formation in 1996 and 2000, respectively.
Dr. Rafael Delcourt from the University of São Paulo and his team stated, “The Romualdo Formation is a renowned Early Cretaceous fossil hotspot situated along the edge of the Araripe Plateau in northwestern Brazil.”
“Its megafossil record encompasses plants, invertebrates, turtles, crocodiles, pterosaurs, theropod dinosaurs, as well as one of the most diverse and well-preserved ichthyofaunas from the Mesozoic era.”
“Spinosaurids are among the most notable Romualdian theropods, with numerous reference specimens including the well-preserved skull of Illitator Challenger and the snout of Illitator ChallengerAngaturama Limai.”
“Both Santanaraptor Placidus and Milischia asymmetrica originate from the same deposits that produced Spinosaurus, specifically the upper carbonate condensation level of the renowned Romualdo Formation.”
In their new study, Dr. Delcourt and collaborators from Brazil, Argentina, and Germany revised and compared the anatomy of Santanaraptor Placidus and Milischia asymmetrica to examine their phylogenetic relationships and potential synonymy.
Their analysis positions both species within an early-divergent group of maniraptoromorph dinosaurs, alongside Juratirant Rangami and Taniko Lagreus Topwilsoni, dating back to the Late Jurassic of Laurasia, indicating an early diversification of coelurosaurs in this region.
While there is some skeletal overlap, notable anatomical differences affirm their classification as separate species.
“The clade containing Juratirant Rangami, Milischia asymmetrica, Taniko Lagreus Topwilsoni, and Santanaraptor Placidus appears to extend back to at least Laurasia in the Late Jurassic, prior to the formation of the Apulian sea route that facilitated faunal exchange in the Early Cretaceous,” noted the paleontologists.
“At that time, a variety of coelurosaurs existed in both Laurasia and Gondwana, including Megaraptorra and branches such as ornithomimosaur, alvarezaurid, and dromaeosaurid.”
“Our phylogenetic model aligns more closely with the existing biogeographical data than one that confines Romualdocoelurosaurids primarily within Laurasian compsognathids or tyrannosaurids.”
“However, further studies and extensive fieldwork are necessary to clarify the early radiation of Coelurosaurus and its affinities with Romualdo morphology.”
A paper detailing these findings was published on November 18, 2025, in Anatomical Records.
_____
Rafael Delcourt and colleagues. Coelurosaurian theropods of the Romualdo Formation of the Early Cretaceous (Aptian) of Brazil: Santanaraptor Placidus meets Milischia asymmetrica. Anatomical Records, published online on November 18, 2025. doi: 10.1002/ar.70085
NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology/O. Krauss (Steward Observatory)
Within Cassiopeia A, the youngest known supernova in our galaxy, scientists have uncovered unexpectedly high concentrations of chlorine and potassium. These elements, which possess an odd number of protons, are believed to be relatively rare in the universe but are crucial for the emergence of planets and life. Consequently, the findings regarding Cassiopeia A may influence our understanding of the potential locations for extraterrestrial life within the Milky Way.
Supernova remnants, or exploded stars, typically contain elevated levels of elements like oxygen and magnesium, with their cores being comprised of even-numbered protons. Elements with odd-numbered protons (often referred to as “odd Z” elements) are inherently less stable, leading to a reduced likelihood of being created via stellar nuclear fusion. This observation aligns with models of galactic chemical evolution that generally estimate meager quantities of odd Z elements.
“[As it stands] The source of these odd Z elements has been elusive.” Matsunagaumi from Kyoto University in Japan.
Matsunaga and his team recognized that high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy might shed light on the enigma. At the high temperatures prevalent in a supernova remnant, atoms lose electrons and emit unique X-ray signatures that sensitive instruments can detect. The X-ray Imaging Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM), launched in September 2023, is equipped to capture such data and conducted two observations of Cassiopeia A in December 2023.
To determine the abundance of each element, the researchers compared the faint signals from the odd Z elements against the stronger signals from even Z elements, like sulfur and argon, using them as stable reference points for more accurate measurements of the odd Z elements.
The findings revealed that the Cassiopeia A supernova generated significantly more chlorine and potassium than traditional models had anticipated. This indicates that theorists might need to reassess how large stars synthesize these uncommon elements, as certain widely accepted models fail to accommodate the specific conditions of Cassiopeia A.
“While the authors note that their observations diverge from previous models, the reality is more intricate,” says Stan Woosley of the University of California, Santa Cruz, who did not participate in the study. “Not all of our models are incorrect; some perform better than others, and certain ones correlate quite well. Importantly, these observations present astronomers with new, definitive data to refine their models and enhance our comprehension of massive stellar explosions.”
The recent measurements also empower Matsunaga and his colleagues to start evaluating various longstanding theories regarding the formation of odd Z elements in massive stars, including stellar rotation, interactions between binary star pairs, and the merging of diverse combustion layers deep inside stars. Up until now, there was no method to validate these theories against actual data.
“We still lack a complete understanding of which star types contributed to this,” states Katarina Rodders from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, who was not involved in the study. “Specifically, we lack clarity regarding the source of chlorine, an element abundant in our oceans.”
If these discoveries hold true for other supernova remnants, they could reshape our perceptions of how life-essential elements are distributed throughout the Milky Way. Depending on the star that seeded a planet, some areas may have a more favorable supply of life’s foundational materials than others. This raises the possibility of uneven distribution of extraterrestrial life across the galaxy.
“That is certainly a possibility,” Matsunaga remarked. “However, we cannot definitively assert this based on the current data.” It remains uncertain whether Cassiopeia A is singular in its production of such substantial quantities of odd Z elements or if it is indicative of supernova remnants in general. “Future observations of additional supernova remnants with XRISM and other upcoming instruments will be pivotal in addressing this issue.”
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Extreme heat and poverty can hinder child development
Riccardo Renato Niels Mayer/Alamy
Research indicates that young children exposed to extreme heat typically exhibit a reduced vocabulary, with fewer words, letters, and numbers understood, suggesting that global warming could negatively affect early human development.
Specifically, when average monthly maximum temperatures reached 32°C (90°F) or higher, children aged 3 and 4 were 2.8 to 12.2 percent less likely to meet developmental benchmarks compared to those in environments with maximum temperatures below 26°C (79°F).
