The Black Death, a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague that decimated up to 60 percent of medieval Europe’s population, may have been triggered by volcanic eruptions around 1345.
The bacterium responsible for the plague is Yersinia pestis, transmitted by fleas that infest rodents and infect humans through bites. The origin of the 14th-century epidemic in Europe remains unclear, though historical accounts indicate that grain shipments from the Black Sea to Italy could have played a role.
“The Black Death was pivotal in the Middle Ages, and we sought to understand why such immense quantities of grain were transported to Italy, particularly in 1347,” states Martin Bauch of the Leibniz Institute for the History and Culture of Eastern Europe, Germany.
To explore this, Bork and his colleagues, including Wolf Bungen from the University of Cambridge, examined climate data stemming from tree rings, ice cores, and historical accounts.
Reports from Japan, China, Germany, France, and Italy revealed a decline in sunlight and an increase in cloud cover from 1345 to 1349, likely due to a sulfur-rich volcanic eruption or multiple eruptions in an unidentified tropical region, according to Bauch and Büngen.
Data from Greenland and Antarctica’s ice cores and thousands of tree-ring samples across eight native European areas indicate significant climate shifts may have occurred during this period.
Moreover, researchers uncovered records showing that Italian officials, faced with famine due to harsh weather and poor harvests, took preemptive measures in 1347 to import grain from the Mongols of the Golden Horde near the Sea of Azov.
“They operated with exceptional professionalism and efficiency to mitigate soaring prices and impending starvation through grain imports before hunger led to mortality,” Bauch explained. “As these societies had effective famine-response strategies, the plague bacterium likely traveled alongside the grain.”
During that era, the causes of the plague were shrouded in mystery, with many attributing the outbreak to “astral alignments and toxic vapors emitted by earthquakes.”
Though the plague might have eventually invaded Europe, Bauch suggests the population decline would have been less severe without this proactive approach. “My point isn’t against preparedness but rather to highlight that successful measures in one area can inadvertently create challenges in others.”
Aparna Lal, a researcher at the Australian National University in Canberra, asserts that a “perfect storm of conditions” likely facilitated the Black Death’s arrival in Europe. “Rising food prices, well-documented hunger issues, and colder, wetter climates could have impaired immune defenses due to nutritional deficiencies and behavioral changes, including increased indoor congregation,” she says.
However, she notes that further research is necessary to clarify cause-and-effect dynamics. “The immediate disturbances caused by the eruptions seem to have significantly influenced local weather patterns, but, as mentioned previously, additional evidence is essential to confirm their role in the Black Death’s entry into Europe,” Lal emphasizes.
Science of the Renaissance: Italy
From the works of Brunelleschi and Botticelli to the genius of polymaths like Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei, delve into the remarkable scientific minds and breakthroughs of the Renaissance that established Italy’s prime position in scientific advancement.
Short-form videos are dominating social media, prompting researchers to explore their impact on engagement and cognitive function. Your brain may even be changing.
From TikTok to Instagram Reels to YouTube Shorts, short videos are integral to platforms like LinkedIn and Substack. However, emerging research indicates a link between heavy short-form video consumption and issues with concentration and self-control.
The initial findings resonate with concerns about “brain rot,” defined by Oxford University Press as “the perceived deterioration of a person’s mental or intellectual condition.” This term has gained such popularity that it was named the word of the year for 2024.
In September, a review of 71 studies found that extensive short-form video use was correlated with cognitive decline, especially in attention span and impulse control, involving nearly 100,000 participants. Published in the American Psychological Association’s Psychological Bulletin, this review also connected heavy consumption to heightened symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness.
Similarly, a paper released in October summarized 14 studies that indicated frequent consumption of short-form videos is linked to shorter attention spans and poorer academic performance. Despite rising concerns, some researchers caution that the long-term effects remain unclear.
James Jackson, a neuropsychologist at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, noted that fear of new technologies is longstanding, whether regarding video games or iconic concerts. He acknowledges legitimate concerns but warns against overreacting. “It’s naive to dismiss worries as just grumpy complaints,” he said.
Jackson emphasized that research indicates extensive short-form video consumption could adversely affect brain function, yet further studies are needed to identify who is most at risk, the long-lasting impact, and the specific harmful mechanisms involved.
ADHD diagnoses in the U.S. are on the rise, with about 1 in 9 children diagnosed by 2022, according to the CDC. Keith Robert Head, a doctoral student at Capella University, suggests that the overlap between ADHD symptoms and risks from short videos deserves attention. “Are these ADHD diagnoses truly ADHD, or merely effects of short video use?” he questioned.
Three experts noted that research on the long-term effects of excessive short-form video use is in its early stages, with international studies revealing links to attention deficits, memory issues, and cognitive fatigue. However, these studies do not establish causation, often capturing only a snapshot in time.
Dr. Nidhi Gupta, a pediatric endocrinologist focused on screen time effects, argues that more research is necessary, particularly concerning older adults who may be more vulnerable. Gupta cautions that cognitive changes associated with short-form media may lead to a new addiction, likening it to “video games and TV on steroids.” She speculated that, just as research on alcohol and drugs took decades to evolve, a similar moral panic around short videos could emerge within the next 5 to 10 years.
Nevertheless, Jackson contends that short-form videos can be beneficial for online learning and community engagement: “The key is balance. If this engagement detracts from healthier practices or fosters isolation, then that becomes a problem.”
Is it conceivable that the ultra-wealthy are covertly cloning humans?
Juan Lovaro/Shutterstock
Throughout my extensive career reporting on extraordinary breakthroughs in biology, I’ve observed numerous concepts gaining massive attention, receiving thorough media scrutiny for years, and later fading from the public consciousness. Take, for instance, human cloning.
Following the landmark birth of Dolly the sheep in 1997—the first cloned mammal—speculation soared about the potential for human cloning. There were even some implausible claims about human clones existing. Yet, in recent years, such fervor has significantly diminished.
Nonetheless, reproductive technologies have evolved remarkably since the 1990s. Notably, just six years after CRISPR was unveiled, the world saw the first unlawful creation of a gene-edited child. This raises questions about what might be occurring behind closed doors. Are human clones already out there, undetected? Of course, identical twins don’t count.
What could motivate someone to engage in this? Recently, in a discussion between Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping, the topic of extending life via organ transplants emerged. The most effective method could involve cloning individuals for organ harvesting, thereby eliminating the common issue of immune rejection often depicted in science fiction narratives. Consider Island or the book Never Let Me Go.
Moreover, cloning brings forth the notion of creating a duplicate of a person, offering a semblance of immortality, as illustrated in the television series Foundation, where the empire is governed by successive clones. However, our experiences with identical twins tell us that sharing the same genome does not equate to being the same person. As shown by Tatiana Maslany in the series Orphan Black, each clone evolves into a distinct individual. Nevertheless, wealthy individuals can hold irrational beliefs similar to others and often display a particular desire to extend their lifespans.
For scientists, there’s also the allure of being the first to achieve a groundbreaking feat. A report from a Chinese commission determined that the creators of CRISPR children “conducted research illegally in pursuit of personal fame and profit.”
Goals of Therapeutic Cloning
So, could human clones exist? For many years, the notion of cloning mammals was deemed unfeasible. Early embryo cells have the ability to differentiate into any bodily part but quickly become specialized—a process previously thought irreversible.
Dolly’s existence disproved that theory. She was produced by fusing cells from an adult ewe’s udder with a DNA-depleted egg. Her announcement in February 1997 led to a frenzy of attempts to generate cloned human embryos. The objective wasn’t to create cloned infants, but rather to harvest embryonic stem cells for novel medical therapies. As cloned cells are a perfect match for an individual, they could theoretically be employed to produce replacement tissues and organs with no risk of immune rejection.
However, extracting stem cells from cloned human embryos has proven more challenging than anticipated. It wasn’t until 2004 that Hwang Woo-seok claimed success. At that time, I found his paper impressive, as it addressed all conceivable objections effectively. Unfortunately, the study was later revealed to be fraudulent, resulting in its retraction. This experience remains ingrained in my memory. Nowadays, whenever a thesis appears too good to be true, my initial instinct is to be skeptical.
Ultimately, true embryonic stem cells from cloned human embryos weren’t obtained until 2013. By then, alternative methods for generating compatible stem cells through the activation of specific genes had emerged, leading to a decline in interest in therapeutic cloning.
Cloned Pets and Other Animals
Conversely, animal cloning has become increasingly established. Occasionally, headlines emerge when celebrities disclose that they’ve cloned their pets. Recently, former NFL player Tom Brady made news by revealing that his dog is a clone, produced by a company acquired by Colossal Biosciences.
Apart from serving as a way to “revive” cherished pets, cloning is also utilized in agriculture and horse breeding. For instance, male horses are often castrated, meaning that if they excel in show jumping, the only method to utilize their genetic material for future breeding is through cloning.
Nonetheless, animal cloning continues to pose significant challenges. A 2022 study of the first 1000 dog clones found that the cloning process is still highly inefficient, with merely 2 percent of implanted cloned embryos resulting in live births. This inefficiency contributes to the high cost of pet cloning, around $50,000.
Moreover, about 20% of cloned dogs presented noticeable physical anomalies, including enlarged tongues, unusual eye colors, cleft palates, and excessive muscle mass. Some male dog clones even exhibited female physical traits.
But what if the wealthy and powerful could clone themselves, unburdened by such concerns?
Challenges in Adult Cloning
Multiple sources have indicated several successful monkey cloning endeavors since 2017, suggesting potential applicability for humans as well. However, these sources often fail to mention that all these primate clones have been derived from fetal cells, not adult ones.
The crux of the issue lies in the fact that reprogramming adult cells to mimic a fetal state is far more complex than reprogramming fetal cells. To me, cloning signifies creating a genetically identical replica of an adult, which is what made Dolly’s achievement exceptional.
In essence, I remain convinced that cloning an adult is still unattainable. In a world filled with dictators and eccentric billionaires, this might be a fortunate circumstance.
Camera trap photo of a Sumatran tiger in the Leuser Ecosystem, Indonesia
Figel et al. 2025, BKSDA-Aceh, DLHK
Camera trap studies have discovered over double the count of endangered Sumatran tigers compared to those recorded on other Indonesian islands, signaling a positive outcome for conservation initiatives.
The Sumatran tiger represents the last surviving population of the subspecies panthera tigris sondaica, one of the two subspecies of tigers.
Collaborating with the Gayo indigenous community, researchers positioned 60 camera traps on trees within a previously unexplored area of the Leuser ecosystem on Sumatra, one of Southeast Asia’s largest remaining rainforests.
These traps captured images of 17 tigers over 90 days in 2023 and 18 in 2024, in stark contrast to earlier 90-day assessments in Sumatra, which reported an average of seven tigers. The survey documented 14 adult female tigers, 12 males, three cub pairs, and one tiger of unknown gender.
“This surpassed my expectations because previous research indicated that tigers wouldn’t be found in such densities,” stated Joe Figel from the conservation group Hutan Harimau. “This is a very promising finding and highlights the significant conservation efforts in this region.”
Sumatran tigers face threats such as poaching for trophies and traditional medicine, alongside logging activities depleting their vital dipterocarp tree habitats. Due to insufficient data, estimates for their population range from 173 to 883.
While a 90-day period was utilized for initial comparisons, researchers ultimately extended their study to 180 days in both 2023 and 2024, delivering a more comprehensive seasonal record, noted Deborah Marter from Flora and Fauna International, who was not a part of the study.
A mother grooming her large male cub. Eight months later, he was found safe and sound living independently.
Figel et al. 2025, BKSDA-Aceh, DLHK
The unexpectedly high tiger population in the Leuser Ecosystem indicates that the lowland forests are abundant in prey, particularly sambar deer, according to Figel. It also implies that monthly ranger patrols are effective in curbing poaching activities.
Located near Gunung Leuser National Park, the study area is overseen by rangers funded by the NGOs Forum Conservasi Roussel and Hutan Harimau, in partnership with the Environment and Forestry Department of the previously conflict-affected Aceh region.
However, research indicates a need for additional ranger support. Recently, tigers have vanished from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.
“Do we need any further warning signs?” asks Figel. “Tiger populations throughout Southeast Asia are facing a critical crisis.”
The silk threads, surrounded by finer looped strands, originate from Australian cast-net spiders (Asianopis sublufa), known as exceptional ambush predators. Instead of crafting a web and waiting for their prey, these spiders utilize their four front legs to control the web and ensnare their unfortunate target. This electron microscopy image reveals the spider’s silk, which is uniquely tailored for this peculiar hunting method. The silk structure features an elastic core enveloped in a sheath of firmer fibers of varying thicknesses, ensuring it is both robust and highly flexible.
The photograph was captured by Martin J. Ramirez, whose team at Argentina’s Bernardino Rivadavia Museum of Natural Sciences clinched the top prize at the 2025 Royal Society Publication Photography Competition.
prairie chicken in mid-air
Peter Hudson/Royal Society Publishing
The standout photo in the behavior category depicts a confrontation between two male prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido). Captured by Peter Hudson from Pennsylvania State University, this image illustrates the males gathering in leks during mating season, engaging in aerial displays to compete for female attention.
tadpole
Filippo Carugati/Royal Society Publishing
Filippo Carugati from the University of Turin, Italy, earned recognition in the Ecology and Environmental Sciences category for capturing this tadpole during an expedition in Madagascar. This juvenile is believed to be a Gibemantis liber, residing in a gelatinous substance that clings to tree trunks.
atlas moth
Irina Petrova Adamatzky/Royal Society Publishing
The image was taken by Irina Petrova Adamatzky, a UK-based photographer and runner-up in the behavioral category. The Atlas moth (Attacus atlas), one of the largest moth species globally with wingspans reaching up to 30 centimeters, exhibits remarkable mimicry that resembles snake heads at the tips of its wings, providing camouflage against avian predators.
fog in the Atacama desert
Felipe Ríos Silva/Royal Society Publishing
In Chile’s Atacama Desert, stratocumulus clouds that flow in from the coast serve as a vital resource. Felipe Ríos Silva, a professor at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, is investigating ways to capture this fog and convert it into potable water for residents living in one of Earth’s driest regions. His photo earned him the runner-up spot in the Earth Science and Climatology category.
Antarctic sunrise
Dr. Aman Chokshi/Royal Society Publishing
This photograph captures the sun’s emergence after six months of darkness in Antarctica. Dr. Aman Chokshi, a runner-up in the astronomy category at McGill University in Canada, braved brutal -70°C (-94°F) winds and heated his camera to take a 360-degree panoramic shot of the horizon as the sun rose, transforming it into a three-dimensional image that resembles a small planet encircled by green and purple auroras alongside the Milky Way.
NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft has identified thousands of light-toned rock fragments, also known as floating rocks, several of which exhibit spectral characteristics of an aluminum-rich clay mineral known as kaolinite. To understand their origins, planetary scientists utilized data from Perseverance’s SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments to analyze the chemistry and reflectance spectra of the floating rocks in relation to deeply weathered paleosols (ancient soils) and hydrothermal kaolin deposits recorded in Earth’s geological archives. The increased levels of aluminum and titanium, along with the reduced amounts of iron and magnesium, differentiate these rocks from hydrothermal deposits, aligning them more closely with the bleached layers of paleosoils formed during periods of significant rainfall in Earth’s past greenhouse climates. Thus, these rocks may signify some of the most aqueous periods in Mars’ history.
Mastcam-Z landscape and multispectral images of light-toned float rocks atop the Jezero Crater Margin Unit near the Hans Amundson Memorial Works (Sol 912). It shows the spectral diversity of this material. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
“Rocks like these are likely among the most significant outcrops we’ve observed from orbit because their formation is challenging to replicate elsewhere on Mars,” stated Dr. Bryony Hogan, Perseverance’s long-term planner and a researcher at Purdue University.
“Given that these require substantial water, we believe they could be indicative of an ancient, warmer, wetter climate that experienced prolonged periods of rainfall.”
“Tropical environments, such as rainforests, are where kaolinite clays are predominantly found on Earth,” added Adrian Broz, Ph.D., a postdoctoral researcher at Purdue University.
“Thus, when finding kaolinite on Mars, which is desolate and frigid with no surface liquid water, it suggests that there used to be significantly more water than is present today.”
Kaolinite fragments, varying in size from pebbles to larger rocks, contribute to the ongoing discussion about the climate of Mars billions of years ago.
Initial analyses using the SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments have involved comparing kaolinite to analogous rocks on Earth.
Debris from Mars could yield crucial insights into not only the planet’s historical environmental conditions but also how it transitioned to its current desolate state.
“Kaolinite carries its own enigmas,” emphasized Dr. Hogan.
“Currently, there are no significant outcrops nearby that could explain the presence of these light-colored rocks, despite their distribution along the mission’s path since Perseverance’s landing in Jezero Crater in February 2021.”
“This crater once housed a lake that was approximately twice the size of Lake Tahoe.”
“While there are compelling indicators of significant water events, the origin of these rocks remains uncertain.”
“It’s possible they were transported into the Jezero lake by rivers that formed the delta regions, or they may have been ejected into Jezero by a meteorite impact. The complete picture is still unclear.”
Satellite imaging has revealed substantial kaolinite outcrops in various regions of Mars.
“However, until we can physically reach these large outcrops with spacecraft, these small rocks are the only tangible evidence we have regarding their formation,” Dr. Hogan noted.
“Currently, the findings in these rocks suggest a historically warmer and wetter environment.”
Mastcam-Z and SuperCam observations of hydrated layers of aluminum-rich floating rock in Jezero Crater, Mars. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
The researchers compared the Martian kaolinite samples studied by Perseverance to rock samples located near San Diego, California, and in South Africa. The similarities between the rocks from both planets were striking.
On Earth, kaolinite forms in both rainy tropical climates and hydrothermal systems where hot water permeates into rocks.
Nonetheless, this process leaves behind chemical signatures that differ from the effects of cold leaching from rain over extended periods.
Scientists evaluated various hydrothermal leaching scenarios against Martian rocks using datasets from three distinct sites.
Rocks like kaolinite from Mars act as time capsules, potentially preserving billions of years of information regarding environmental conditions throughout Earth’s history.
“All life requires water, so if these Martian rocks signify a rainfall-driven environment, that’s an extraordinary indication of a potentially habitable space where life could have flourished on Mars,” stated Dr. Broz.
The team’s paper has been published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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AP Broz others. 2025. Alteration history of aluminum-rich rocks in Mars’ Jezero Crater. Communication Earth and Environment 6,935; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3
NASA’s Psyche spacecraft has obtained fresh images of 3I/ATLAS, marking it as the third astronomical object and the second comet observed from outside our solar system.
Psyche secured four observations of 3I/ATLAS over an 8-hour period on September 8 and 9, 2025. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU.
3I/ATLAS was found on July 1, 2025, by the ATLAS survey telescope located in Rio Hurtado, Chile.
The orbits of interstellar comets represent the most dynamically extreme pathways of any astronomical object recorded within our solar system.
Known also as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11pl3Z, 3I/ATLAS reached its closest point to the Sun on October 30, 2025.
The latest images of the comet were captured during an eight-hour window on September 8 and 9, 2025, when 3I/ATLAS was roughly 53 million kilometers (33 million miles) away from NASA’s Psyche spacecraft.
“The observations collected by the mission’s multispectral imager will assist in refining the trajectory of 3I/ATLAS,” stated members of the Psyche team.
“Psyche’s multispectral imager consists of a pair of identical cameras fitted with filters and telephoto lenses to photograph the surface of the metal-rich asteroid Psyche across various wavelengths of light.”
“During these observations, Comet 3I/ATLAS was moving away from the spacecraft, but the imager’s sensitivity to the comet’s reflected sunlight allowed for accurate tracking of the object.”
The recent observations further illuminate the faint coma—a cloud of gas and dust—surrounding 3I/ATLAS’ core, which is a frozen mixture of ice and rock.
“Psyche will collaborate with numerous other NASA missions to track the positions of comets over time, aiding astronomers in comprehending the movement of such objects within our solar system,” researchers stated.
“Though comets do not pose a direct threat to Earth, NASA’s space missions contribute to ongoing efforts to discover, monitor, and better understand objects in our Solar System.”
A collaborative effort by researchers from the U.S. and Japan examined extracts from near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu, gathered by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security Regolith Explorer) spacecraft, and uncovered several bioessential sugars, such as ribose (an RNA sugar) and glucose (a metabolic substrate).
This mosaic image of asteroid Bennu consists of 12 images collected by OSIRIS-REx’s PolyCam instrument on December 2, 2018 from a range of 15 miles (24 km). Image credit: NASA / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / University of Arizona.
“The OSIRIS-REx mission successfully returned 121.6 g of regolith (unconsolidated granular material) from Bennu to Earth on September 24, 2023, under stringent conditions,” stated Yoshihiro Furukawa, a researcher at Tohoku University, along with his team.
“The samples were preserved in high-purity nitrogen at NASA’s Johnson Space Center.”
“Initial studies revealed that Bennu possesses mineralogical and elemental traits similar to carbonaceous chondrites, is enriched in carbon and nitrogen compared to most meteorites, but resembles ungrouped carbonaceous chondrites, and has undergone extensive aqueous alteration.”
“The analyzed samples from Bennu so far include soluble organic compounds like amino acids, amines, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, nucleobases, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and a diverse array of soluble molecules comprising carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.”
“We utilized this pristine asteroid material to investigate extraterrestrial bioessential sugars.”
The research team made a notable discovery of ribose, which contains five carbon atoms, and glucose, which has six, marking the first time these sugars have been identified in extraterrestrial samples.
While these sugars do not serve as direct evidence of life, their detection—along with previously identified amino acids, nucleobases, and carboxylic acids in Bennu samples—suggests that the fundamental building blocks of biomolecules were widely distributed throughout the solar system.
Furukawa et al. We discovered the essential sugars ribose and glucose in samples from the near-Earth asteroid Bennu collected by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission. Image credit: NASA / Goddard / University of Arizona / Dan Gallagher.
In Earth life, deoxyribose and ribose serve as critical components of DNA and RNA, respectively.
DNA is the primary vehicle for genetic information within cells. RNA, on the other hand, has various roles, and its presence is vital for life as we know it.
The ribose in RNA forms the sugar-phosphate “backbone” of the molecule, linking together nucleobases that carry genetic information.
“All five nucleobases that constitute DNA and RNA, along with phosphate, have already been identified in the Bennu samples brought back by OSIRIS-REx,” Dr. Furukawa noted.
“The recent discovery of ribose confirms that all elements required to form RNA molecules are present in Bennu.”
“Finding ribose in an asteroid sample is not unexpected.”
“Ribose has previously been found in two meteorites on Earth.”
“What’s significant about the Bennu sample is that researchers did not identify any deoxyribose.”
“If Bennu is indicative of conditions, it suggests that ribose may have been more abundant than deoxyribose in the early solar system environment.”
The researchers theorize that the detected ribose, along with the absence of deoxyribose, bolsters the RNA world hypothesis. This hypothesis posits that the first forms of life relied on RNA as the main molecule for storing information and facilitating the chemical reactions crucial for survival.
“Modern life relies on a complex system organized primarily by three types of functional biopolymers: DNA, RNA, and proteins,” Dr. Furukawa elaborated.
“However, early forms of life may have been simpler. RNA not only stores genetic information but can also catalyze numerous biological reactions, making it a strong candidate for the earliest functional biomacromolecule.”
“Bennu’s samples also contain glucose, a fundamental energy source for life on Earth, providing the first evidence that an essential energy source was present in the early solar system as well.”
a paper detailing these findings was published in this week’s edition of Nature Earth Science.
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Yuya Furukawa et al. Bioessential sugars found in samples from the asteroid Bennu. Nature Earth Science published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01838-6
Simulated representation of satellite trails contaminating images from future space telescopes
NASA/Boruff, Markham, Howell
Should space companies proceed with plans to deploy hundreds of thousands of satellites, up to a third of the images captured by the Hubble Space Telescope may be compromised.
In the last five years alone, over 75% of the approximate 14,000 satellites now orbiting Earth have been launched, many as part of megaconstellations, notably Elon Musk’s Starlink. Proposals indicate that we could see the deployment of as many as 500,000 satellites by the end of the 2030s, according to submissions to the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
Astronomers have long raised concerns regarding the potential impact of these satellites on ground-based telescopes. However, research by Alejandro Borlaf and his team at NASA’s Ames Research Center indicates that space telescopes are at risk as well.
“A telescope in space benefits from an unblemished environment; there’s no atmosphere or city lights,” Borlaf explains. “For the first time, we’re facing the issue of a man-made object contaminating our observations. This discovery was startling.”
By analyzing filings from the FCC and the International Telecommunication Union, Borlaf’s team estimated the anticipated number of satellites and their orbits over the next decade. They simulated the effect of these satellites blocking observations from four space observatories, including Hubble and China’s Shuntian telescope, as well as the Arrakis dark matter telescope set to launch in 2030, and the already launched SPHEREx galaxy telescope.
The researchers found that if 560,000 satellites are launched as projected, Hubble photos may capture an average of two satellite orbits, while Xuntian images could have approximately 90 satellite orbits due to a broader field of view and orbital altitude.
They validated their simulations by demonstrating that with the existing number of satellites, 4% of Hubble’s images would be influenced by the trajectories of these satellites, consistent with analyses of actual images.
These predictions could materialize if satellite launches proceed as planned. According to John Valentine from Dark Sky Consulting, a Tucson-based firm, it’s uncertain how many satellites will ultimately launch. “Many experts believe that over the next 15 years, the number of operational satellites could stabilize between 50,000 and 100,000.”
If the final number turns out to be only a fraction of the proposed figures, Valentine suggests, the impact on space telescopes would be notably reduced. “The number of trajectories per image would increase only slightly for ARRACHIS and Xuntian, while remaining relatively unchanged for SPHEREx and HST.”
Fetch! Dogs can enhance our happiness in various ways
Monica Click/Shutterstock
Dogs have long been celebrated as beloved companions. However, recent studies suggest they may also improve our well-being by influencing our microbiomes. Experiments conducted on mice indicate that dog owners possess unique bacterial species that promote both empathic and social behaviors.
It’s evident that pets significantly enhance life satisfaction while also impacting our gut microbiome. Research highlights how this microbiome affects our mental health and plays a role in shaping our personalities. With dogs often topping the list of preferred pets, Takefumi Kikusui and his team from Azabu University in Japan sought to investigate whether pets influence our microbiomes and enhance our overall well-being.
To delve into this, researchers analyzed a survey where caregivers of 343 adolescents aged 12 to 14 in Tokyo reported on their social behaviors, including feelings of loneliness, tendencies toward aggression, and peer interactions. It was noted that approximately a third of these adolescents own pet dogs.
Findings revealed that, on average, dog owners perceived themselves as less socially withdrawn and exhibited less aggressive tendencies compared to their non-dog-owning peers. The research team also examined potential influencing factors such as gender and household income.
“Engaging frequently with your dog exposes you to their microorganisms (like licking),” explains Gerald Clarke from University College Cork, Dublin, Ireland. These bacteria can migrate to the gastrointestinal tract, potentially causing infections. They can also produce anti-inflammatory substances like short-chain fatty acids, which may improve mental health.
An essential part of the study involved transplanting oral microbes from dog owners and non-dog owners into germ-free mice. Fecal analysis showed that the introduced microorganisms successfully colonized the mice’s intestines.
In subsequent weeks, the researchers conducted various behavioral tests on the mice. In one test, a mouse was placed in a cage alongside another mouse trapped in a tube. Results indicated that mice transplanted with microbes from dog owners were significantly more inclined to interact with the tube than those who received microbes from non-dog owners.
This behavior suggests that the original mice displayed greater empathy and a willingness to help, Kikusui noted. Recent research has also revealed that mice can assist their pregnant partners in giving birth and even provide rudimentary first aid.
In another experiment, dog-owner transplants exhibited a tendency to sniff unknown mice in their cages more frequently than the other groups, indicating increased sociability, according to Clarke. “Such social behaviors can have implications across species, including humans,” he asserts. “Robust social networks are beneficial for mental health; having limited social exposure can be detrimental.”
Gaining further insights into these microbial shifts and developing probiotics that replicate these effects could potentially benefit individuals without dogs, Clarke suggests. However, studies in other regions with different microbial exposures are necessary.
Innovative vaccines may provide a new approach to combat severe food allergies
Tartesy / Alamy
Researchers have developed an experimental vaccine that successfully protects mice from anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction, for at least one year. There is optimism that this vaccine will also be effective in humans.
Anaphylaxis poses a persistent threat to millions worldwide, particularly for individuals allergic to foods like peanuts and shellfish. In the UK alone, around 6% of adults, or about 2.4 million people, are believed to have clinically confirmed food allergies.
Allergic reactions can occur from consuming contaminated food or even from kissing someone who has recently eaten the allergenic food. This triggers a surge of immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies, leading to symptoms such as throat swelling, breathing difficulties, and a drop in blood pressure. Despite having an epinephrine auto-injector (like an EpiPen) at hand, many still need emergency treatment, and severe cases may be fatal.
Currently, avoiding allergens is the primary method of prevention, with limited alternatives available. Individuals can consider oral immunotherapy, where the allergen is gradually introduced under supervision to build up tolerance. There is also an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody drug, like omalizumab, which binds to IgE to block allergic responses. However, omalizumab is costly and requires injections every few weeks, sometimes indefinitely.
Recently, Laurent Reber and colleagues at the Toulouse Institute of Infection and Inflammation in France developed a vaccine named IgE-K. This vaccine encourages the immune system to produce antibodies that target IgE, preventing it from attaching to receptors on immune cells and averting severe allergic reactions.
“Our goal was to create a long-term solution, as individuals with food allergies face unintentional exposure at any time, necessitating ongoing protection,” says Reber.
In experiments with mice engineered to produce the human variant of IgE, the team discovered that two doses of the vaccine led to the generation of neutralizing antibodies against IgE.
“It blocks the molecules responsible for allergic reactions,” says Josh Koenig from McMaster University in Ontario, Canada.
Upon exposing the mice to a substance that triggered an allergic reaction, the unvaccinated mice experienced significant reactions, while the vaccinated mice exhibited no symptoms and were shielded from anaphylaxis for up to a year.
“It might last longer, but we have yet to conduct further testing,” noted Reber.
IgE forms part of the immune system, activated in response to toxins and certain intestinal parasites apart from allergens. “This mechanism is likely an evolutionary adaptation to combat toxins,” suggests Lever.
Lever asserts there is strong evidence supporting the long-term safety of targeting this molecule, as many individuals with severe allergies have been on anti-IgE therapy for years without negative effects. To assess if reducing IgE would diminish the body’s protective response to parasites, further tests were conducted on mice. The results indicated that the vaccine did not hinder their immune response to infections involving mouse feline, a parasitic nematode.
Koenig expresses hope regarding the vaccine’s efficacy in humans. “Research shows that the mouse-generated antibodies attach effectively to human IgE molecules. If humans can produce similar antibodies, there’s a promising chance it will be highly effective.”
Despite this optimism, Lever emphasizes that clinical trials are necessary to assess the vaccine’s safety, effectiveness, and duration in humans. If it can be commercialized, it may provide a cost-effective treatment alternative for individuals with severe allergies, requiring far fewer injections than anti-IgE monoclonal antibodies such as omalizumab.
Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne illness that many deem to be a relic of the past. Yet, after years of decline in high-income nations like the UK and US, TB diagnoses are on the rise.
According to the UK Health and Safety Executive, tuberculosis cases in the UK are projected to increase by 13% in 2024, reaching a total of 5,480 diagnoses.
Although this number is relatively modest compared to other high-burden nations, England remains just below the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold for “low incidence” status, which is defined as 10 cases per 100,000 people.