“This marks the first instance in literature demonstrating that excessive heat influences not just physical health but also developmental capabilities,” stated Jorge Quartas from New York University.
Quartas and his team analyzed data from 19,600 children surveyed by UNICEF across Georgia, Gambia, Madagascar, Malawi, Sierra Leone, and the State of Palestine, referencing the early childhood development index. They assessed children’s abilities in naming letters, reading simple words, and recognizing numbers from 1 to 10.
The researchers correlated this data with climate records while adjusting for variables such as poverty, maternal education, and baseline temperatures. Notably, even temperatures of 30°C (86°F) began to adversely affect literacy and numeracy skills, with heat also impeding children’s social, emotional, and physical development to a lesser degree.
“Minor effects in early childhood can become more pronounced over time,” Quartas explains. For instance, children who struggle with number recognition might find it challenging to learn math concepts, potentially falling behind academically.
Heat-related stress remains the primary cause of weather-related fatalities, claiming nearly 500,000 lives annually. A recent rapid assessment estimated that the heatwave in June and July was responsible for 2,300 deaths across 12 European cities, primarily occurring among those aged 65 and older.
The findings also revealed that the impacts of heat extend even to prenatal periods. For instance, temperatures of 33 degrees Celsius (91 degrees Fahrenheit) during early pregnancy correlated with a 5.6% reduction in the likelihood of successful childhood development.
Children from poorer, urban households with limited access to water resources were found to be more heavily affected by the heat. “Climate change and excessive heat serve as amplifiers of existing threats,” Quartas articulated. “These children are already at a disadvantage.”
Nonetheless, the study may not comprehensively address barriers such as violence and political instability, which can also impede childhood development, as noted by Giulia Pescarini from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Further investigations are needed to clarify how heat impacts development, she suggests, noting that low-income households might lack air conditioning, and parents may experience increased stress during heat events.
Pescarini emphasizes that a better understanding of who is affected and how can aid in developing adaptive strategies to support these vulnerable groups.
<p>Meet our central figure: a female polar bear. Driven southward by retreating Arctic ice, she journeyed deep into Canada's Northwest Territories. There, she encountered a pair of striking grizzly bears, and fell in love with both. From these unions, she gave birth to three daughters known as "growler bears" and a son, marking the inception of an extraordinary lineage echoing Shakespearean drama.</p>
<p>The next chapter took an unexpected turn. When one of her daughters matured, she mated with her biological father and another grizzly, her stepfather, resulting in a litter of four—siblings, children, and cousins all at once.</p>
<p>In 2006, a hunter in the Canadian Arctic produced a hybrid specimen with both polar and grizzly traits. Later genetic evaluation confirmed this was a growler, part of this emerging hybrid family. A decade later, scientists were intrigued to observe unusual behaviors among these creatures. Typically, hybrids are not fertile, yet these were. Researchers began to ponder whether this heralded a new apex predator for the Arctic. Could these hybrids exemplify resilience in the face of climate change, or signal impending ecological crises? Current studies promise further insights.</p>
<p>As global temperatures increase, the Arctic warms four times quicker than the rest of the globe, pushing polar bears (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) south in search of sustenance. Their primary diet of fatty seals hinges on sea ice, which is disappearing rapidly, forcing them inland. They frequently encounter their brown bear relatives, the grizzly bear (<em>Ursus arctos horribilis</em>), which is edging northward. Warmer Arctic conditions enhance hunting and breeding opportunities, boosting hybrid occurrences, including growlers and "pizzly bears" (polar bear fathers and grizzly mothers). Some researchers express concern that polar genes may infiltrate grizzly populations, jeopardizing polar bear survival.</p>
<p>Yet, the discovery of the Grolar lineage hints at a more optimistic scenario: polar bears might be adapting to a rapidly changing environment. Recorded growlers exhibit traits of gray-brown polar bears, with slightly larger limbs and skulls reminiscent of grizzlies. These hybrids might exploit a broader diet on land, potentially allowing them to forage without relying on diminishing sea ice. Larissa DeSantis, a paleontologist at Vanderbilt University, notes that these adaptations could be a bittersweet necessity amid rising temperatures, as discussed in a <a href="https://www.livescience.com/pizzly-bear-hybrids-created-by-climate-crisis.html">2021 interview.</a></p>
<section></section>
<h2>One Happy Family</h2>
<p>However, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12686-024-01359-1">extensive genomic research</a> presented in a recent book reveals alternative insights. In a study led by <a href="https://www.macewan.ca/academics/academic-departments/biological-sciences/our-people/profile/?profileid=millerj253">Joshua Miller</a> at MacEwan University, researchers uncovered that genetic sequences of 371 polar bears, 440 grizzlies, and the Grolar clan showed no other hybrids in nature apart from the known Grolars. The rarity of this mating pattern has led experts to conclude that hybrids may lack the essential skills required for survival in either parent's ecosystem. Recent studies corroborate that hybrids may be unfit for Arctic life, lacking polar bears' specialized "non-slip" foot structure and not fully inheriting grizzlies’ powerful forelimbs and shoulders. Essentially, Growlers and Pizzlies are suboptimal versions of both bears rather than well-adapted hybrids.</p>
<p><figure class="ArticleImage"><div class="Image__Wrapper"><img class="Image" alt="Two pizzly bears in a stream at the zoo" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=400 400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=500 500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=600 600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=700 700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=800 800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=837 837w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=900 900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1003 1003w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1100 1100w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1200 1200w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1300 1300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1400 1400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1500 1500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1600 1600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1674 1674w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1700 1700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1800 1800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1900 1900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=2006 2006w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2503195" data-caption="Pizzly bears in a German zoo, born from a polar bear father and grizzly mother in the same enclosure." data-credit="Molly Merrow"/></div><figcaption class="ArticleImageCaption" wp_automatic_readability="27"><div class="ArticleImageCaption__CaptionWrapper" wp_automatic_readability="34"><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Pizzly Bear Born from a Polar Bear Father and Grizzly Mother</p><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Molly Merrow</p></div></figcaption></figure></p>
<p>Short-term, such hybrids may remain uncommon, with new species unlikely. However, what about the long-term evolutionary prospects for polar bears? Insights from the past might illuminate the future. The habitats of polar and brown bears once coexisted during the Pleistocene epoch, defined by recurring glaciation over the last 2.6 million years. Researchers at the University of California, Santa Cruz discovered that brown bears currently inhabit three Alaskan islands. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23516372/">During that time, gradual male brown bear mating with local polar bear populations resulted in hybridization.</a> If this pattern recurs, the polar bear species could face extinction, leaving only grizzly bears.</p>