These statistics, along with similar trends in the US, indicate that our progress has plateaued, hindering our path to TB eradication.
A Wake-Up Call
So, is tuberculosis making a resurgence? In short, it never fully disappeared.
Tuberculosis remains the deadliest infectious disease globally, claiming approximately 1.23 million lives in 2024 alone—more than HIV and malaria combined—and ranks among the top 10 causes of death worldwide.
Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, spreading through the air when an infectious person coughs, sneezes, sings, or speaks.
Common symptoms include a persistent cough lasting three weeks or more, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue. While TB commonly affects the lungs, it can impact any organ in the body.
Despite the availability of effective treatments for decades, they remain imperfect. A cure requires months of antibiotics, which can be difficult to access in certain regions. The Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine offers some protection to young children against severe forms of TB, but it does not reliably prevent the contagious lung disease prevalent in adults.
It’s crucial to note that most individuals who inhale the bacteria do not fall ill. An estimated a quarter of the global population is infected with tuberculosis, with their immune systems keeping it dormant. Latent tuberculosis can be detected through skin and blood tests, and preventive antibiotics are often prescribed to avert progression.
Individuals with weakened immune systems, including those with HIV or diabetes, those undergoing cancer treatments, and those on specific medications for conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, are at heightened risk of developing TB.
Tuberculosis primarily affects the lungs but can also impact lymph nodes, bones, brain, kidneys, and spine.
An Unbalanced Burden
Tuberculosis is closely linked to poverty and the living and working conditions of individuals. Factors like overcrowded or poorly ventilated housing, homelessness, low income, malnutrition, smoking, and alcohol dependence can elevate vulnerability to TB.
People in disadvantaged communities tend to be more frequently infected and less often diagnosed early, resulting in generally poorer health outcomes. Social stigma, healthcare system gaps, and misinterpretation of symptoms can also delay treatment.
Consequently, a human-centered model that merges medical care with psychotherapy and financial and social support is increasingly recognized as vital for effectively combating tuberculosis.
Men also encounter greater barriers to diagnosis and treatment, with a 45% higher mortality rate after initiating treatment compared to women.
These disparities stem from various factors, including elevated rates of smoking and alcohol consumption among men, as well as occupational hazards and gender norms that deter them from seeking care.
Women and individuals of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities face their own distinct challenges. A gender-sensitive and human-centered approach is crucial for achieving the goal of tuberculosis elimination for everyone.
The WHO’s first rapid diagnostic test for tuberculosis revolutionized detection, offering results in under two hours and identifying rifampicin resistance, one of TB’s most effective treatment drugs.
A Turning Point
The good news is that scientific advancements are leading the fight against tuberculosis to new heights, with quicker diagnoses, shorter treatments, and promising vaccines.
Rapid molecular tests like Xpert MTB/RIF and Truenat can identify tuberculosis and drug resistance within hours instead of weeks. AI-assisted chest X-rays are also enhancing early detection in areas lacking radiologists.
Treatment regimens have become both shorter and safer. Current TB treatments may only take one month, while some drug-sensitive cases require four months, and drug-resistant cases can be treated in six months.
Vaccine research is progressing as well, with candidates like M72/AS01E entering late-stage clinical trials. Although these advancements signify considerable progress, ensuring equitable access for all, especially in low-resource settings, remains a significant challenge.
Research from Liverpool’s Tuberculosis Research Center highlights that stigma, discrimination, poverty, and structural barriers significantly affect the experiences of those living with TB.
Understanding the lived experiences of TB patients, as well as the obstacles and enablers in their treatment trajectories, is essential to ensure that no one is left behind.
For effective human-centered TB care, collaborations between governments, researchers, and affected communities are underway, integrating clinical care with education, mental health support, and financial assistance. Yet, there’s still much more to achieve.
The UK’s recent pledge of £850 million to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria from 2027 to 2029 reaffirms this commitment, contributing to efforts that have reportedly saved 70 million lives since 2002.
Reductions in international aid have weakened tuberculosis programs in heavily burdened nations, with repercussions likely to extend beyond borders. Persistent political will and investment in locally relevant, people-centered strategies are crucial to achieving the goal of TB elimination for all.
So, should you be concerned about contracting tuberculosis? If you reside in the UK, generally the answer is no. TB remains rare, and infection risk for most individuals is minimal unless they have had extended, close contact with someone infected.
If your cough persists for over three weeks, particularly when accompanied by symptoms such as fever, weight loss, or night sweats, consult your physician.
Researchers have successfully extracted and sequenced ancient RNA from the tissues of 10 woolly mammoths preserved in permafrost. One of these specimens is estimated to be 39,000 years old, making it the oldest ancient RNA sequence recorded to date.
Marmol Sanchez et al. Ancient RNA sequences identified in late Pleistocene woolly mammoth tissue. Image credit: Marmol Sanchez et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.10.025.
Investigating prehistoric genes and their activation is crucial for understanding the biology and evolution of extinct species.
For years, scientists have been piecing together the mammoth genome and their evolutionary history through DNA analysis.
However, RNA, which indicates active genes, has remained elusive until now.
“With RNA, we can provide direct evidence of which genes are ‘turned on’ and gain insights into the final moments of mammoths that lived during the last Ice Age,” stated Dr. Emilio Marmol, a researcher at the Globe Institute.
“This kind of information cannot be obtained from DNA alone.”
In this study, Dr. Marmol and colleagues analyzed permafrost-preserved tissue from 10 late Pleistocene woolly mammoths discovered in northeastern Siberia, spanning from the central Indigirka region to the Oyogos Yar coast and the New Siberian Islands.
“We accessed exceptionally well-preserved mammoth tissue excavated from the Siberian permafrost, expecting it to contain RNA molecules that had remained frozen over millennia,” Marmol mentioned.
“We have pushed the limits of DNA recovery for over a million years,” said Professor Rav Dalen from Stockholm University and the Center for Paleogenetics.
“Now we aimed to determine if RNA sequencing could go further back than prior research.”
Researchers successfully identified tissue-specific gene expression patterns in the muscular remains of Yuka, a 39,000-year-old juvenile mammoth.
There are over 20,000 protein-coding genes in the mammoth genome, but not all are actively expressed.
The detected RNA molecules relate to proteins crucial for muscle contraction and metabolic regulation under stress.
Researchers also discovered several RNA molecules that regulate gene activity in mammoth muscle samples.
“We found non-protein-coding RNAs, such as microRNAs, which were among our most intriguing discoveries,” Dr. Mark Friedlander from Stockholm University’s Wenner-Gren Institute remarked.
“The muscle-specific microRNAs identified in mammoth tissue provide concrete evidence of gene regulation occurring in real-time in ancient eras. This is a groundbreaking achievement.”
The identified microRNAs also enabled the authors to confirm their findings originated from mammoths.
“We found a rare mutation in a specific microRNA, providing evidence that it is of mammoth origin,” noted Dr. Bastian Flom from the Norwegian Arctic University Museum.
“We also uncovered novel genes solely based on RNA evidence, a feat not attempted before at such ancient sites.”
“RNA molecules can endure for much longer than previously assumed.”
“Our findings demonstrate that RNA can survive much longer than previously thought,” Professor Dalen added.
“This allows us to not only explore which genes are ‘turned on’ in various extinct creatures but also to sequence RNA viruses like influenza and coronaviruses that are preserved in Ice Age remains.”
These findings were published in the Journal of Cell on November 14, 2025.
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Emilio Marmol-Sanchez et al. Ancient RNA expression profiles from extinct woolly mammoths. Cell published online on November 14, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.10.025
The moon may have had a more intricate formation than previously believed.
NASA/NOAA
Recent theories suggest that multiple collisions with Earth might better elucidate the Moon’s origin than the traditionally accepted single massive impact 4.5 billion years ago, potentially addressing one of its greatest enigmas.
Tracing the Moon’s origin has proven challenging. The prevailing theory is that it formed early in the solar system’s evolution due to a catastrophic collision between Earth and Theia, a Mars-sized body, and its formation likely originated closer to the sun than Earth’s current position. This impact would have expelled debris that ultimately coalesced into the large natural satellite we recognize today. At that period, matter around the sun was highly intermixed, making collisions frequent.
However, this prevailing model encounters complications, as the chemical compositions of Earth and the Moon are remarkably similar, suggesting that the Moon should retain more material from Theia than our planet does. “This presents a significant dilemma for the standard model,” comments Philip Carter, a researcher at the University of Bristol, UK.
Carter and his team propose a paradigm shift, suggesting that a series of impacts with Earth over millions of years may provide a more coherent explanation for the compositional similarities between Earth and the Moon. They propose that three or more significant impacts in the early solar system, involving bodies from the size of the modern Moon to those approaching Mars in size, could account for the Moon’s creation as we observe it today.
In this revised model, each impact creates smaller moons, known as microsatellites, orbiting Earth. Over eons, these smaller bodies would progressively merge under gravitational attraction, forming a singular large entity. “They will be drawn to one another and collide,” explains Carter. “The probability of sustaining a stable system with multiple large moonlets is exceedingly low.”
Previous models also posited multiple impacts as the origin of the Moon; however, they typically required a more rigorous series of impacts than this current framework. “After three significant collisions, we introduced sufficient mass into orbit to form a full Moon,” stated Carter.
Robert Citron, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, suggests that fewer impacts might be more favorable since too many collisions could displace smaller satellites from Earth’s orbit and hinder Moon formation. However, as more impacts occur, the compositional alignment between Earth and the Moon increases, accurately reflecting their current similarities. “When multiple impacts are involved, you are averaging out more influencing factors,” Citron notes.
The unique relationship between Earth and the Moon underscores the necessity of understanding the Moon’s formation. “It is a remarkably distinctive satellite,” Citron emphasizes. “Its size relative to Earth is vast, whereas the moons of Mars appear minuscule in comparison to Mars, and the moons of gas giants are diminutive compared to their planets.”
Establishing which hypothesis is correct necessitates more intricate modeling to assess the impact’s intensity on Earth and the volume of material expelled. Carter remarks, “Calculating all these details remains exceedingly complex.” He adds, “Personally, I prefer the multi-impact model over the traditional single-impact theory.”
A recent investigation by Stanford University in the US suggests that the shingles vaccine may decrease the risk of dementia by 20 percent or slow its progression after diagnosis.
If these results are validated in future research, there is already a vaccine available that could help in preventing and managing dementia, affecting an estimated 57 million individuals globally.
In a study published in Nature, scientists reviewed the health data of over 280,000 adults aged 71 to 88 in Wales to assess the shingles vaccination program initiated in 2013.
The research revealed that older adults (ages 79 to 80) who had received the shingles vaccine were 20 percent less likely to develop dementia by 2020 when compared to those who were ineligible for the vaccine.
The senior author, Dr. Pascal Gerdsetzer, an assistant professor of medicine at Stanford University, described the findings as “really surprising,” adding that there was a significant protective signal evident from the data.
Furthermore, a recent follow-up study published in Cell indicated that the shingles vaccine seemed to offer protection even to individuals diagnosed with dementia as early as 2013.
Among the 7,049 Welsh adults with dementia who participated in the research, nearly half succumbed within the subsequent nine years. In contrast, only 30% of those vaccinated against shingles passed away.
“What’s particularly intriguing is that this suggests the shingles vaccine not only prevents or delays dementia but also holds therapeutic promise for those already diagnosed,” Gerdsetzer noted.
Illustration of the varicella-zoster virus that causes chickenpox and shingles – Credit: Getty Images
Previous research had indicated a potential connection between the shingles vaccine and dementia prevention, but these findings were often confounded by the fact that vaccinated individuals typically lead healthier lifestyles (implying that the dementia protection might originate from other factors).
However, in this particular study, bias was minimized as the vaccination program specifically targeted individuals who were 79 years old on September 1, 2013.
“We know that if you take 1,000 random individuals born within a week of each other and compare them to 1,000 individuals born a week later, on average, there should be no differences,” Gertsetzer explained. “Aside from the slight age variation, they are essentially alike.”
Essentially, the researchers could directly analyze two groups born just a week apart and with an identical mix of health-conscious individuals. The primary difference was their eligibility for the vaccine, streamlining the assessment of the vaccine’s efficacy against dementia.
Shingles is an infection caused by the Varicella zoster virus—the same agent responsible for chickenpox. Symptoms can include a painful rash, a burning or prickling sensation, headaches, fever, and fatigue.
While the virus impacts the nervous system, scientists are still unclear about the exact mechanisms through which the shingles vaccine protects the brain from cognitive decline.
In a new study published in the journal Chemical Systems Chemistry, Professor Tony Jia and his team at Hiroshima University have proposed a “prebiotic gel-first” framework. This framework explores how the origins of life might arise within gels adhering to surfaces. The authors also consider the potential existence of “xenophiles,” meaning alien biofilm-like structures that may be extraterrestrial or consist of various terrestrial components. They emphasize the importance of agnostic life detection strategies in the quest for both known and unknown forms of life.
An artist’s impression of a prebiotic gel on the surface of early Earth. Image credit: Nirmell Satthiyasilan.
“The question of how life began has intrigued humanity for ages,” remarked Professor Jia and his co-authors.
“While no one can journey back in time to witness the inception of life, scientists are continually piecing together plausible narratives from chemistry, physics, and geology.”
“Contrary to many theories that concentrate solely on the role of biomolecules and biopolymers, our theory incorporates the significance of gels in the origin of life.”
Within this newly proposed prebiotic gel-first framework, the researchers hypothesize that life could have emerged within gel matrices affixed to surfaces—adhesive, semi-solid substances that possess traits reminiscent of today’s microbial biofilms, which are thin layers of bacteria thriving on rocks, pond surfaces, and even human-made structures.
By integrating insights from soft matter chemistry and contemporary biology, they suggest that such primitive gels may have provided essential structure and functionality for increasingly sophisticated early chemical systems, long before the advent of the first cells.
Prebiotic gels may have addressed crucial hurdles in pre-living chemistry by trapping and organizing molecules, enabling concentration, selective retention, and environmental buffering.
Within these gels, primitive chemical systems may have developed early metabolism and self-replicating behaviors, paving the way for biological evolution.
“This is merely one theory among numerous others within the extensive field of origin-of-life research,” stated Dr. Kuhan Chandru from the Space Science Center at the National University of Malaysia.
“Yet, the significance of gels has been largely overlooked; thus, we aimed to synthesize fragmented research into a cohesive narrative that places primitive gels at the center of discourse.”
Scientists have extended this concept into astrobiology, proposing that similar gel-like systems could exist on other planets.
These possible “xeno-membranes” may serve as non-terrestrial analogues of biofilms and consist of unique chemical components specific to each region.
This viewpoint suggests that the structures themselves, rather than specific chemicals, could be the next focus for life-detection missions, expanding the methods by which astrobiologists can search for life beyond Earth.
The authors now plan to validate their model experimentally by investigating how simple chemical gels formed under early Earth conditions and what properties they imparted to emerging chemical systems.
Dr. Ramona Khanum, also from the Space Science Center at the National University of Malaysia, expressed: “We hope our research will inspire others in the field to investigate this and other unresolved theories concerning the origin of life.”
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Ramona Khanum et al. Prebiotic gel as the cradle of life. Chemical Systems Chemistry, published online on November 19, 2025. doi: 10.1002/syst.202500038
Evidence from ethnohistory and recent archaeology indicates that Easter Island (Rapanui) had a politically decentralized structure, organized into small kin-based communities that operated with a degree of autonomy throughout the island. This raises significant questions regarding the over 1,000 monumental statues (moai). Was the production process at Rano Raraku, the main moai quarry, centrally managed, or did it reflect the decentralized patterns observed on the island? Archaeologists utilized a dataset of more than 11,000 UAV images to create the first comprehensive three-dimensional model of a quarry to examine these competing hypotheses.
3D model of Rano Raraku quarry. Image credit: Lipo et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0336251.
The monumental Moai of Easter Island stand as one of the most remarkable archaeological achievements in Polynesia, with over 1,000 megalithic statues spread across the volcanic isle, which is just 100 miles long.2
This significant investment in monumental architecture seems paradoxical when compared to ethnohistorical records that consistently depict Rapa Nui society as composed of relatively small, rival kin-based groups rather than a centralized polity.
Early ethnographers described a sociopolitical environment with numerous matas (clans or tribes) maintaining distinct territorial boundaries, independent ceremonial centers, and autonomous leadership structures.
This leads to the question of whether the construction of the moai was similarly decentralized.
In a recent study, Professor Carl Lipo from Binghamton University and his team compiled over 11,000 images of Rano Raraku, a key moai quarry, and developed a detailed 3D model of the site, which includes hundreds of moai at various stages of completion.
“For archaeologists, quarries are like an archaeological Disneyland,” Professor Lipo stated.
“Everything you can imagine about the making of a moai is represented here, as most of the crafting was performed directly on site.”
“This has always been a goldmine of information and cultural significance, yet it remains greatly under-documented.”
“The rapid advancement in technology is astounding,” noted Dr. Thomas Pingel of Binghamton University.
“The quality of this model surpasses what was achievable just a few years ago, and the ability to share such a detailed model accessible from anyone’s desktop is exceptional.”
In-depth analysis of the model revealed 30 distinct quarrying centers, each exhibiting different carving techniques, indicating multiple independent working zones.
There is also evidence of the moai being transported in various directions from the quarry.
These observations imply that moai construction, like the broader societal structure of Rapa Nui, lacked central organization.
“We are observing individualized workshops that cater specifically to different clan groups, focusing on particular areas,” said Professor Lipo.
“From the construction site, you can visually identify that specific groups created a series of statues together, indicating separate workshops.”
This finding challenges the prevalent assumption that such large-scale monument production necessitates a hierarchical structure.
The similarities among the moai appear to be the result of shared cultural knowledge rather than collaborative efforts in carving the statues.
“Much of the so-called ‘Rapanui mystery’ arises from the scarcity of publicly available detailed evidence that would empower researchers to assess hypotheses and formulate explanations,” stated the researchers.
“We present the first high-resolution 3D model of the Rano Raraku Moai Quarry, the key site for nearly 1,000 statues, offering new perspectives on the organization and manufacturing processes behind these massive megalithic sculptures.”
Findings are detailed in an article published in the Online Journal on November 26, 2025 in PLoS ONE.
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CP Lipo et al. 2025. Production of megalithic statues (moai) at Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile). PLoS One 20 (11): e0336251; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0336251
The anaconda is among the largest surviving snake species in the world. Typically, its length ranges from 4 to 5 meters, although exceptional cases can reach up to 7 meters. A recent study conducted by paleontologists on giant anaconda fossils from South America suggests that these tropical reptiles achieved their maximum size approximately 12.4 million years ago and have maintained their large dimensions continuously since then.
Green anaconda (Eunectes murinus). Image credit: MKAMPIS / CC BY-SA 4.0.
“Current snakes display a broad spectrum of body lengths, averaging about 1 meter, with sizes ranging from 10 centimeters for the smallest leptotyphloid thread snakes to roughly 7 meters for anacondas.” Eunectes Andrés Alfonso Rojas, a PhD student at the University of Cambridge, and his colleagues state:
“Within the Eunectes genus, the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) is the largest species, averaging 4 to 5 meters in length, with maximum recorded lengths of 6 to 7.2 meters.”
“Limited fossil findings from Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela suggest that the evolutionary timeline of anacondas dates back to the mid-to-late Miocene.”
“However, our understanding of the body size of early anacondas, which coexisted with massive crocodilians, turtles, ungulates, and xenartranians, remains scarce.”
In their research, the authors examined 183 fossilized anaconda spines representing at least 32 snakes discovered in the state of Falcón, Venezuela.
By integrating these measurements with fossil data from various South American locations, they concluded that ancient anacondas measured 4 to 5 meters in length, similar to today’s anacondas.
“While other species, including giant crocodiles and colossal turtles, have become extinct since the Miocene—likely due to declining global temperatures and reduced habitats—giant anacondas have persisted. They demonstrate remarkable adaptability,” noted Alfonso Rojas.
“The analysis of fossils indicates that anacondas’ body size evolved significantly soon after their emergence in tropical South America around 12.4 million years ago, and this size has remained consistent ever since.”
The researchers cross-verified their estimates using an alternative method known as ancestral state reconstruction, employing snake family trees to estimate the length of giant anacondas and related modern species like tree boas and rainbow boas.
This method corroborates the notion that when anacondas first appeared in the Miocene, their average size was 4 to 5 meters.
Anacondas inhabit swamps, marshes, and substantial rivers, such as the Amazon. During the Miocene, northern South America resembled the contemporary Amazon region, allowing anacondas to thrive in wider areas than seen today.
Nonetheless, the current environment still offers ample food sources, including capybaras and fish, and suitable habitats that support the continued growth of modern anacondas.
As snakes are particularly sensitive to temperature changes, it was previously believed that anacondas might have grown even larger during earlier warm periods.
“This finding is unexpected, as ancient anacondas were thought to have reached lengths of 7 to 8 meters,” remarked Alfonso Rojas.
“However, we found no evidence supporting the existence of larger snakes during the Miocene, even when global temperatures were higher.”
These findings were published recently in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Andres F. Alfonso-Rojas et al. Early origins of gigantism in anacondas (Serpentes: Eunectes) revealed by the fossil record. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on December 1, 2025. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2572967
On Tuesday, the city of San Francisco initiated legal action against 10 major food corporations, accusing them of marketing and distributing ultra-processed foods that are detrimental to human health and can lead to addiction.
The lawsuit claims these products are fueling a public health crisis in San Francisco and nationwide, burdening cities and governments with increased healthcare costs associated with diets rich in processed foods. This marks a pioneering effort to hold food corporations accountable for the widespread availability and recognized health hazards of such products.
“Scientific research on the dangers of these products has reached a critical point,” stated San Francisco City Attorney David Chiu during a news conference on Tuesday morning. He emphasized that “These items in our diets are closely linked to severe health issues and impose substantial costs on millions of Americans, as well as on municipalities and states across the nation.”
The category of “ultra-processed foods” typically includes flavored chips, sugary granola bars, and soda. These products contain synthetic ingredients, preservatives, and additives, and are frequently high in saturated fats, sodium, and sugar. Research has associated these foods with: increased risks of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular illness, along with premature death and other health issues.
Filed in San Francisco County Superior Court, the lawsuit asserts that the companies were aware these products were “unsafe for human consumption” and employed “misleading strategies” to market and sell their items.
The defendants include Kraft Heinz Company, Mondelez International, Post Holdings, The Coca-Cola Company, PepsiCo, General Mills, Nestlé USA, Kellogg, Mars Incorporated, and ConAgra Brands.
NBC News reached out to each of the companies for their comments; however, no immediate responses were received.
Sarah Gallo, senior vice president of product policy at the Consumer Brands Association, a trade group representing major food and beverage brands, stated, “The makers of America’s trusted household brands are helping Americans make healthier choices and enhance product transparency.”
Gallo further noted, “Currently, there is no agreement on the scientific definition of ultra-processed foods, and any attempts to label processed foods as unhealthy, or to vilify them by overlooking their complete nutritional value, misleads consumers and worsens health disparities. Companies adhere to stringent, evidence-based safety standards established by the FDA to offer safe, affordable, and convenient products that consumers rely on daily. Americans deserve information grounded in sound science to make optimal health choices.”
This lawsuit emerges amid growing scrutiny of ultra-processed foods from across the political spectrum. Secretary of Health Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has criticized these foods, making them a central element of his “Make America Healthy Again” initiative, which includes a proposal to ban artificial colors from the food supply within the next year.
Now, attorneys in California cities recognized for their progressive stances are also addressing this matter.
Laura Schmidt, a professor at the Health Policy Institute at the University of California, San Francisco, commented on the bipartisan trend: “Regardless of the motivation, we share a common goal. This issue has not traditionally been politicized.”
She added, “Until now, it felt like we were observing a slow-motion train wreck. I’ve been discussing childhood diabetes for decades. The rates continue to escalate. Pediatric fatty liver disease and childhood obesity—it’s evident that there is a significant problem with this segment of our food supply.”
Ms. Schmidt expressed disagreement with the industry group’s claim that there is no scientific basis for the term “ultra-processed” foods.
She remarked that the city attorney’s lawsuit resembles those previously filed against the tobacco industry.
“I feel encouraged whenever I witness public officials like the San Francisco city and state-level attorneys engaging in litigation, as this is what captured the attention of tobacco companies in the 1990s,” said Schmidt. (Notably, tobacco giants Philip Morris and RJ Reynolds acquired several food companies in the 1980s; Philip Morris acquired Kraft Foods in 1988 and spun off the brand in 2007.)
Barry Popkin, a nutrition professor at the University of North Carolina, noted that ultra-processed foods began infiltrating the U.S. market in the 1980s and have since become pervasive. Researchers began examining their detrimental health effects approximately 10 to 15 years ago, he added.
“Currently, around 75% to 80% of children’s diets consist of ultra-processed foods, while 55% to 60% of adults’ diets are similarly comprised,” Popkin stated. “It’s impossible to draw comparisons between eating habits during World War II, post-war, and the subsequent decades to today’s dietary norms.”
PepsiCo is named as one of the ten defendants in this new lawsuit.Gabby Jones/Bloomberg from Getty Images File
Last month, the scientific journal The Lancet published a thorough review of the health ramifications of ultra-processed foods, analyzing hundreds of studies along with national food survey data.
The review’s authors indicated that globally, ultra-processed foods are deteriorating diets, promoting overeating, and exposing consumers to harmful substances. This culminates in an escalation of chronic diseases; as research suggests.
Popkin contributed to some of the studies referenced in The Lancet.
“We are in poor health, and our diets significantly contribute to this. While we’ve tackled smoking, cholesterol issues, and heart ailments with medication, our food choices are detrimental to our health,” he remarked. “The most reputable and frequently cited medical journals have deemed this a subject worthy of global presentation.”
Adolf Hitler’s death is recorded as April 30, 1945. At least, that’s the official narrative. However, some historians contest this, suggesting he escaped war-torn Berlin and lived in secrecy. Today, this alternate theory is largely viewed as a conspiracy, yet no rational historian can deny that, regardless of the available evidence, the “facts in question” existed. Hitler was either deceased that day or he was not. It’s nonsensical to suggest that he was both alive and dead on May 2, 1945. But if we replace Adolf Hitler with Schrödinger’s renowned cat, the historical “facts” become quite muddled.
Schrödinger is recognized as a foundational figure in quantum mechanics, the most successful scientific framework to date. It serves as the backbone for many fields, including chemistry, particle physics, materials science, molecular biology, and astronomy, yielding remarkable technological advancements, from lasers to smartphones. Yet, despite its successes, the essence of quantum mechanics appears perplexing at its core.
In our daily lives, we operate under the assumption that an “external” real world exists where objects like tables and chairs possess clearly defined traits, such as position and orientation, independent of observation. In the macroscopic realm, our observations merely uncover a pre-existing reality. Conversely, quantum mechanics governs the microscopic domain of atoms and subatomic particles, where certainty and clarity dissolve into ambiguity.
Quantum uncertainty implies that the future is not entirely dictated by the present. For example, if an electron is directed toward a thin barrier with a known speed, it can either bounce back or tunnel through, emerging on the opposite side. Similarly, if an atom becomes excited, it might remain excited or decay and emit a photon a few microseconds later. In both scenarios, predicting outcomes with certainty is impossible—only probabilistic estimates can be offered.
Most individuals are comfortable with the idea that the future holds uncertainties. However, quantum indeterminacy similarly applies to the past. The process is not yet complete. When scrutinized at a minute scale, history transmutes into a blend of alternate possibilities, a state known as superposition.
The hazy picture of the quantum microcosm sharpens during measurements. For instance, localizing an electron may show it at a specific location; however, quantum mechanics asserts that this doesn’t imply the electron previously existed in that state. It is already there. Observations merely disclose the specific location prior to measurement. Rather, measurement transforms the electron from a state without a defined location into one with a defined position.
So, how should we conceptualize electrons prior to observation? Picture an abundance of semi-real “ghost electrons” dispersed in space, each denoting a distinct potential. The reality dwells in an indeterminate state. This notion is sometimes explained by stating that an electron occupies multiple locations simultaneously. Moreover, measurements serve to convert a certain “ghost” into tangible reality while eliminating its counterparts.
Does the experimenter have control over the outcome? Not if they opt for the prevailing ghost. The process hinges on randomness. Yet, a layer of choice is present, which is vital for grasping quantum reality. If, instead of measuring position, the experimenter decides to assess the electron’s speed, the fuzzy initial state resolves into a distinct result. This time, instead of locating electrons, measurements yield electrons with velocity. Interestingly, it appears that electrons with speed exhibit wave-like properties, distinct from their particle nature. Thus, electrons embody both wave and particle characteristics, contingent on the measurement approach.
In summary: the behavior of electrons—as waves or particles—is dictated by the type of measurement the experimenter chooses. While this may seem bizarre, the situation grows even stranger. What has transpired to atoms before measurement relies on the experimenter’s selections. In essence, the properties of electrons—wave or particle—are contingent upon one’s choices, suggesting that something may have retroactively influenced the “external” world prior to measurement.
Is this time travel? Retroactive causality? Telepathy? These terms are often overused in popular quantum physics discussions, but the clearest explanation comes from John Wheeler, who coined the term black hole: “The past exists solely as recorded in the present,” he asserted.
While Mr. Wheeler’s assertion is thought-provoking, is there an actual experiment that validates it? Over breakfast at the Hilton Hotel in Baltimore in 1980, Wheeler mentioned a curious inquiry: “How do you suppress the ghosts of photons?” Recognizing my bewilderment, he proceeded to elaborate on a unique twist he devised for a classical quantum experiment, applicable to light, electrons, or even entire atoms.
This experiment traces back to the British polymath Thomas Young, who in 1801 aimed to demonstrate the wave properties of light. Young established a screen with two closely placed slits and illuminated it with a pinprick of light. What transpired? Instead of the anticipated two blurred light bands, Young observed a series of bright and dark stripes known as interference fringes. This phenomenon arises because light waves passing through each slit disperse, where they amplify and create brighter sections through constructive interference while canceling out in others, resulting in dark patches through destructive interference.
Light passing through two slits in a screen during a double-slit experiment
Russell Kightley/Science Photo Library
The conversation surrounding quantum mechanics began with scientists debating whether light consists of waves or particles called photons. The resolution is that it is both. Thanks to modern advancements, we can conduct Young’s experiment one photon at a time. Each photon produces a minuscule dot on the second screen, and over time, multiple dots accumulate, forming the characteristic striped pattern unearthed by Young. This situation raises questions: if a photon is a minuscule particle, it should clearly pass through either slit or the other. Yet, both slits are necessary to create the interference pattern.
What occurs if an astute experimenter wants to determine the slit a particular photon travels through? A detector can be placed near a slit to achieve this. Once that occurs, the interference pattern vanishes. The act of detecting effectively causes the photons to assume a particle-like behavior, obscuring their wave characteristics. The same principle applies to electrons; one can either pinpoint which slit the electrons traverse, resulting in the absence of interference stripes, or obscure their pathways and observe stripes manifest after numerous electrons have produced the pattern. Thus, experimenters can dictate whether photons, or electrons for that matter, act like waves or particles when they hit the detection screen.
Now, let’s discuss Wheeler’s twist. The decision to observe or not doesn’t need to be premeditated. Photons (or electrons) can pass through a slit system and remain until reaching an imaging screen. The experimenter can even opt to glance back in time to see which slit a photon originated from. Known as a delayed choice experiment, this setup has been executed and yielded anticipated outcomes. When the experimenter decides to observe, the photons fail to coalesce into a striped pattern. The essence of the phenomenon is that the reality that It was—whether the light behaves like a wave traversing both slits or a particle going through one—is contingent on the later choice of the experimenter. For clarity, in real studies, the “selections” are automated and randomized to prevent biases, occurring more swiftly than human response times.