<p>However, the Pleistocene was characterized by gradual environmental changes and slow adaptation. Today’s climate change, driven by human activity, is happening at an unprecedented pace, potentially leading us down an alternate path. “The far more significant threat to polar bears today is the loss of ice habitat due to climate change, occurring much more swiftly than any concerns related to hybridization,” states Fiona Galbraith, a geneticist and climate change consultant currently leading a natural habitat expedition into the Canadian Arctic.</p>
<p><figure class="ArticleImage"><div class="Image__Wrapper"><img class="Image" alt="Icebergs are melting at the North Pole" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=400 400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=500 500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=600 600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=700 700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=800 800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=837 837w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=900 900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1003 1003w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1100 1100w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1200 1200w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1300 1300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1400 1400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1500 1500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1600 1600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1674 1674w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1700 1700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1800 1800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1900 1900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=2006 2006w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2503193" data-caption="The Arctic is warming four times faster than the rest of the planet" data-credit="Adisha Pramod/Alamy"/></div><figcaption class="ArticleImageCaption" wp_automatic_readability="26"><div class="ArticleImageCaption__CaptionWrapper" wp_automatic_readability="32"><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">The Arctic is Warming Four Times Faster Than the Rest of the Planet</p><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Adisha Pramod / Alamy</p></div></figcaption></figure></p>
<p>In conclusion, while the Grolar dynasty is fascinating, it serves as a harbinger of ecological distress on Earth. Similar <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10674025/">climate-induced mating</a> has been documented elsewhere, including a **bobcat-lynx hybrid** in North America and the emergence of the **coywolf**, resulting from interbreeding between coyotes and eastern wolves. Like Arctic bears, these hybrids are born from habitat disruption caused by rapidly changing environments. Their ability to adapt is situation-dependent; many hybrids struggle to thrive in new areas, often leading to biodiversity loss and eventual ecosystem collapse. "When both species fulfil similar roles in their ecosystems, increased contact and interbreeding can occur without significantly affecting ecological functions," shares <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org/what-we-do/our-team/">John Whiteman</a> from Polar Bears International. Neglecting this could lead to dire consequences. For instance, while grizzly bears frequently leave carrion for scavengers, polar bears do not, posing hazards to food webs and disease dynamics.</p>
<p>Reflecting on our initial question about the Grolar dynasty as the next chapter in polar bear evolution, the resounding answer is a grim "no." This phenomenon showcases not adaptation but the tragic decline of a species amid drastic environmental fluctuations. However, this festive season, let’s contemplate the potential for a different outcome, where polar bear tracks continue to mark the Northern landscapes for winters yet to come. It hinges on our actions.</p>
<section class="ArticleTopics" data-component-name="article-topics"><p class="ArticleTopics__Heading">Topic:</p></section>
Hold on, take a moment. How often do you find yourself on your phone today? Is social media impacting your mental health negatively? We ask this frequently, but should we genuinely be concerned about screen time?
Numerous studies examine screen time, many revealing associations between screen use and an array of health issues, including depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, obesity, diabetes, and even suicidal thoughts. The implications seem dire.
However, I have a question. Are screens themselves the root cause of these issues, or is it that poor health leads to more screen time, or could an unidentified third factor be affecting both?
Most studies merely display correlations between screen time and various health outcomes and thus are unable to establish causation. Pinpointing the true impact of screen time is a much more intricate task.
To clarify these relationships, researchers perform meta-analyses employing advanced statistical methods to unify hundreds of robust studies, which helps reduce the perceived dangers.
I have a particular interest in one meta-analysis. Conducted in 2019, researchers Amy Orben and Andrew Przybylski, then from the University of Oxford, evaluated a vast dataset of teenage surveys, allowing them to measure the effects of over 20,000 different factors on mental health.
Upon analyzing the data, they determined that only 0.4 percent of adolescent well-being is tied to screen use, revealing a level of negative impact similar to eating potatoes. In contrast, being bullied was linked to more than four times this negative effect, while sufficient sleep and a nutritious breakfast yielded significantly more positive outcomes.
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What the data appear to indicate is that, on average, at the population level, both the positive and negative effects of screens are minimal. “
So, is screen time acceptable? Again, let’s not rush to conclusions. Although this research looks at the relationship between screen time and mental health within a broader context, these findings still represent merely correlations. Human lives are complex, making it challenging to derive clear causal connections from messy data.
A helpful approach might involve reconsidering what screen time truly means. Activities like watching TV, browsing social media, gaming, reading e-books, and listening to science journalists discussing screen time all require looking at a screen, but can we assume they all exert the same influence on our health?
Many studies fail to adopt a nuanced perspective on this topic, simply tallying screen time. To complicate matters further, it’s widely known that this information is often self-reported, leading to inaccuracies. (Let’s be honest; we’ve all embellished the truth about our screen usage.)
Focusing solely on social media usage unveils further complexity. Engaging in political debates until the early hours on X while messaging friends via WhatsApp both qualify as social media activity, yet do they yield identical outcomes? The forthcoming meta-analysis will be published in a 2024 issue of SSM – mental health. Their findings indicate a slight positive correlation between happiness and using social media for communication or having a broad social media network, along with a minor negative correlation between social comparison and problematic social media practices, often referred to as social media “addiction.” None of these insights are particularly unexpected.
So where does this leave us? Given the potential risks involved, adopting a precautionary approach, especially regarding children, could be wise. Governments in the UK and Australia have implemented measures to significantly reduce screen time or to restrict specific technologies, such as social media.
Yet, there’s also the concern that imposing such limits could mean missing out on the valuable benefits screen time offers, such as access to information, social interactions, and entertainment. Data suggests that, on average, a range of factors indicates that the positive and negative effects of screens are relatively minor at the population level. However, that doesn’t mean some individuals don’t suffer more severe consequences, the so-called problematic users mentioned earlier, and we need to delve deeper to support them.
In light of all this, how concerned should you be about screen time? The answer is nuanced and continues to evolve with ongoing research. If you notice screens significantly affecting your life, altering your habits or seeking professional advice may prove beneficial. For most of us, however, the concern over screen use should not rank high on our lists of worries, nor should it dominate headlines.
Feeling detached in social situations can happen to anyone at any time
Credit: Franckreporter/Getty Images
As the holiday season approaches, one reader is apprehensive about experiencing loneliness this Christmas. She notes it’s not about having a lack of friends or family, but rather the uncomfortable socializing at work parties and family gatherings that can feel isolating. “It feels like I’m the only one not enjoying myself,” she shares. “I’m not looking to be the life of the party, but when I’m grappling with my mental health, it becomes difficult to embrace the festive atmosphere. I end up feeling more alone than if I were just at home.”
The sensation of feeling disconnected, known in psychological terms as “Existential isolation,” can occur to anyone at any point in life. This concept is characterized by the sentiment that, even in a crowd, no one truly understands our feelings or perspectives. Individuals who exhibit high levels of existential isolation demonstrate an increased risk of developing conditions akin to depression and a slower response to treatment.
Interestingly, many individuals likely feel similarly, yet we perceive our struggles as isolating, often leading us to conceal our feelings and exacerbating our loneliness. This is why psychologists now advocate for cultivating a sense of “common humanity” during tough times. In essence, it’s the acknowledgment that others might share our struggles, allowing us to recognize we’re not alone in our challenges.
Building a sense of common humanity can clarify why “Peer support” groups, which bring together people facing similar challenges, are often effective in enhancing well-being. They can alleviate feelings of existential isolation and provide comfort, independent of the practical assistance they offer.
If you’re feeling alone this holiday season, simply reminding yourself that you’re not the only one experiencing this might help. It resonates with the essence of “Self-compassion.” Numerous online resources are available that can assist you through writing prompts and guided meditations.
Even better, consider breaking the silence and expressing how you feel, even if it feels uncomfortable. Research indicates you may find surprising responses from others. Studies examining the “Beautiful confusion effect” suggest that we often underestimate how people will react to sharing our issues. We fear being viewed as weak; however, individuals are often more inclined to open up about their own similar feelings.
What about those social events? There’s no obligation to attend every gathering—focus on those where you feel the most connected. A coffee chat with a trusted friend may provide more comfort than a large festive event. Christmas is a season of goodwill; start by channeling that kindness toward yourself.
Upon arriving at the Buddhist retreat, Eli Sussman anticipated immersing himself in deep meditation. The Plum Village Monastery, located east of Bordeaux, France, was established by Thich Nhat Hanh, often called the “father of mindfulness.” Eager to explore, he challenged himself to a lengthy three-hour meditation session.
Afterward, he excitedly shared his achievement with a monk: “I felt like I was awaiting a shiny badge for my accomplishments,” Sussman reflects. The monk simply smiled and asked, “Three hours, you say? Why not try just three breaths? That’s truly all it takes to center yourself in the present.”
This intrigued Sussman, leading him to investigate whether brief mindfulness exercises could genuinely shift one’s mindset and induce significant changes in emotional health during his PhD studies in psychology at UC Berkeley.
The swift conclusion is affirmative. An increasing array of studies worldwide indicate that individuals who dedicate merely 20 seconds daily to a short routine report enduring feelings of peace and joy, lingering long after their session. These micro-practices, also referred to as micro-acts, may aid in enhancing physical health by interrupting cyclical negative thinking and soothing physiological stress responses.
Beyond the brief breathing techniques from Plum Village monks, research-backed interventions also encompass short writing tasks and self-compassion exercises aimed at nurturing gratitude, awe, and a sense of direction in life.
Sussman’s book, micro practice, is set to launch next year, likely becoming a trending term in 2026. Meanwhile, several strategies are already available to instill tranquility during the holiday season.
Even small actions can yield significant outcomes
His findings draw from decades of research focusing on interventions inspired by both Eastern and Western spiritual practices. These include meditative practices like mindfulness meditation, engaging in Qigong—a Chinese discipline blending deep breaths with gentle movements—and yoga, along with introspective exercises such as gratitude journals. Evidence suggests that all these practices bolster mental well-being and mitigate the risks of conditions like depression and anxiety.
However, the precise “dosage” necessary for beneficial effects is less definitive; some studies imply that too much exposure may be counterproductive. A meta-analysis by Willoughby Britton, a professor of psychiatry and human behavior at Brown University, revealed that individuals meditating for only 5 to 10 minutes two to three times a week had better sleep quality than those engaging in meditation for over 30 minutes daily, five days a week. This could be attributed to the brain remaining alert during extended meditation, making subsequent sleep challenging.
A 2021 study directly compared short-term and long-term stress relief outcomes from mindfulness practices, led by Sarah Strohmeyer and colleagues at Canterbury Christ Church University in the UK. Participants attended four sessions over two weeks, with one group meditating for five minutes, another for 20 minutes, and a control group listening to an audiobook.
Concluding the two weeks, both meditation groups reported diminished anxiety and depression symptoms compared to the audiobook group. Notably, the shorter session participants experienced less stress than those who meditated longer.
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Brief interventions may be particularly beneficial during stressful periods. “
This difference in outcomes can be partly attributed to task difficulty. Longer sessions increased the challenge of managing a wandering mind, potentially leading to feelings of inadequacy. Conversely, participants in shorter sessions often reported pleasant surprises from their experiences. One participant mentioned previously believing that mindfulness required considerable time and effort, but the experiments indicated effectiveness even in five minutes. This participant felt more at ease following the session, a tranquility that persisted during the day.
Health psychologists assert that simple practices can be particularly advantageous during stressful periods. Andreas Schwertfeger and colleagues at the University of Graz reiterated this earlier this year.
In their research, participants wore portable monitors measuring heart rate variability (HRV), an indicator of physiological stress levels. Generally, higher HRV suggests relaxation as the heart adapts to bodily demands, whereas lower HRV indicates a readiness to confront threats. Throughout several days, participants received prompts to focus on their breathing for one minute.
Despite the brief duration, the intervention proved profoundly effective, showing noticeable calming effects on both mind and body through self-reported questionnaires and HRV records taken right after mindful moments. This effect was most prominent when participants were under significant stress. “I felt less overwhelmed and more secure,” remarked Schwertfeger, describing this as a “just-in-time adaptive intervention.”