In delayed choice experiments, the past remains unchanged. Instead, without experimentation, multiple pasts exist, intertwining distinct realities. Your measurement choice narrows down this history. While a unique past remains elusive, the number of possibilities can be reduced. Thus, this experiment is frequently referred to as the quantum eraser experiment.
Although the time used in actual experiments is merely nanoseconds, in principle, it could reach back to the dawn of the universe. This is what lay behind Wheeler’s intriguing query regarding retaining the ghost of a photon. He envisaged a distant cosmic light source being gravitationally lensed from our view by an intervening black hole, with two light paths bending around opposite sides of the black hole before converging on Earth. This scenario resembles a two-slit experiment on a cosmic scale, where a photon’s ghost may arrive via one path while another, possibly longer, route carries a different one. To execute such a cosmic interference experiment, like Young’s original experiment, the first ghost must be preserved, or “held,” allowing the waves to overlap simultaneously, awaiting the arrival of the second ghost before they merge.
Einstein claimed that past, present, and future are mere illusions. In this case, he erred in specifying “the”. A While the past is recorded in today’s history, it comprises myriad interwoven “ghost pasts,” collectively creating unique narratives on a macroscopic level. Nevertheless, at a quantum level, it transforms into a mosaic of blurred partial realities that exceed human comprehension.
Paul Davies is a theoretical physicist, cosmologist, astrobiologist, and bestselling author. His book, Quantum 2.0, will be published by Penguin in November 2025.
A cave near an ancient human settlement in the Arabian desert
Provided by: Huw S. Groucutt et al.
The parched landscapes of northeastern Saudi Arabia were once sufficiently moist to sustain a thriving fauna. Evidence suggests that ancient hominins also inhabited the area.
“This paper offers the initial comprehensive survey of the archaeological findings in the interior of northeastern Arabia, a vast region that has been largely overlooked,” states Monika Markowska from Northumbria University in the UK, who was not part of the study.
This research targets a largely uncharted segment of the Arabian Peninsula situated between Qatar and Kuwait. Despite the lack of recorded prehistoric human activity, scientists are aware that the region historically enjoyed enough rainfall to support a diverse ecosystem.
“Hominins have existed in Arabia for over 500,000 years and likely underwent several periods of habitation,” remarks Hugh Gourcutt from the University of Malta.
In their efforts to understand how ancient humans may have thrived in this environment, Gurkat and his team pinpointed ancient rivers and caves located near deposits of chert, a durable rock that prehistoric peoples used for tool-making. “Caves often serve as crucial archaeological sites, preserving fossils and climatic data,” Gurkat explains.
A total of 79 caves and their adjacent regions were investigated. Some contained signs of ancient life, both human and animal. One cave, in particular, was found next to an area where over 400 stone tools were scattered on the ground. Additionally, remains of ancient reptiles, bats, birds, camels, gazelles, hyenas, and wolves were uncovered within the cave.
By analyzing the characteristics of the stone tools, Groukat and his colleagues established that humans inhabited the vicinity of these caves between 10,000 and 100,000 years ago.
“Today, [Arabia] reveals an exceptional preservation of thousands of bones within these caves, providing invaluable insights into historical ecosystems,” notes Markowska.
Team member Michael Petraglia, who has dedicated years to researching Arabian archaeology at Griffith University in Australia, adds, “This research marks another milestone in understanding caves, rivers, their contents, and what they reveal about life in Arabia’s dynamic ecosystem.”
Recent findings from neuroscientists reveal that the brain’s structure divides into five main stages throughout a typical person’s life, marked by four significant turning points from birth to death where the brain undergoes reorganization. Brain topology in children evolves from birth up to a crucial transition at age 9, then shifts into adolescence, which generally lasts until around age 32. In your early 30s, the neural wiring transitions to adult mode, marking the longest phase that extends for over 30 years. The third turning point occurs at about age 66, indicating the start of an early aging phase of brain structure, while the late brain phase begins around age 83.
Masry et al. Using a dataset of MRI diffusion scans, they compared the brains of 3,802 individuals aged 0 to 90 years. The dataset maps neural connections by tracking the movement of water molecules through brain tissue. Image credit: Mously et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-65974-8.
“While we know brain wiring plays a crucial role in our development, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how and why it fluctuates throughout life,” explained Dr. Alexa Mausley, a researcher at the University of Cambridge.
“This study is the first to pinpoint essential stages in brain wiring throughout the human lifespan.”
“These epochs offer vital insight into our brain’s strengths and vulnerabilities at different life stages.”
“Understanding these changes could shed light on why certain developmental challenges arise, such as learning difficulties in early childhood or dementia later in life.”
During the transition from infancy to childhood, strengthened neural networks emerge as the excess of synapses (the connections between neurons) in a baby’s brain diminishes, allowing only the most active synapses to thrive.
The brain rewires in a consistent pattern from birth until approximately age 9.
In this timeframe, the volumes of gray and white matter grow swiftly, resulting in maximal cortical thickness (the distance from the outer gray matter to the inner white matter), with the cortical folds stabilizing.
By the first turning point at age 9, cognitive abilities begin to evolve gradually, and the likelihood of mental health issues becomes more pronounced.
The second stage, adolescence, is characterized by an ongoing increase in white matter volume, leading to an enhancement in the sophistication of the brain’s communication networks, measurable through water diffusion scans.
This phase is marked by improved connectivity efficiency across specific regions and swift communication throughout the brain, correlating with enhanced cognitive performance.
“As expected, neural efficiency is closely linked to shorter pathways, and this efficiency increases throughout adolescence,” Mausley notes.
“These advancements peak in your early 30s, representing the most significant turning point in your lifetime.”
“Around age 32, the change in wiring direction is the most pronounced, and the overall trajectory alteration is greater than at any other turning points.”
“Although the onset of puberty is clearly defined, the conclusion is far harder to identify scientifically.”
“Based solely on neural structure, we found that puberty-related changes in brain structure conclude by the early 30s.”
Post age 32, adulthood enters its longest phase, characterized by a more stable brain structure with no significant turning points for three decades. This aligns with findings indicating an “intellectual and personality plateau.”
Additionally, the researchers observed a greater degree of “segregation” during this phase, indicating a gradual fragmentation of brain regions.
The tipping point at age 66 is more gradual, lacking dramatic structural shifts; however, notable changes in brain network patterns were found around this age on average.
“Our findings indicate a gradual reconfiguration of brain networks that peaks in the mid-60s,” stated Dr. Mausley.
“This is likely linked to aging, as white matter begins to decline, reducing connectivity further.”
“We are currently facing an era where individuals are increasingly at risk for various health conditions impacting the brain, such as high blood pressure.”
The final turning point arises around age 83, ushering in the last stage of brain structure.
Data from this stage is scarce, but a key characteristic is the shift from global to local connectivity as interactions across the brain diminish while reliance on specific regions intensifies.
Professor Duncan Astle of the University of Cambridge remarked: “In reflection, many of us recognize that our lives encompass distinct stages.”
“Interestingly, the brain also navigates through these phases.”
“Numerous neurodevelopmental, mental health, and neurological conditions are tied to the brain’s wiring.”
“In fact, variations in brain wiring can predict challenges with attention, language, memory, and a wide array of other behaviors.”
“Recognizing that structural transformations in the brain occur not in a linear fashion but through several major turning points can assist us in identifying when and how brain wiring may be vulnerable to disruptions.”
a paper detailing the study was published in the journal on November 25. Nature Communications.
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A. Mausley et al. 2025. Topological turning points across the human lifespan. Nat Commun 16, 10055; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-65974-8
If you’ve been active on TikTok lately, you might be familiar with the concept of bird inspection. In this test, one partner casually mentions something, like observing a bird outside, to gauge if the other is engaged. An enthusiastic response signals a positive connection; lack of interest might indicate underlying issues. It’s amusing, relatable, and resonates with many. This viral phenomenon reflects something intrinsic to relationships, as psychologists recognize the significance behind it.
For years, relationship scholars have maintained that love is found in these small interactions. We refer to these daily connections as “bids”: sharing a laugh, narrating a story, or simply saying, “Look at that!” Psychologist John Gottman conducted classic studies with newlyweds, revealing that partners strive for the low bid for connection. Other longitudinal research indicates that couples with more assertive responses during disagreements are more likely to remain stable and satisfied in the long term.
Additional studies highlight that responses in everyday moments significantly affect relationship health. For instance, research on newlyweds has shown that couples exhibit heightened playfulness and enthusiasm during brief dinner interactions, showcasing more humor and affection during discussions of conflicts. Longitudinal studies demonstrate that partners perceived as sensitive and affirming tend to become more physically affectionate over time, fostering intimacy through minor everyday gestures.
Ultimately, these small expressions of gratitude function as the adhesive in relationships. The bird test cleverly encapsulates a fundamental truth: small gestures of acknowledgment are significant. While each may feel inconsequential in isolation, their cumulative effect builds positive momentum, sustaining satisfaction and resilience in relationships.
However, isolating specific moments, especially those showcased on social media, can oversimplify relationship evaluations. The bird test transforms intricate dynamics into simple pass/fail moments, potentially leading to unnecessary worries and misplaced confidence. Partners might miss bids for reasons unrelated to commitment—perhaps they are fatigued, under stress, or simply disengaged. Misinterpreting fleeting moments as definitive judgments can lead to harmful conclusions: “They ignored the bird! Do they even love me?” Even worse, it can become a manipulation tool: “You didn’t respond. You aren’t attentive to me.” One-off reactions on an arbitrary day should not define the essence of a relationship.
The pressing question is why such “testing” has gained traction. In addition to bird inspections, we’ve witnessed a rise in activities like the orange peel theory—”Will your partner peel an orange without prompting?”—and the moon phase test, which claims to measure romantic compatibility based on birthdays and lunar cycles.
One reason for this trend may stem from the fluctuating landscape of dating. Dating apps provide an overwhelming array of potential partners, but research indicates that excessive options can make commitment feel riskier and less secure. This uncertainty impacts the formation of relationships, introducing ambiguity in expectations and leaving partners guessing about their feelings. A quick bird test offers immediate feedback—a fleeting visual cue followed by a simple answer.
Another factor is that, despite relationship science gaining popularity, its complexity has been lost. Nuanced insights from extensive observational studies are reduced to simple TikTok phrases: “Did they notice the bird?” At the same time, social media prioritizes highly emotional content, whether heartwarming or heart-wrenching snippets caught on camera. This attention economy encourages individuals to transform genuine relationships into public trials. In this context, viral tests flourish, providing dramatic, recordable moments of validation that can be shared and scrutinized.
So, what should couples take away from this trend? Bird testing, while playful, underscores the importance of responsiveness when a partner reaches out, even in minor ways, as the backbone of a healthy relationship. If this phenomenon inspires more curiosity, attention, and appreciation, then it can be viewed as a positive development. However, instead of asking, “Did my partner succeed in this test?” a more beneficial inquiry would be, “What patterns have emerged in our relationship? Are they consistently present? Do they feel acknowledged and valued?” Love is not defined by one solitary act, bird, or orange, but by the countless small moments when partners choose to be there for each other behind the scenes.
Despite everything, I must admit that for the sake of research, I may just have my husband partake in the bird test tonight. Wishing him the best of luck!
Emily Impett is a professor in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and director of the Institute for Human Relations and Happiness at the University of Toronto Mississauga. Her research explores sacrifice, sexuality in long-term relationships, and changes within relationships.
According to a recent study, severe and long-lasting river droughts, lasting over 85 years each, impacted the Indus basin from 4,400 to 3,400 years ago. This finding may provide insights into the gradual decline of this ancient civilization and underscores how environmental factors can influence historical societies.
An artist’s reconstruction of the gates and drainage channels of the ancient city of Harappa. Image credit: Chris Sloan.
The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the earliest urban cultures, thrived between 5,000 and 3,500 years ago along the Indus River and its tributaries in present-day Pakistan and northwestern India.
During its zenith, around 4,500 to 3,900 years ago, the civilization was noted for its advanced urban centers and sophisticated systems for managing water resources.
Despite this, the reasons behind the protracted decline following its peak remain largely elusive.
“The Indus River played a crucial role in the growth of the ancient Indus Valley civilization by offering a consistent water source for agriculture, trade, and communication,” stated Dr. Bimal Mishra from the Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar and his colleagues.
“Civilizations prospered near the Indus River and its tributaries approximately 5,000 years ago and evolved over time.”
“The mature Harappan phase (4,500 to 3,900 years ago) was marked by meticulously planned cities, advanced water management techniques, and an intricate writing system.”
“However, post 3,900 years ago, the Harappan civilization began to deteriorate and eventually fell into decline.”
“The causes for this decline are still under discussion. Potential factors encompass shifts in river dynamics influenced by climate change, ocean retreat, drought, flooding, and alterations in social and political structures.”
“Understanding ancient hydroclimatic events and their impact on societies provides vital insights into the susceptibility of complex societies to environmental pressures.”
For this research, the authors simulated climate patterns in the Indus Valley from 5,000 to 3,000 years ago.
They integrated these findings with various indirect climate indicators, including the geochemistry of stalactites and stalagmites from two caves in India and water level data from five lakes in northwestern India.
The results indicated that temperatures rose by approximately 0.5 degrees Celsius during this time, while average annual precipitation in the region decreased by 10% to 20%.
They were able to identify four significant drought periods lasting over 85 years between 4,450 and 3,400 years ago, impacting 65% to 91% of the Indus Valley area.
“These droughts affected the selection of settlement locations in the Indus Valley Civilization,” the researchers noted.
“From 5,000 to 4,500 years ago, settlements were primarily situated in regions with abundant rainfall.”
“However, after 4,500 years ago, they shifted closer to the Indus River as drought conditions began to limit water availability.”
“The last identified drought, lasting 113 years from 3,531 to 3,418 years ago, corresponds with archaeological evidence of significant urbanization in the Indus Valley Civilization.”
“Instead of collapsing abruptly due to sudden climate changes, the Indus civilization likely faced a gradual decline, with extended drought being a key factor,” concluded the researchers.
Their study was published on November 27 in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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H. Solanki et al. 2025. River drought forcing Harappan metamorphosis. Communication Earth and Environment 6,926; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02901-1
Experiencing reduced focus, appetite, and coordination? These are all indicators of sleep deprivation, a growing global issue.
About two-thirds of adults globally are estimated to awaken at least once each night. In the UK, one in five adults frequently struggle with sleep issues. As reported by the European Journal of Public Health, the UK is the most sleep-deprived nation in Europe.
A 2025 independent survey by OnePoll, commissioned by Silentnight, asked 2,000 UK residents about their sleep routines. The results showed that 24% of participants consider feeling tired to be normal.
This is a serious concern. Sleep deprivation not only impacts your mood the next day but can also lead to various health issues, as well as chronic physical and mental health challenges over time.
Discover why your body requires a nightly reset with valuable insights and tips for enhancing your sleep quality from Kathryn Pinkham, founder of Insomnia Clinic and sleep expert at Silentnight.
Please reset your mind
While you’re asleep, your brain actively resets itself for recovery. The glymphatic system clears out toxins and metabolic byproducts, while short-term memories are stored in the neocortex. Concurrently, the prefrontal cortex manages emotional responses, processes the day’s events, and prepares for what’s to come.
The brain also experiences a neurochemical reset as dopamine and serotonin levels drop notably during sleep. Brain waves slow down to the REM stage, where activity surges as the brain processes emotions and memories, aiding creative thinking during waking hours.
Kathryn shares tips on how to calm your mind before bedtime to effectively reset it.
• Alleviate stress by jotting down thoughts to relieve pressure.
• Instead of thinking, “I can’t sleep,” tell yourself, “I will get some rest, and I’ll manage the day.”
• Be gentle with yourself; don’t chase after ideal sleep. Reducing pressure allows your body to relax naturally.
Reset your body
During deep (slow wave) sleep, your body undergoes a reset and regeneration process. It’s recognized that sleep quality impacts the aging process, and chronic sleep deprivation can adversely affect both current and future health.
While you sleep, your body is hard at work. Protein synthesis fosters cell repair, the pituitary gland produces human growth hormone (HGH) to encourage muscle growth, and immune functions are enhanced.
During deep sleep, heart rate slows, blood pressure decreases, and your cardiovascular system rests. Quality sleep is shown to improve insulin sensitivity, enhancing glucose metabolism and energy levels. Hormones like melatonin are produced while cortisol, a stress hormone, is regulated.
Kathryn Pinkham advises on how to reset your body before sleep:
“The human body inherently needs sleep, a need that intensifies the longer you remain awake. Going to bed early, waking up late, napping during the day, or worrying excessively in bed can weaken this need, making it more challenging to fall asleep. To bolster your need for sleep, try going to bed a bit later and maintaining a consistent wake-up time. This way, you’re more likely to drift off as soon as your head touches the pillow.”
Reset your lifestyle
The Sleep Foundation states, “Good sleep is a 24-hour process,” indicating that cultivating productive daily habits is key to enjoying healthy sleep patterns.
“When you’re fatigued, it’s easy to fixate solely on bedtime,” Kathryn notes. “However, don’t depend only on sleep to feel rejuvenated. Other strategies for boosting energy include physical activity, ample sunlight exposure, and healthy eating. Simple adjustments like these can help your nervous system relax and alleviate stress. When your days are balanced, you’ll naturally start to sleep better.”
Silentnight’s national sleep reset campaign aims to encourage individuals in the UK to rethink their approach to rest, helping to eliminate obstacles to improved sleep through a structured three-step reset plan.
Findings from sleep reset research indicate:
• 1 in 3 people (30%) wake up multiple times each night.
• The main concerns keeping people awake include: Health worries (34%), Financial issues (28%), and Relationship troubles (23%).
• Nearly 30% of individuals lie awake regretting their actions from the day.
• Significant life events can also interrupt sleep, like Job interviews (30%), Moving (23%), and for 28% of women, menopause.
Silentnight provides a range of mattresses tailored to every sleeper, from our new UltraGel™ collection, designed for comfort and support throughout the night, to our Just Sleep roll-up mattress series, which combines convenience with comfort.
Crucial components required for the emergence of life as we recognize it have been found in asteroid Bennu samples. This discovery suggests that Bennu might have transported the vital elements for life to Earth and potentially to other locations.
In 2020, NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission gathered samples from Bennu, an asteroid that travels hundreds of millions of kilometers through space, situated between Mars and Jupiter. The mission successfully returned these samples to Earth in 2023. Since then, the 121 grams collected have been distributed to laboratories worldwide for examination, enabling scientists to start identifying various biological compounds.
Preliminary investigations uncovered the existence of water, carbon, and several organic molecules. Subsequently, they identified amino acids, formaldehyde, and all five nucleobases found in RNA and DNA, along with phosphates. However, these findings do not suffice for constructing molecules that encode genetic information, as the crucial sugars—ribose for RNA and deoxyribose for DNA—were not detected in the initial analysis of the Bennu samples.
Recently, Yoshihiro Furukawa and his team from Tohoku University in Japan ground some of the sample and mixed it with acid and water. They then utilized gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to separate and identify the mixture’s components.
This process confirmed the presence of ribose, alongside other sugars like lyxose, xylose, arabinose, glucose, and galactose, but notably lacked deoxyribose.
“This is a groundbreaking find, showing that sugars exist in extraterrestrial materials,” Furukawa remarked, noting that nearly all life relies on glucose for metabolic processes.
“This is a significant achievement of the OSIRIS-REx mission,” says Sara Russell, from the Natural History Museum in London. Although not part of Furukawa’s team, she also works with Bennu samples. “Previously, the only component missing was sugar, which has now been identified, confirming that all essential elements of RNA were present in this primitive asteroid.”
Furukawa and his colleagues propose that Bennu’s parent asteroid generated sugars from saltwater rich in formaldehyde, suggesting the asteroid was saturated with liquid and exhibited numerous chemical reactions.
“Earlier this year, we reported salt findings in the returned samples, indicating that Bennu’s parent body likely housed a saltwater pool,” Russell stated. “Such conditions would provide an optimal environment for synthesizing the complex organic materials found in Bennu.”
Evidence of saline water on Saturn’s moon Enceladus and the dwarf planet Ceres points towards the possibility that fundamental life ingredients might be plentiful throughout the solar system, according to Russell.
Furukawa’s research includes prior discoveries of ribose and other sugars in meteorites, but he emphasized concerns about potential contamination once these compounds reached Earth. “The presence of these sugars in the Bennu sample affirms the legitimacy of these results,” he stated.
The new findings suggest that the asteroid could indeed have supplied all the requisite components for life to other celestial bodies within the solar system, including Earth and Mars, according to Furukawa. The discovery of ribose but not deoxyribose further supports the RNA world hypothesis concerning life’s origins.
This hypothesis posits that, well before the advent of cellular life or DNA-based organisms, Earth’s earliest life forms were RNA molecules capable of carrying genetic information and self-replication.
Facebook creator Mark Zuckerberg asserts that businesses require greater “masculine energy.” Former President Donald Trump claims that “humanity is under attack.” The US Secretary of Defense, Pete Hegseth, contends that the Boy Scouts have deviated from their mission of “cultivating masculine values,” and their “boy-friendly space” is at risk.
These voices are not isolated. They are influential figures articulating sentiments that resonate with many men, particularly younger generations, in recent times.
A 2025 study indicates that Gen Z men and women are the most divided generation regarding gender equality, as reported by Ipsos UK and King’s College London’s Global Women’s Leadership Institute.
The survey discovered that 60% of Gen Z men feel pressured to exceed expectations in supporting equality, while 57% believe that society discriminates against men by overemphasizing women’s equality.
What’s driving this divide? Notable statistics suggest a significant crisis might be emerging for men.
For example, men in the United States have, on average, a life expectancy of five years less than women; this gap is more pronounced in recent years. They are now three times more likely to die from drug overdoses and have a fourfold higher risk of suicide.
Beyond these grim statistics, there’s other evidence indicating that men face emerging challenges, particularly in education.
Research from Pew Research Center, a nonpartisan think tank, found that in 1995, young men and women were equally likely to obtain a bachelor’s degree, with approximately one in four completing it. By 2024, however, 47% of women aged 25 to 34 will have earned a degree, compared to only 37% of men, with women’s degree attainment increasing at a much higher rate.
Gender disparities are also visible in schooling. A 2018 study of eighth graders nationwide revealed that while math achievement was comparable, girls consistently outperformed boys in English.
This influence continues post-education. Over the five decades preceding the COVID-19 pandemic, men’s participation in the U.S. workforce declined by about 10%; furthermore, there were additional decreases in the following years.
Yet, these alarming figures represent only part of the narrative. Although men encounter distinct challenges, the data does not suggest that current efforts toward gender equality have exceeded reasonable bounds, despite claims from some in positions of authority. Four frequently cited statistics illustrate the nuanced reality of the situation.
1. Men Report Higher Happiness Levels.
Despite men’s struggles with well-being, surveys indicate that men are generally happier and more satisfied with their lives than women. A 2024 cross-country study found strong evidence that men currently experience higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction than women.
Using data from the U.S. General Social Survey, researchers noted that average happiness levels for men and women were quite similar from 1973 to 2021. However, during the pandemic, happiness levels plummeted for both genders, with women’s satisfaction experiencing a sharper decline.
Moreover, European survey data indicated that men reported higher happiness than women across various dimensions, including calmness, sleep quality, cheerfulness, loneliness, and anxiety.
Men face a higher suicide risk than women but generally report being happier – Photo credit: Getty
2. Men Earn 20% More Than Women.
In terms of earnings, men consistently earn more than women worldwide. According to the United Nations, women’s salaries are approximately 20% lower, a gap that is less favorable than men’s earnings.
This implies that, on average, women earn about 80 cents for every dollar earned by men globally. In the U.S., although the gap has narrowed over the years, women working full-time earn 83% of their male counterparts’ income in 2023.
3. 90% of the Most Powerful Positions Are Held by Men.
Men substantially dominate leadership roles in both government and business.
Worldwide, women are represented in only about 27% of parliamentary seats, meaning that men hold approximately three-quarters of these positions.
Additionally, as of October 2024, only one-tenth of countries globally have a woman in a top government role.
Similarly, a pattern persists in business, where despite a record number of women leading major corporations in the U.S., 55 out of the Fortune 500 have female CEOs.
4. Men Enjoy More Leisure Time.
Another frequently overlooked aspect is that men typically have more leisure time compared to women.
According to recent data shows that American men spend roughly 45 minutes more daily on leisure activities, while women dedicate an extra hour and 20 minutes to unpaid tasks such as housework, shopping, and caregiving.
This disparity is evident to varying degrees in nearly all surveyed countries. In Norway, the difference is minimal, at 4 minutes per day in 2020, while in Portugal, it reaches nearly an hour and a half (89 minutes).
On average, American men enjoy an extra 46 minutes of leisure time daily – Photo credit: Getty
The Real Gender Story
When considered together, these statistics reveal a far more intricate picture than the “male crisis” narrative suggests.
While there are undeniable concerns about men’s health, education, and economic participation, men still hold a disproportionate amount of power, earn higher wages, and enjoy more leisure time.
There isn’t a singular narrative on either side that captures these complexities.
As Professor Jeon Hee-jung, director of King’s Global Women’s Leadership Institute, posits, framing this moment as a crisis of masculinity is misguided. The actual issue is one of opportunity crisis, particularly for the youth.
“We haven’t equipped our boys to understand that the current patriarchal system is detrimental to them as well,” she remarks.
Chung describes the past few decades as a “revolutionary stagnation.” While society has indeed made strides in “masculinizing” women by integrating more women into the workforce and promoting roles in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math), societal expectations surrounding caregiving, primary breadwinning, and domestic responsibilities have largely remained unchanged.
Consequently, Chung asserts, the system has been partially rewired, leading to a disconnect and increased friction for all.
“Gender tensions divert attention from real issues, which are the structural changes occurring in society and the various disparities among income groups,” she adds.
In essence, we find ourselves in an unsettling transition between outdated models that are no longer viable and new frameworks that have yet to fully materialize.
This turmoil may evoke a sense of discomfort, but as we progress, the gender gap could begin to lessen, allowing us to tackle the deeper issues influencing people’s lives, as Chung envisions.
Located in the southern part of the constellation Columba, NGC 1792 is a tempestuous and highly energetic spiral galaxy.
This Hubble image highlights the active spiral galaxy NGC 1792. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / D. Thilker / F. Belfiore / J. Lee / PHANGS-HST Team.
NGC 1792 is approximately 36.4 million light-years away from Earth, positioned to the south of the constellation Columba, bordering Caelum.
This galaxy, also known as AGC 24019 or LEDA 16709, was identified by Scottish astronomer James Dunlop on October 4, 1826.
The chaotic appearance of NGC 1792 features dust interspersed throughout its disk.
This galaxy is abundant in neutral hydrogen gas, leading to a high rate of new star formation.
“Astronomers find NGC 1792 intriguing, as its tumultuous appearance implies,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“Classified as a starburst galaxy, it serves as a dynamic site for star formation, with spiral arms rich in star-forming regions.”
“Surprisingly, it is quite luminous for its mass,” they added.
“This galaxy is approaching its larger neighbor, NGC 1808. The intense gravitational interaction between the two is believed to have stirred the gas reserves of the galaxy.”
“Consequently, star formation is more concentrated on the side where the gravitational pull is stronger.”
“This makes NGC 1792 an ideal subject for astronomers aiming to comprehend the intricate interactions among gas, star clusters, and supernovae within galaxies.”
The recent images incorporate additional WFC3 data collected in 2025, enriching our understanding of the turbulent astrophysical activity in the galaxy.
“The red light radiating in the arms signals H-alpha emission from a dense cloud of hydrogen molecules,” remarked the astronomers.
“Stars are born within these clouds and emit strong ultraviolet light.”
“This process ionizes the surrounding gas, causing it to emit light at a distinctive red wavelength, a clear indicator of a new star.”
Over two years of data collected on Mars by the SuperCam microphone on NASA’s Perseverance rover has led planetary scientists to identify 55 triboelectric discharge events linked to dust devils and dust storms.
Detection of electrical discharges in dust devils by the SuperCam instrument aboard NASA’s Perseverance rover on Mars. Image credit: Nicholas Sarter.
Lightning and electrical phenomena have been observed on Earth, Saturn, and Jupiter within our solar system.
While the possibility of electrical activity on Mars has been hypothesized, it has never before been directly recorded.
The Martian surface, characterized by frequent dust activities and phenomena such as wind-driven dust, sandstorms, and dust devils, can lead to electrical charges similar to those seen on Earth.
Determining whether such electrification occurs on Mars is vital for understanding the planet’s surface chemistry and assessing the safety of future robotic and human exploration missions.
To investigate this, Baptiste Chide and colleagues from the University of Toulouse examined 28 hours of audio recordings from the Perseverance rover’s SuperCam microphone gathered over two years.
The researchers categorized 55 electrical events by detecting interference and acoustic signatures typical of lightning.
Notably, 54 of these events were linked to the strongest wind events recorded during the study, indicating that winds significantly contribute to Martian electrification.
In two encounters with dust devils alone, the spacecraft documented 16 events, suggesting the likelihood of additional, more distant discharges that may have escaped detection by the microphone.
These findings imply that the Martian atmosphere is particularly electrically active during localized dust activity, rather than during wider dusty seasons.
“On Earth, atmospheric electricity primarily results from charge accumulation in clouds and storms, which burst forth as lightning,” remarked Dr. Ricardo Hueso from the University of the Basque Country.
“Conversely, on Mars, atmospheric electricity is dry, generated through collisions between dust particles in whirlwinds and sandstorms, leading to much smaller electrical discharges compared to Earth.”
Dr. Agustín Sánchez Labega, also from the University of the Basque Country, noted: “Mars’ cold, dry, dusty environment features a thin atmosphere of carbon dioxide and can generate very strong winds, creating gusts, whirlwinds, and dust clouds.”
“These phenomena can form extensive storm fronts that stretch hundreds of kilometers and sometimes envelop the entire planet in dust.”
“Thus, we anticipate these once-elusive discharges to be particularly prevalent under such conditions.”
The authors concluded, “Our study raises many questions regarding the impact of natural electricity on the Martian atmosphere.”
For more details, check their paper, published in the Journal on November 26, 2025, in Nature.
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B. Chide et al. 2025. Triboelectric discharges detected during Martian dust events. Nature 647, 865-869; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09736-y
The western order encompasses sharks commonly referred to as mackerel sharks. This group includes some of the most recognized shark species, such as great whites and shortfin mako sharks, along with lesser-known varieties like goblin sharks and megamouth sharks. The recent discovery of a 115-million-year-old giant shark in northern Australia indicates that oligarchs experimented with massive sizes around 15 million years earlier than previously believed, reigning at the top of the marine food chain alongside giant marine reptiles during the era of the dinosaurs.
In the ocean off the coast of Australia 115 million years ago, a gigantic 8m long predatory shark chases an unwary long-necked plesiosaur. Image credit: Polyanna von Knorring, Swedish Museum of Natural History.
Sharks are iconic predators in contemporary oceans, and their lineage dates back over 400 million years.
Nonetheless, the evolutionary journey of modern sharks initiated during the age of the dinosaurs, with the oldest known fossils appearing around 135 million years ago.
These early modern sharks, referred to as olipids, were relatively small, measuring roughly 1 meter in length, but evolved over time into colossal species like the renowned megalodon, which may have exceeded 17 meters, and the great white, known as the modern apex predator of the seas, measuring up to 6 meters.