Pathways to self-compassion
Though Sussman could have adhered strictly to mindfulness in developing his micro-practices, a question from his doctoral advisor shifted his focus: What does the world need most at this moment? He gravitated towards self-compassion, a crucial element in Buddhist philosophy that has gained prominence in psychology recently. It comprises three key components: treating oneself kindly rather than harshly, recognizing that suffering is a universal experience connecting us, and observing our negative emotions without judgment.
Studies have demonstrated that cultivating self-compassion can be achieved through focused meditation on these principles. Yet, akin to many mindfulness practices, these programs often necessitate significant dedication.
Inspired by his time at Plum Village Abbey, Sussman pondered whether a few conscious breaths could change our perspective. He and his colleagues enlisted 135 participants, showing them a 20-second video urging reflection on a recent upsetting event, like a mistake or disappointment. The video suggested, “With a nurturing touch, place one hand on your abdomen and the other on your heart, enveloping yourself in kindness and warmth,” followed by, “Consider: ‘How can I be a friend to myself in this situation?’
Just a few minutes of mindfulness can create a big impact
Randy Farris/Getty Images
Half of the participants were instructed to engage with this exercise daily for a month, while the control group practiced finger-tapping for 20 seconds each day. As is typical in month-long interventions, some participants discontinued without recognizing benefits. However, for those who consistently practiced, micro-practices resulted in significantly lower stress levels compared to those engaged in finger-tapping.
It is not surprising that micro-practices required ongoing practice, according to Sussman. He references a recent analysis of data from the popular app Headspace, which indicated that frequency of practice holds greater importance than duration in reducing stress. “Consistency outweighs length for effectiveness,” he states.
Drawing a parallel to nurturing plants, Sussman remarks, “It’s more effective to provide small amounts of water daily than to saturate the soil once a month.” This highlights the importance of engaging in enjoyable activities. “Your strongest practices are those you can consistently implement,” he asserts.
The Big Joy Project
If mindfulness or self-compassion isn’t appealing, many alternatives exist. The Greater Good Science Center at UC Berkeley offers numerous online resources detailing quick interventions aimed at enhancing well-being, many taking only a few minutes to enact.
A few years back, Emiliana Simon Thomas and her colleagues initiated the Big Joy Project, compiling easily accessible practices requiring minimal time commitment, termed “micro-acts.” These include brief reflection exercises on distressing incidents and identifying three positive outcomes, listing what evokes gratitude, and watching uplifting nature videos, along with moments of reflecting on personal values.
“We’ve termed them ‘micro-acts’ to ensure people can incorporate them into their busy lives without feeling overwhelmed,” comments Simon-Thomas. The initiative encouraged individuals to try one micro-act daily for a week, gathering well-being metrics via surveys at the beginning and conclusion of the week.
Promotion for the project included film screenings and outreach around Mission: Joy, showcasing the bond between the 14th Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Between 2022 and 2024, 17,598 participants contributed substantial data for analysis by Simon-Thomas and her team. Consequently, results published this year illustrated the efficacy of these micro-acts, with participants reporting lower stress levels and improved overall well-being compared to their initial assessments. They expressed greater agreement with sentiments like “I believe my life has purpose” and “I feel fulfilled overall.”
While micro-acts may initially appear as luxuries for those with comfortable lives, their greatest impact was realized among individuals from traditionally disadvantaged backgrounds, including those experiencing financial struggles.
Nonetheless, researchers remain cautious about portraying these interventions as cures. “Brushing your teeth won’t fix everything,” Sussman suggests. “Moreover, micro-practices are not substitutes for therapy or medication.”
Nor do they replace extended meditation practices, he explains. Lengthy meditation sessions, lasting 20 to 40 minutes, might yield long-term neurological changes linked to enhanced emotional regulation. Occasionally, as experienced during a Buddhist retreat, engaging in a three-hour session can offer profound spiritual insights.
The intention behind these micro-practices is merely to introduce brief moments of tranquility and joy in our lives when out-of-control thoughts threaten our health and well-being.
David Robson is the author of The Law of Connection: 13 Social Strategies That Will Change Your Life, now available in paperback.
Available rooms: Minimum stay of 2 weeks, featuring a private bathroom. Enjoy a complimentary pool. Package includes meals, Wi-Fi, and infectious viruses. Call now!
Would you be inclined to respond to such advertisements? What about those that guarantee severe diarrhea? How many stars would it take to make you consider adding STDs to your stay? Perhaps a substantial cash incentive might sway your decision?
Welcome to the peculiar realm of human challenge testing – arriving soon at a biosecure isolation facility nearby.
In response to the collective trauma of the coronavirus pandemic, researchers are increasingly enlisting healthy individuals to participate in trials that intentionally expose them to illness. Volunteers are now more willing than ever to contract diseases ranging from dysentery and cholera to gonorrhea.
As detailed on page 38, clinical trials offer a rapid and relatively affordable method for assessing vaccines and treatments while monitoring infection dynamics. Contrary to popular belief, the risks may not be as high as presumed. Trials, conducted under stringent medical oversight, will only proceed if effective therapies can quickly alleviate symptoms.
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Deliberately infecting healthy volunteers carries risks, and the ethical implications are complex. “
However, it’s not without its hazards, and the ethical landscape remains murky. Unlike patients with existing conditions who may opt for experimental therapies that could potentially cure them, challenge trials seek to induce illness with little or no immediate medical benefit, even if for a brief duration.
Moreover, we cannot always prevent potential long-term consequences. For example, some ethicists have expressed concerns regarding the manner in which British scientists conducted COVID-19 challenge trials during the pandemic, underscoring the risks of chronic symptoms associated with COVID-19.
Nonetheless, the pandemic has also underscored the significant positive impact and value of vaccines. Current data indicates that human challenge testing is safe, particularly for young, healthy individuals. These studies could hasten the development of new defenses against persistent epidemics such as malaria, Zika, and norovirus. The pressing question may be: How can we expand these efforts?
The Tsimané people of Bolivia regard humility as a hallmark of a commendable person.
David Mercado/Reuters
This metaphor has been so overused that it has turned into a cliché. Hunter-gatherers share their resources equally among tribes with an admirable generosity that seems absent in high-income societies. However, a study of the anthropological data indicates that this perception is not entirely accurate.