Sharks possess cartilaginous skeletons, and their fossil record primarily consists of teeth, which are continuously shed as they eat.
This results in shark teeth being commonly found in sedimentary rocks on the ocean floor, alongside the remains of other species, such as fish and large marine reptiles, which dominated marine ecosystems during the time of the dinosaurs.
The rugged coastline around Darwin in northern Australia was once the mudbed of the ancient Tethyan sea, which extended from the southern reaches of Gondwana (now Australia) to the northern island archipelago of Laurasia (now Europe).
Fossils of sea creatures like plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and large bony fish have been uncovered.
Most notably, several giant vertebrae were found, indicating the presence of an unexpected predator: the giant sheep shark.
The five recovered vertebrae were partially calcified, allowing for their preservation, and they closely resemble those of modern great white sharks.
However, while the vertebrae of an adult great white shark measure about 8 cm in diameter, the fossilized sheep shark vertebrae from Darwin exceeded 12 cm in diameter.
These vertebrae also exhibited unique morphological traits, enabling their classification within the Cardabiodontidae family, giant predatory sharks that have existed in the oceans for approximately 100 million years.
Significantly, the rhamniforms in Darwin were around 15 million years old and had already achieved the substantial body size characteristic of cardabiodontids.
“Our findings demonstrate that large body size is an ancient trait, with Australian storkids measuring between 6 to 8 meters long and weighing over 3 tonnes,” stated lead author Dr. Mohammad Bazzi from Stanford University and colleagues.
“This is comparable to some of the largest marine reptiles of their time and indicates that oligarchs entered the apex predator niche early in their adaptive evolution.”
“These sharks were substantial in size and inhabited shallow coastal waters,” added co-author Dr. Michael Syverson, a researcher at the Western Australian Museum.
“This provides significant insights into the workings of ancient food webs and underscores the value of Australia’s fossil remains in comprehending prehistoric life.”
“This discovery not only reshapes the evolutionary narrative of sharks but also enhances Australia’s global significance in paleontological studies.”
“With each fossil discovery, we refine our understanding of ancient oceans and the remarkable creatures that once ruled them.”
For more details on this discovery, refer to the new paper published in Communication Biology.
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M.Bazzi et al. 2025. Early giant amnioids mark the beginning of giant body sizes in the evolution of modern sharks. Commun. Biol. August 1499. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-08930-y
By utilizing highly precise spectroscopic observations from the Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrometer (NIRISS) on board the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified helium gas escaping from WASP-107b, a super-Neptunian exoplanet located in the Virgo constellation, approximately 212 light-years away.
Artist’s impression of exoplanet WASP-107b. Image credit: University of Geneva / NCCR PlanetS / Thibaut Roger.
WASP-107 is an active K-type main-sequence star situated roughly 212 light-years away in the Virgo constellation.
Discovered in 2017, WASP-107b is among the least dense known exoplanets, categorized by astrophysicists as a “superpuff” or “cotton candy” planet.
This exoplanet has an orbit significantly closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun, completing its orbit every 5.7 days.
While this planet features the coldest atmosphere recorded for an exoplanet, at 500 degrees Celsius (932 degrees Fahrenheit), it remains much hotter than Earth.
This elevated temperature results from tidal heating linked to its slightly elliptical orbit, which may help explain how WASP-107b can expand without invoking extreme formation theories.
“A planet’s atmosphere can sometimes dissipate into space,” explained Yann Carteret, an astronomer at the University of Geneva, alongside colleagues.
“On Earth, we lose just over 3 kg of matter (primarily hydrogen) every second.”
“This phenomenon, known as atmospheric escape, is especially significant for astronomers studying exoplanets in close proximity to their stars. Such planets experience intense heating, making them particularly vulnerable to this effect.”
With data from Webb’s NIRISS instrument, astronomers observed a substantial flow of helium within WASP-107b’s exosphere.
This helium cloud partially obscures the star’s light even before the planet transits in front of the star.
“Our atmospheric escape model indicates a helium flow both in front of and behind the planet, extending nearly 10 times the planet’s radius in the direction of its orbit,” Carteret stated.
Alongside helium, astronomers confirmed the existence of water and various trace chemicals (including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and ammonia) in WASP-107b’s atmosphere.
These findings provide essential insights for piecing together the history of their formation and migration.
The research suggests that the planet initially formed at a greater distance from its current orbit before drifting closer to its star, which may account for the thickening of its atmosphere and gas loss.
“Atmospheric escape on Earth is too weak to have a significant impact on our planet,” noted Vincent Boullier, an astronomer at the University of Geneva.
“However, it could explain the absence of water on Venus, which is nearby.”
“Thus, understanding the mechanisms involved in this process is crucial, as it could erode the atmospheres of certain rocky exoplanets.”
Details of these findings were published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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V. Krishnamurthy et al. Continuum helium absorption from both the leading and trailing atmospheric tails of WASP-107b. Nat Astron, published online on December 1, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02710-8
A recently identified sauropod dinosaur, Mamenchisaurus, was discovered in China, originating from the late Jurassic period.
Reconstruction of the life of Mamenchisaurus species, Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum. Image credit: Júlia d’Oliveira.
Mamenchisaurus sanggensis existed during the early Oxfordian stage of the Jurassic period, approximately 160 million years ago.
This dinosaur belonged to the divergent Mamenchisauridae family, sharing a close relationship with other Mamenchisaurus species.
“The diversity of sauropod dinosaurs peaked in the Late Jurassic, encompassing numerous geographically widespread non-neosauropod eusauropod lineages (like Mamenchisaurs and turiasaurs) alongside a broad array of globally distributed neosauropod members (Diplodocoidea and Macronaria),” stated Dr. Hui Dai, a paleontologist at the Chongqing Institute of Paleontology.
“Late Jurassic sedimentary formations in China preserve a rich sauropod fossil record, predominantly featuring mamenchisaurids, although precise neosauropod remains are largely recognized from the Middle Early Jurassic period.”
“The dominance of sauropod faunas in Asia contrasts sharply with that of contemporary European and North and South American strata.”
“Additionally, most of the late Jurassic Asian sauropod diversity is traced back to deposits from the lower section, particularly around the transition from the Middle to Late Jurassic.”
A partial skeleton of Mamenchisaurus sanggensis was uncovered at a fossil site in Chongqing, located in southwest China.
“The remains were found in reddish-purple silty mudstone near the upper layer of the Shaximyo formation,” paleontologists noted.
“While a general Callovian-Oxford age for this formation has traditionally been assumed, the exact age remains a subject of debate.”
The discovery of Mamenchisaurus sanggensis adds to the diversity of early-branching sauropod dinosaurs and offers further insights into the evolutionary history of sauropods in northwestern China.
“A deeper understanding of the evolutionary relationships among mid to late Jurassic Chinese eusauropods may have implications for testing theories regarding the isolation of East Asia from western Laurasia and Gondwana during this era and for the paleobiogeographic history of early diverging sauropods and more broadly, eusauropods,” the researchers remarked.
“Nonetheless, our knowledge of this evolutionary transition is incomplete, and a reexamination of specimens is essential to bridge the existing ‘gap’ in East Asian lineages.”
The study was published in the Journal on November 25, 2025 in Scientific Reports.
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H. Dai et al. A new mamenchisaurid sauropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of southwestern China reveals fresh insights into the evolution of East Asian eusauropods. Scientific Reports, published online on November 25, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-29995-z
The moon of Earth stands out as a prominent feature in our night sky. Scientists largely agree that during the early stages of Earth’s formation, a smaller, planet-like object collided with Earth, ejecting a substantial amount of material into space. This debris was subsequently pulled into orbit around Earth due to gravity and maintained a slow enough speed to become trapped in Earth’s gravitational field. However, the giant impact hypothesis has provided clarity on the origin of our moon. In contrast, the origins of other moons in our solar system, like the Martian moons Phobos and Deimos, remain a topic of debate.
An alternate theory suggests that two small celestial bodies approached Mars early in its existence and collided with the gas and dust clouds left from its formation. This surrounding dust could have decelerated them sufficiently for Mars’ gravity to capture them. This theory is referred to as the gas drag capture hypothesis and may account for the existence of Phobos and Deimos. Furthermore, they are composed of different materials than those found on Mars , which raises additional questions.
One challenge to this theory is that the dust density around Mars would have to be several times greater than current models of solar system formation indicate, to slow down approaching objects effectively. Additionally, there’s a question of probability. Although Phobos and Deimos both have orbits that lie within 2° of the Martian equator, the odds of both objects aligning with Mars at an angle that matches the equator is around only 0.00001%.
To investigate the viability of this scenario, two scientists from Japan developed a model aimed at calculating the trajectory of a Phobos-sized object approaching Mars. The aim was to show, through various challenges, that the gas drag trap hypothesis might not be as implausible as previously believed.
Phobos orbits Mars about 3,700 miles or 6,000 kilometers above the planet’s surface and is slowly falling towards Mars. Deimos orbits Mars at a distance of 14,600 miles, or 23,500 kilometers. “Mars Moons” by Muskid is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
Initially, the researchers defined the pertinent equations of motion to include in their model. This included variables such as the angular velocity of an object approaching Mars, its distance from the planet, its potential energy, and the drag force that reduces its speed. Additionally, they factored in Mars’ mass and the state of the surrounding matter at the time, which they referred to as the primitive atmosphere of Mars. They estimated this atmosphere’s temperature at 200 Kelvin (approximately -73°C or -100°F) and its density at 4.7 × 10.-7 kilograms per cubic meter, increasing near the Martian surface and decreasing exponentially with height.
Next, the team needed to establish the initial orbit of the incoming satellite, testing eight different speeds ranging from 20 meters/second to 160 meters/second (about 45 miles/hour to 360 miles/hour) in 20 meters/second increments. There were 4,096 angles of incidence to be tested relative to Mars’ equator and poles, leading to a total of 32,768 initial trajectory combinations for objects approaching Mars.
Their findings indicated three potential outcomes for objects entering Mars’ primordial atmosphere: they could escape Mars’ gravitational grasp, become temporarily trapped, or be permanently ensnared. Remarkably, nearly all objects approached at the slowest speeds were captured in some capacity, while only around 10% of those at the highest speeds were captured. The researchers posited that about 1 in 50 incoming objects would be permanently secured by Mars, particularly if they lost enough energy, limiting their orbits to within 10 degrees of Mars’ equator.
The research team proposed a potential history for Phobos and Deimos, suggesting that due to their composition, they likely formed in the outer solar system, possibly within or beyond the asteroid belt. Over time, they may have been scattered by Jupiter’s gravitational influence, gradually approaching Mars at the right angles and speeds to be captured by its gas, resulting in their current eccentric orbits. Eventually, their orbits became slower, more circular, and moved closer to Mars.
This proposed scenario aligns well with current observations of Phobos and Deimos. The research team anticipates that future Mars satellite exploration missions will further investigate these moons. The planned mission will orbit Mars and then Phobos, conducting detailed observations and remote sensing while collecting surface samples to return to Earth, enhancing our understanding of these moons’ origins. The mission is set to launch in 2026, with Phobos samples expected to arrive back on Earth in 2031.
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Reading Space: This year’s top science fiction novels
Mikkel William/Getty Images
What are the standout science fiction titles released this year? We will begin with two books that aren’t brand new, yet have recently been translated into English.
First up is ice by Jacek Dukaj, initially released in Poland in 2007 and met with critical acclaim. This alternate history takes place in early 1920s Europe, where a chilling winter has enveloped the land, possibly due to external forces. Our main character must travel on the Trans-Siberian Railway to uncover the truth.
This novel evokes a feeling similar to that of Philip Pullman’s His Dark Materials. Imagine if Pullman’s trilogy were reimagined as classic Russian literature, enriched with darker themes and extended passages.
While I favor concise sentences, if you seek substantial and distinctly original science fiction, and aren’t deterred by lengthy yet rewarding narratives, this could be your perfect match.
The second title is Sea Beasts, penned by Iida Turpeinen, which made waves in Finland in 2023. More of a science-themed novel than pure science fiction, it is exquisitely written and much easier to read than Ice. This story discusses the natural world and environmental degradation through the lens of the extinct sea cow’s journey. It’s an ideal seasonal gift for any literary enthusiast who appreciates tales of exploration or early scientific discoveries from the 1700s.
Now, I want to bring attention to a captivating book that has been on my mind since the start of the year. For all science fiction fans, this is likely to catch your interest.
This year’s standout science fiction for me is Slow Gods, the debut sci-fi novel from renowned author Claire North.
Recently, new science fiction works are often likened to those of the late Iain M. Banks, as publishers recognize the fanbase eager for such tales. While direct comparisons might be tenuous, Slow Gods certainly has the ambition and creativity to warrant such praise.
For those who enjoy classic science fiction narratives, I would also suggest Here and Beyond, which tells a captivating story reminiscent of the Generational Ark, authored by Hal LaCroix.
What We Can Know by Ian McEwan, while not strictly science fiction, is set in a sunken vision of Britain, qualifying it as speculative and environmental dystopia. This makes it a worthwhile read even if you’re not typically a fan of McEwan, as many of its themes linger long after you finish.
Another unique and speculative debut is Simply Put, It’s Beautiful, from Roz Dineen, who is gaining a lot of traction in the UK right now.
If you’re interested in short stories and essays within science fiction, I highly recommend View from the Stars, authored by the renowned Liu Cixin, known for The Three-Body Problem. This collection showcases both fiction and nonfiction, demonstrating Liu’s talent as a writer and thinker.
“
New science fiction is often compared to the works of Iain M. Banks. Slow Gods possesses the scope and fearlessness to merit such comparisons. “
Regarding futuristic technology, I found Somebody Like Me by Lucy Lapinska (which examines robot rights) and Every Version of You by Grace Chan (a fresh perspective on humanity in a digital future) to be particularly appealing.
In conclusion, for a gift opportunity for an aspiring science fiction enthusiast, I revisited three timeless classics this year that have aged gracefully: The Prestige by Christopher Priest (Emotionally Complex Puzzles), Neuromancer by William Gibson (The book that sparked the Cyberpunk movement, still profoundly relevant), and The Draco Tavern by Larry Niven (a series of interconnected short stories filled with unexpected concepts).
I hope you all find joy in your reading adventures!
Emily H. Wilson is the author of Sumerian, a trilogy of historical fantasy novels set in the ancient civilization of Sumer. She is currently working on her debut science fiction novel.
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Exercise reduces cancer cell size in mice—possibly applicable to humans
Alfredas Pliadis/Xinhua News Agency/Alamy
Exercise has the potential to slow tumor development in mice by altering metabolic pathways, enabling muscle cells to absorb glucose instead of cancer cells for growth. This may also occur in humans.
While it’s established that exercise lowers cancer risk and healthier individuals generally have better cancer survival rates, the underlying mechanisms are still being explored. Notably, some benefits of exercise appear linked to changes in gut microbiota and the immune system.
To examine another possible pathway, Rachel Perry and her colleagues at Yale University School of Medicine conducted an experiment on 18 mice injected with breast cancer cells. Twelve of these mice were given an obesity-inducing diet, known to accelerate various cancers. Half of the group was also equipped with a running wheel to exercise as desired.
After four weeks, tumors in the exercising obese mice were found to be 60% smaller compared to their non-exercising counterparts, and were slightly smaller than tumors in sedentary mice fed a standard diet. The study revealed that just 30 minutes of exercise led to an increase in oxygen and glucose uptake in skeletal and cardiac muscles, with a corresponding decrease in glucose assimilation by tumors.
“This research demonstrates that aerobic fitness significantly alters the metabolic rivalry between muscle and tumor,” states Perry. “Crucially, the exercise was voluntary—these mice weren’t being forced to run like marathon athletes; they exercised as per their preference.”
The scientists evaluated gene expression and identified changes in 417 genes associated with vital metabolic pathways in mice due to exercise. This indicates that muscle tissue utilizes more glucose while tumor tissue absorbs less.