“No society achieves true equality,” affirm team members, including Chris von Ruden, an anthropologist at the University of Richmond, Virginia. What seems like equality is often merely practical, if not selfish behavior.
In witnessing the apparently equal wealth distribution in traditional subsistence societies, some researchers conclude that humanity’s default mode is altruism and equity. For instance, the 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Engels, a companion of Karl Marx and a staunch advocate of Marxism, formulated some of his theories based on observations of the egalitarian traits prevalent in traditional cultures.
“However, it isn’t solely about distributing everything among everyone,” states von Ruden.
Following their examination of existing evidence, von Ruden and his colleagues, including Duncan Stebbard-Hawkes, researchers from Durham University in the UK, suggest that some anthropologists mistakenly interpret the communal wealth’s equality as a sign of an inherent desire for equality. Moreover, the focus on equity in certain traditional societies may stem less from an egalitarian philosophy and more from individual concerns about limited choices. For example, the Mbenjele people of the Republic of Congo utilize a grievance process known as Mosambo, where individuals publicly express their grievances to the camp.
“People dislike intimidation, coercion, and ‘big shots,'” suggests Manvir Singh, an anthropologist at the University of California, Davis, who was not involved in the research. He agrees with von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes, noting that a society focused on safeguarding individual autonomy may present as egalitarian.
Research indicates that, alongside the preference for autonomy, equality can arise from self-interested actions. Instead of sharing hunting success out of generosity, hunters might distribute meat to avoid ongoing blame. Supporting this notion, von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes highlight frequent and “vocal” requests for food sharing within many foraging communities. For instance, in some Kun communities, located in Angola, Botswana, and Namibia, approximately 34 percent of daytime conversations involve complaints about being stingy.
Equally, a community where members readily share resources and assist one another isn’t necessarily devoid of social hierarchies. Certain cultures valorize individuals who are more cooperative and community-oriented. For example, the Tsimane people of Bolivia cherish humility and kindness as traits of a commendable individual. Thus, von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes argue that the documented equality in traditional subsistence societies may stem from intense competition to appear just within the group.
The research claims to “provide a significant contribution that integrates multiple ethnographic cases to showcase the range and diversity of egalitarianism.” According to Jerome Lewis, an anthropologist at the University of London, the 19th-century portrayal of Engels’ “noble savage” living in a utopian, principled community is no longer relevant and represents a “highly biased and discriminatory perspective.” Like any human groups, hunter-gatherers compete, clash, and seek methods to resolve their disputes.
Lewis notes that traditional subsistence societies globally have developed “impressive alternatives” to how high-income nations organize culture and justice. He emphasizes that many traditional subsistence societies have existed for over 50,000 years and continue to thrive, imparting potent lessons and fresh perspectives on how we structure our communities.
The Hubble team has unveiled breathtaking new images of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. This marks only the third instance of such a comet being observed.
This image of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS was captured by Hubble on November 30, 2025. At that time, the comet was around 286 million kilometers (178 million miles) from Earth. Image credits: NASA / ESA / STScI / D. Jewitt, UCLA / M.-T. Hui, Shanghai Observatory / J. DePasquale, STScI.
Discovered on July 1, 2025, by the NASA-funded ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial Impact Last Alert System) survey telescope in Rio Hurtado, Chile, 3I/ATLAS is a remarkable interstellar comet.
At the time of its discovery, the comet had a heliocentric distance of 4.51 astronomical units (AU) and an eccentricity of 6.13.
This object, also referred to as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11pl3Z, approaches from the direction of the constellation Sagittarius, traveling at an impressive radial velocity of about 58 km (36 miles) per second.
3I/ATLAS passed near Mars at a distance of 0.194 AU on October 3 and reached its closest encounter with the Sun, known as perihelion, on October 30.
On March 16, 2026, this interstellar visitor will approach Jupiter at a distance of 0.357 astronomical units.
“Hubble tracked a comet across the sky,” they stated.
“As a result, the background stars appear as streaks of light.”
“Hubble had previously observed 3I/ATLAS in July, shortly after its discovery, and several NASA missions have also studied the comet since then.”
“Observations are expected to persist for several more months as 3I/ATLAS journeys out of the solar system.”
“This image displays a teardrop-shaped glowing halo extending toward the sun,” stated Harvard University Professor Avi Loeb about the new Hubble images.
“This extension of the tail toward the sun was also noticeable in the pre-perihelion Hubble images taken on July 21, where 3I/ATLAS was approaching the Sun from a distance 56% greater than that of Earth.”
“The new radius of the glow is estimated to be around 40,000 km (24,855 miles), with its retro tail extension reaching approximately 60,000 km (37,282 miles).”
“In recent papers, I suggested that the coma teardrops in the 3I/ATLAS post-perihelion images are linked to numerous macroscopic non-volatile objects that have separated from the Sun due to measurements of non-gravitational accelerations moving away from the Sun,” he elaborated.
“I predicted that if the object overlapped with 3I/ATLAS at perihelion, by November 30th, the swarm would be about 60,000 km closer to the Sun than 3I/ATLAS.”
“This separation aligns perfectly with the teardrop-shaped anti-caudal extension visible in the new Hubble image.”
In The Occupant, Abby (Ella Balinska) navigates the wilderness of Georgia.
TCD/Prod.DB/Alamy
Some concepts are so engaging and instinctual that it’s often better to quickly recycle them instead of dissecting them. In 1950, Isaac Asimov adapted some puzzle stories to create Agatha Christie’s intriguing science fiction narrative set in outer space, Me, Robot. Meanwhile, in 1968, Stanley Kubrick raised the bar for films addressing artificial intelligence with 2001: A Space Odyssey, where the robot storyline becomes repetitive in an almost infinite cycle.
This year, Electric Nation intertwines a narrative of robot insurrection, while M3 Gun 2.0 demonstrates that a formidable killer bot can’t be restrained. With Fellow, we explored the perspective of a femme bot, creating a fitting adult-themed homage to Asimov.
All three projects engaged with prevalent themes of free will and examined when to regard machines as human. Notably, M3 Gun 2.0 was particularly enjoyable to work on, featuring a rubber-boned robot babysitter from 2023 who returns from her backup disc to save the world from her killbot sister, Am3lia. Though the script has its flaws, the humor, genre callbacks, and jump scares are well executed.
Drew Hancock’s Fellow, which follows an uninformed fembot as she uncovers her identity, felt like it could delve deeper but ultimately faltered. Months later, all that lingers in memory is a memorable cameo by Rupert Friend.
Directors Anthony and Joe Russo’s Electric Nation received backlash for their “make it up as we go” approach, which seemed mismatched with the reflective visuals that inspired their film. Devotees of Simon Stålenhag’s illustrated works were left frustrated, while others endured two hours of anticipation for something to validate the film’s stunning aesthetics. With a staggering $320 million budget, it begs the question: should they have constructed a theme park instead?
Bong Joon Ho’s Mickey 17 presents a scenario where blue-collar astronaut Mickey Barnes (Robert Pattinson) is enslaved by a robot because of his reprintability. The accomplished director of Parasite, Okja, and Snowpiercer reveals his satirical edge, but sadly, the film lacks faith in its audience, overwhelming with explanations.
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Seizing opportunities while attracting mass audiences may be a strategy that Stanley Kubrick and others took to their graves. “
Filmmakers in science fiction have consistently crafted intriguing extraterrestrial beings. From Solaris and Arrival to Vanishing and Under the Skin, it seems that the trend in 2025 toward monsters and demonic possession signals not fatigue but rather a transition of the horror genre into its more grounded cousin.
Scott Derrickson’s horrifying hollowness takes years to build upon in Canyon, a mix of Cold War romance, espionage, and Lovecraftian horror that undermines its intriguing elements. As Miles Teller and Anya Taylor-Joy portray elite snipers from global superpowers guarding a vast valley in a secretive country, the extended prologue feels drawn out.
In contrast, Hugo Kaiser’s Occupier effectively showcases Abby (Ella Balinska) grappling with her own guilt and sorrow in the secluded Georgia wilderness, aided by disembodied voices, whether they are human allies or alien influencers.
We find ourselves in a stronger genre narrative with Ash, directed by Los Angeles’ Flying Lotus, presenting a unique full-length music video experience that dazzles and perplexes. Liya (Eiza González) awakens with amnesia aboard a space station filled with bodies. Bryon (Aaron Paul) comes to her aid, but is he truly what he seems? The onboard AI alarms her to strange life forms on the vessel, treading familiar territory but still offering a refreshing take.
No surprise then, that two of this year’s notable films were substantially high-budget. It reiterates the notion that seizing opportunities while catering to a large audience is a timeless trick.
Serpil Altin’s Once Upon a Time in the Future:2121 explores a family deliberating whether to dispose of their elderly in order to comply with a “law of scarcity” enforced by a hilariously overzealous regime. Meanwhile, Joshua Oppenheimer’s end presents a musical tale about a family’s decision to execute an unanticipated visitor, a dilemma you may have encountered before.
These two films, alongside Occupier, challenge the notion that science fiction must rely on originality of plots. Science fiction is simply fiction; uh, fiction centers on humanity, and humans experience an infinitely diverse range of situations, even in common predicaments.
Double-slit experiment showcases the quantum nature of reality
Russell Kightley/Science Photo Library
A thought experiment that sparked a famous debate between physicists Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr in 1927 has now been realized. This breakthrough addresses one of quantum physics’ fundamental mysteries: is light truly a wave, a particle, or an intricate mix of both?
The debate centers on the double-slit experiment, tracing back another century to 1801, when Thomas Young used it to argue for the wave nature of light, while Einstein contended it is a particle. Bohr’s contributions to quantum physics suggested that both perspectives could hold true. Einstein, critical of this notion, designed a modified version of Young’s experiment to counter it.
<p>Recently, <a href="https://quantum.ustc.edu.cn/web/en/node/137">Chaoyan Lu</a> and his team at the University of Science and Technology of China utilized cutting-edge technology in experimental physics to verify Einstein's theories, demonstrating the unique dual wave-particle character of quantum objects, as theorized in the 1920s. "Witnessing quantum mechanics 'in action' at such a foundational level is awe-inspiring," remarks Lu.</p>
<p>In the classic double-slit experiment, light is directed at two narrow parallel slits in front of a screen. If light were entirely particles, the screen would display a distinct light blob behind each slit. However, researchers observed an "interference pattern" of alternating dark and bright bands instead. This demonstrates that light behaves like waves passing through a slit, creating ripples that collide on the screen. Notably, this interference pattern remains evident even when the light intensity is reduced to a single photon. Does this imply that photons, which exhibit particle-like behavior, also interfere like waves?</p>
<p>Bohr proposed the idea of "complementarity," stating that one cannot simultaneously observe the particle nature of a photon showing wave-like behavior, and vice versa. Amid discussions on this matter, Einstein envisioned an additional spring-loaded slit that would compress when a photon entered. By analyzing the movement of the spring, physicists could determine which slit a photon passed through. Einstein believed this approach allowed for a simultaneous description of both particle and wave behavior, creating an interference pattern that contradicts complementarity.</p>
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<p>Lu's team aimed to create a setup at the "ultimate quantum limit," firing a single photon rather than using a slit, but rather an atom that could recoil similarly. Upon impacting the atom, the photon entered a quantum state that allowed it to propagate left and right, which also produced an interference pattern upon reaching the detector. To achieve this, researchers utilized lasers and electromagnetic forces to significantly cool the atoms, enabling precise control over their quantum properties. This was vital for testing Bohr's claims against Einstein's. Bohr argued that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle could disrupt the interference pattern when momentum fluctuations of the slit due to recoil are well known, rendering the photon’s position highly ambiguous, and vice versa.</p>
<p>"Bohr's response was brilliant, but such thought experiments remained theoretical for almost a century," notes Lu.</p>
<p>By adjusting the laser, Lu's team could control the momentum uncertainty of the atoms as they slitted. They found that Bohr was indeed correct; finely tuning these momentum ambiguities could eliminate interference patterns. Remarkably, the team could access intermediate regions to measure recoil information, observing blurred versions of interference patterns. Essentially, the photon displayed both wave and particle characteristics simultaneously, according to Lu.</p>
<p>``The real intrigue lies in [this] intermediate realm," states <a href="https://physics.mit.edu/faculty/wolfgang-ketterle/">Wolfgang Ketterle</a> from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Early this year, he and his team conducted a variation of Einstein's experiment, using ultracold atoms controlled by lasers that could pass through two slits. Lu's group utilized a single atom to scatter light in two directions; both atoms scattered light in the same direction, and changes in its quantum state indicated the influence of the photons colliding with each atom. Ketterle emphasizes that this approach provides a distinct means to explore wave-particle duality, offering clearer insights into photon behavior since this "which direction" information is recorded in one of the two separate atoms, albeit deviating slightly from Einstein's premise.</p>
<p>Furthermore, he and his colleagues performed experiments where they abruptly switched off the laser (similar to removing a spring from a moving slit) and subsequently directed photons at the atoms. Bohr's conclusions held, as the uncertainty principle impacted the momentum exchange between atoms and photons, potentially "washing out" the interference fringes. This spring-free iteration of Einstein's concept had remained untested until now, according to Ketterle. "Nuclear physics presents an excellent opportunity to apply cold atoms and lasers for a clearer illustration of quantum mechanics, a possibility not achievable before."</p>
<p><a href="https://physik.unibas.ch/en/persons/philipp-treutlein/">Philip Treutlein</a> and his colleagues at the University of Basel in Switzerland assert that both experiments strongly reinforce fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics. "From our modern perspective, we understand how quantum mechanics operates on a microscopic level. Yet witnessing the empirical realization of these principles is always impactful." The experiments led by Lu align conceptually with historical records of the debates between Bohr and Einstein, affirming that quantum mechanics behaves as predicted.</p>
<p>For Lu, there remains more work on categorizing the quantum state of the slit and increasing its mass. However, the experiment carries significant educational importance. "Above all, I hope to illustrate the sheer beauty of quantum mechanics," he shares. "If more young individuals witness the real-time emergence and disappearance of interference patterns and think, 'Wow, this is how nature functions,' then the experiment will already be a success."</p>
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A recurring question for progressives is how to create a straightforward and impactful message regarding the economy. A Labor MP discovered the solution through a few bags of M&S biscuits.
Gordon McKee, who represents Glasgow South, shared: Over 3.3 million views on X. In a brief 101-second video, he employs a stack of custard creams and chocolate bourbons to represent Britain’s debt-to-GDP ratio.
While this may not appear to be a monumental achievement, it’s worth noting that some of the world’s most prominent politicians (such as Donald Trump, Nigel Farage, and Zoran Mamdani) have effectively utilized well-crafted short videos to disseminate their campaign messages.
Yet, within the Parliamentary Labor Party, Mr. McKee stands out as a pioneer— the only backbencher known to have enlisted digital content creators.
This choice proved fruitful, as a series of professionally produced videos utilizing the popular Grubby analogy were crafted to achieve viral status. In recent weeks, several of his colleagues, including Leeds East MP Richard Burgon, have begun to follow his lead.
“I feel like I owe an apology for starting this!” McKee remarked humorously, asserting that digital communication and campaign strategies are now essential for politicians.
He aims to release several such videos each week, focusing on platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube shorts. Unlike X, these platforms can engage audiences beyond the politically active.
“Last week I spoke at a local high school and asked how many read a daily newspaper; only one hand went up. When I asked how many used Instagram, every hand shot up,” he noted.
“While there’s been a significant shift in how people consume information in the last decade, the communication methods of politicians and MPs with their constituents have not kept pace.”
Signs indicate that the Labor machinery is gearing up. On November 21, Keir Starmer emailed Labor MPs to announce the party’s “significant investment” in a “new comprehensive training program” for digital campaigning.
Internally, the party unveiled what it dubbed a “second phase strategy” to modernize its campaigning using social media and an app called Labor One, acknowledging that “the way we campaigned in 2024 isn’t enough to secure victory in 2029.”
Diet members have started taking initiative as well. Burgon employed 200 packs of Sainsbury’s Fusilli to show how £1 billion compares to the UK average salary of £33,000. His video garnered around 650,000 views on X.
“This past weekend, while touring church fairs in my district, I was surprised by how many people had seen this video,” Burgon stated. “I’ve been advocating for a wealth tax for some time and thought this would be a creative way to spread the message.”
The 106kg pasta mountain purchased by Mr. Burgon’s parliamentary team was donated to a London food bank after it became impractical to transport it to Leeds.
Loughborough MP and economist Jieven Sander noted: We produced a James Bond-themed video during Budget Week to discuss the various factors influencing government bond interest rates. “I’d love it if people read my 2,000-word essays, but they don’t. I need to find a way to make them engaging,” he expressed.
He relies on his existing parliamentary staff equipped with smartphones and a ring light mounted on a tripod in his office to create online content. Social media planning features in their regular weekly status meetings.
When asked whether the government should take more steps to motivate MPs to modernize their communications, Mr. Sander expressed concerns about potential restrictions.
“When communication is more organic and people comprehend the government’s message in diverse ways, it tends to work better,” he pointed out. “If there’s a unified vision, everyone should be able to understand the script.”
Several incoming ministers are also branching out on social media, including Treasury Secretary Dan Tomlinson, who recorded a casual pre-Budget video while heading to Greg’s for donuts. Westminster Underground Station. AI Minister Kanishka Narayan filmed a video with my iPhone discussing the advancement of technology in the UK.
Some ministers are also engaging in this trend. Housing Secretary Steve Reid held an “Ask Me Anything” session on Reddit concerning plans to reopen local pubs in September. Energy Secretary Ed Miliband, a long-time enthusiast of vertical videos, stated: Used ASMR to promote a government announcement about small modular reactors (SMR).
“During the general election, we had a significant team to support individuals in these efforts, but now they must undertake it within their own offices,” a Labor source remarked. “It’s more challenging when you’re not on the offensive and need to defend or create a positive narrative. This is why creativity is essential. It’s a tough skill to master, but it’s absolutely crucial.”
Mr. Mackie argued that this challenge is particularly pronounced for the left because right-wing figures like Mr. Farage and shadow attorney general Robert Jenrick excel at telling very clear and straightforward stories across various platforms.
“The task for progressives is to convey complex arguments that are realistic, aspirational, practical, and attainable, while doing so in a captivating and engaging manner,” he commented.
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