Specifically, a reduction in mTOR, a protein pivotal for cancer cell proliferation, shows potential for limiting tumor expansion, according to the researchers.
Perry anticipates that these metabolic patterns, which are similar across mammals, may extend to humans, even those without obesity. In fact, analogous gene activity shifts during exercise have been documented in cancer patients.
“This points to another mechanism illustrating how exercise fosters a cancer-suppressive environment,” mentions Rob Newton from Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia. “We need to conduct clinical trials in humans, as there’s no clear reason to suspect it wouldn’t produce similar outcomes.”
Perry emphasizes that metabolism encompasses all tissues and is influenced by both the microbiome and immune responses. “These metabolic adaptations may bridge the connections between exercise, the microbiome, the immune system, and tumor progression,” she explains. “However, I’d be surprised if the positive implications of exercise stemmed from a single mechanism.”
This discussion also sheds light on why lower muscle mass heightens cancer mortality risk, as observed by Newton. “If your muscles preferentially absorb glucose, increasing muscle mass and regularly activating your muscles could yield significant advantages.”
He believes it’s crucial to view exercise not just as a lifestyle change but as an adjunctive anti-cancer intervention alongside other treatments. “Identifying primary environmental contributors to cancer is key, and we must formulate specific strategies to address them,” Newton concludes. “While enhancing cardiorespiratory fitness is beneficial, if a patient presents with notably low muscle mass, that should be prioritized with strength training.”
Corals construct their skeletons from calcium carbonate, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
Reinhard Dirscherl/Alamy
For the last 250 million years, coral reef systems have been crucial to the Earth’s climate, but perhaps not in the manner you might assume.
Coral reefs generate excess carbon dioxide because the formation of calcium carbonate, which constitutes coral skeletons, involves the release of greenhouse gases.
Certain plankton species utilize calcium carbonate to form their shells, and when these organisms perish, the mineral becomes buried on the ocean floor. In ecosystems dominated by coral, calcium and carbonate ions that typically nourish deep-sea plankton are rendered inaccessible.
Tristan Salles and his team at the University of Sydney conducted a modeling study on the interactions among shallow corals and deep-sea plankton over the last 250 million years, incorporating reconstructions of plate tectonics, climate simulations, and variations in sediment contribution to the ocean.
They determined that tectonic activity and geographic features foster periods with extensive shallow continental shelves, which provide optimal conditions for reef-building corals, thereby disrupting the coral-plankton dynamics.
As the area covered by coral reefs diminishes, calcium and alkali levels accumulate in the ocean, enhancing plankton productivity and increasing the burial of carbonate in the deep ocean. This shift contributes to lower CO2 concentrations and cooler temperatures.
The study revealed three significant disruptions in the carbon cycle over the past 250 million years. During these events—specifically in the Mid-Triassic, Mid-Jurassic, and Late Cretaceous—extensive coral reefs consumed vast amounts of calcium carbonate, resulting in notable ocean temperature increases.
Once the balance between shallow-sea corals and deep-sea plankton is disrupted, realignment can require hundreds of thousands to millions of years, noted Salles.
“Even if the system recovers from a significant crisis, achieving equilibrium will be a prolonged process, significantly extending beyond human timelines,” Salles elaborated.
On a brighter note, Salles observes that corals excel at absorbing excess nutrients to aid in reef building, even if planktonic nutrient growth gets excessive.
Currently, human-induced carbon dioxide emissions are driving unprecedented global warming and ocean acidification, endangering both corals and plankton, according to Salles. While the outcomes remain uncertain, the potential impact on ecosystems could be catastrophic.
“The feedback mechanisms we modeled span deep time and may not be relevant today. The current rate of change is too rapid for carbonate platform feedbacks to maintain similar significance.”
Alexander Skiles from the Australian National University in Canberra remarks that this research illustrates a “profoundly interconnected feedback cycle between ecosystems and climate.”
He suggested that while species are presumed to evolve and adapt to the climatic conditions dictated by “immutable physical and chemical processes,” it is increasingly evident that certain species are actively shaping the climate itself, leading to co-evolutionary feedback loops.
“Beyond corals, ancient microbial colonies like stromatolites have significantly influenced atmospheric carbon regulation,” Skiles pointed out.
“It is well-recognized that carbon is accelerating climate warming at an alarming rate. Corals contribute to this dynamic over extensive geological time, which may elucidate fluctuations between warmer and cooler periods.”
The International Space Station (ISS) might be facing a significant shift towards reduced international collaboration. A critical launch site in Russia, the only one capable of sending humans into orbit, has been heavily damaged and could remain non-operational for up to two years. This situation presents a challenging dilemma for NASA: either shoulder increased expenses and duties or consider decommissioning the ISS.
The Soyuz spacecraft took off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on November 27, transporting two cosmonauts alongside an American astronaut. While all three arrived at the ISS safely, subsequent evaluations of the launch pads revealed that a crucial multi-layered support structure, which is typically retracted during the initial launch phases, had collapsed into the flame trench, sustaining significant damage.
According to reports, repairs might take as long as two years. The Russian space agency, Roscosmos, stated that damage repairs will begin “soon.” The actual extent of the issues remains uncertain.
While the Baikonur Cosmodrome has several launch pads, the damaged one, Site 31, Launch Pad 6, has been operational since 1958 and is the only pad configured for manned missions. David Amato from Imperial College London notes that alternative Russian launch facilities face similar complications that eliminate their viability. The Plesetsk Cosmodrome, located 650 kilometers northeast of St. Petersburg, is positioned too far north for efficient ISS launches, while Vostochny Cosmodrome, near the Chinese border, lacks sufficient infrastructure.
“Many space missions hinge on critical vulnerabilities like this, particularly those that are winding down, such as the ISS,” Amato indicated.
Certainly, the ISS’s operational lifespan has exceeded expectations, having initially been planned for decommissioning in 2020, with several delays thereafter. Current intentions forecast a gradual descent to lower orbits beginning next year, potentially lasting until 2030, after which the crew will dismantle its functional and historic equipment before its final descent toward Earth, expected to fully disintegrate by 2031. Details regarding this process can be found here: “A 400-ton mass of flame is hurtling through the upper atmosphere at orbital velocity.”
Should Russia withdraw, NASA would likely need to further invest in resources and funds to maintain ISS operations—a daunting prospect, especially since the program is nearing its conclusion.
However, Amato casts doubt on whether the U.S. aims to fully terminate the ISS. Without it, both the U.S. and Europe would lack a venue for astronauts, leading to minimal incentives to launch personnel into orbit until longer-term projects like a commercial space station or lunar habitats are established. In contrast, China, America’s principal economic competitor, operates a flourishing space station.
“The optics are not favorable,” Amato noted, “and losing the ISS would be substantial since invaluable research facilitated by this platform would cease to exist.”
The ISS’s inception in the 1990s emerged from a different geopolitical context. Following the Soviet Union’s collapse, there was a mutual interest in launching a collaborative initiative between the former superpowers. The ISS was meticulously crafted to foster not only cooperation but to necessitate it. The Russian orbital segment (ROS), managed by Roscosmos, plays a critical role in trajectory control, while the US orbital segment (USOS), overseen by NASA and collaborated on with European, Japanese, and Canadian space agencies, is solar-powered. Cooperation is essential for both components to function effectively.
However, relationships have soured, and current tensions between the United States and Russia parallel geopolitical strains on Earth, a reality worsened by Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
Should Russia entirely pull out from the ISS partnership, NASA and its counterparts would face the daunting task of transporting not only astronauts but also crucial supplies like fuel and food—a responsibility previously managed by Russia. NASA would have to address these adjustments. There are more complex inquiries to address, notably regarding the formal management and operation of the Russian section of the ISS. Given recent budget reductions, NASA must scrutinize the feasibility of such an undertaking.
As of this writing, many of Roscosmos’ websites are down, and inquiries regarding the condition of Site 31 have gone unanswered. The European and Canadian space agencies have also not replied to media requests for commentary on the situation with Roscosmos. New Scientist reports.
Nadie Russell, a NASA Public Relations Officer, told New Scientist that the agency would “collaborate closely with our international partners, including Roscosmos, to ensure the safe operation of the ISS and its crew.” Nonetheless, Russell refrained from addressing specific queries about Russia’s ongoing involvement or whether contingency measures are in place should Russia choose to disengage.
Russia has time to evaluate these matters before its next crewed flight to the ISS, slated for July, although it must quickly formulate a strategy to rectify the issues at Baikonur.
Lia Nani Alconcel, a professor at the University of Birmingham in the UK, points out that there are alternatives for crewed travel to the ISS, such as SpaceX’s Dragon capsule, which has successfully transported American astronauts to orbit. Should U.S.-based SpaceX become the sole option for reaching the ISS, it would represent a stark reversal from the early 2000s, when the U.S. was dependent on Russia for crew transport after the retirement of the Space Shuttle.
“Contractual issues may arise regarding launch agreements, but those are legal matters, not engineering challenges,” Alconcel remarked.
This alternative approach could ease some burdens on NASA and alleviate the pressure of urgently needing to establish a new program to compensate for the loss of Russian expertise and capabilities.
“Roscosmos specifically trains astronauts for essential tasks related to the Russian orbital segment, making it a formidable challenge for NASA to independently operate the ISS,” Alconcel explained, highlighting that NASA is pursuing a similar approach on the American segment.
Innovative training protocols now enable even injured or disabled cats to experience underwater treadmill therapy and pools without fear.
This adaptive approach lowers stress levels, ensuring cats feel secure and can reap the benefits of the same water-based rehabilitation that aids dogs, horses, and humans. Stefania Uccedu from San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Research Institute in Padua, Italy.
“This is quite unexpected, as it boils down to habituation,” she explains. “Cats, like humans seeing the beach for the first time, have no concept of water. However, once they acclimate to the therapy setting, water becomes less of a concern.”
Underwater treadmills and pool therapies allow both animals and humans to exercise with less strain, making them excellent for rehabilitation and strength training for orthopedic issues like joint and tendon injuries, neurological problems, and senior care.
However, due to their evolution in arid environments, cats often feel extreme stress when encountering water or unfamiliar spaces, leading many owners and therapists to skip aquatic therapy altogether. The rare rehabilitation centers that include cats in water programs often adapt methods originally designed for dogs, according to Uccedu.
To address this, she and her team created a cat-specific protocol. Initially, the cat explores the room to dry off the equipment, then feels a damp towel on its paws. Next, the cat stands in a warm 5-centimeter deep water, familiarizes itself with the treadmill’s sound, and gradually is introduced to deeper water, always with the owner close by. Rewards such as food, petting, and toys are given based on the cats’ preferences.
“Notably, younger cats seem distracted by moving objects, allowing them to forget about the motion itself,” Uccedu notes.
Cat engaging in aquatic therapy protocol
San Marco Clinic Veterinary Research Institute
The team tested the protocol with 12 cats of various ages, breeds, and conditions drawn from the clinic’s feline patients with neurological and orthopedic issues.
During the program, each cat was observed for specific stress behaviors such as excessive meowing, licking their nose, and signs of fear. If a cat displayed these behaviors five or more times within a minute, the session was halted.
Uccedu reported that all 12 cats successfully completed rehabilitation programs of varying lengths, from a few weeks to a year, depending on their specific conditions. The cats exhibited remarkable physical progress, with some fully recovering and even climbing trees once again.
Encouraged by the favorable outcomes, the team began applying the protocol in swimming pools, integrating different lighting and music to create a more soothing environment. “Ultimately, the choice is up to the cat,” Uccedu emphasizes. “Some may prefer classical music, while others might enjoy Madonna.”
She stresses that these findings show that cats should not be dismissed from aquatic therapy based solely on their supposed aversion to water. “The encouraging news is that any clinic can apply this protocol and achieve similar outcomes.”
A man has become the seventh individual to rid himself of HIV after receiving a stem cell transplant for blood cancer. Notably, he was the second case among seven to receive stem cells that weren’t resistant to the virus, reinforcing the idea that resistant cells may not be essential for HIV treatment.
“Understanding that treatment can occur without this resistance offers us additional avenues for combating HIV,” remarks Christian Gabler at the Free University of Berlin.
So far, five individuals have been cleared of HIV following transplants from donors possessing mutations in both copies of a gene responsible for CCR5, a protein that HIV targets to infect immune cells. Scientists have drawn conclusions that having two copies of a mutation that eradicates CCR5 from immune cells is crucial for eliminating HIV. “It was previously thought that the use of HIV-resistant stem cells was key,” states Gabler.
However, last year, a sixth instance emerged, known as the Geneva patient, who was declared free of the virus. His infection persisted for over two years after receiving stem cells that lacked the CCR5 mutation, indicating that CCR5 might not be the complete narrative, though many scientists suggest that two years without viral infection may not suffice to confirm an actual cure, Gabler notes.
The recent cases bolster the hypothesis that the Geneva patient has indeed been cured. The research includes a male who received stem cells in October 2015 to address leukemia, a blood cancer characterized by uncontrolled growth of immune cells. At the time, the patient was 51 years old and was infected with HIV. During the treatment, he underwent chemotherapy to eliminate a majority of his immune cells, allowing the donor’s stem cells to generate a healthier immune system.
Ideally, the man would have received HIV-resistant stem cells; however, these were unavailable, leading doctors to use cells with one typical and one mutated copy of the CCR5 gene. During this time, the patient was undergoing conventional HIV care known as antiretroviral therapy (ART), a regimen of medications that suppress the virus to undetectable levels, preventing transmission and reducing the likelihood of donor cells becoming infected.
Approximately three years post-transplant, he opted to discontinue ART. “He felt that he had waited long enough after the stem cell transplant and believed his cancer was in remission, so he anticipated a positive outcome from the transplant,” Gabler explained.
Shortly thereafter, tests revealed no traces of the virus in the man’s blood samples. Since then, he has remained free of the virus for seven years and three months, qualifying him as “cured.” He holds the record for the second-longest duration HIV-free amongst the seven declared cases, achieving this status longer than some by around a dozen years. “It’s astonishing that a decade ago he was very likely facing death from cancer, and now he has conquered a terminal diagnosis of a lingering viral infection without any medication. He is in good health,” Gabler remarked.
This discovery challenges our perceptions of what it entails to treat HIV through this method. “We once believed that transplantation required a donor without CCR5, but now it seems that’s not the case,” points out Ravindra Gupta from the University of Cambridge, who was not part of the study.
It’s generally assumed that the success of such treatments hinges on the inability of the virus to hide within remaining immune cells of the recipient after chemotherapy, thus preventing infection or replication in the donor’s cells. “Essentially, you deplete the pool of host cells that the virus can infect,” argues Gabler.
Nevertheless, Gabler speculates that the latest cases imply a potential cure can be achieved as long as non-resistant donor cells can eliminate the recipient’s remaining original immune cells before the virus has a chance to spread. Such immune responses often arise from variations in the proteins that the two cell sets display. These, he notes, enable donor cells to recognize the remaining recipient cells as a threat that must be eradicated.
The findings indicate a wider array of stem cell transplants might offer the possibility of curing HIV than previously believed, including those that do not exhibit two copies of the CCR5 mutation, according to Gabler.
However, for this to be effective, several factors must align, such as the genetic compatibility between the recipient and donor to ensure the donor’s cells can swiftly eradicate the recipient’s cells. Additionally, in the most recent case, the man possessed one copy of the CCR5 mutation, which may have modified his immune cell dynamics throughout his body, aiding in the eradication of the virus, Gabler noted.
This suggests that most individuals undergoing stem cell transplants for HIV or blood cancers should ideally receive HIV-resistant stem cells, as emphasized by Gabler.
It’s crucial to recognize that individuals with HIV who do not have cancer will not gain from stem cell transplants, as these procedures are highly risky and prone to life-threatening infections, Gabler warns. Most experts agree that adhering to ART (typically taken in pill form daily) is substantially safer and more practical for halting HIV’s spread. This approach allows many to lead longer, healthier lives. Moreover, a newly available medication, lenacapavir, offers nearly complete protection against HIV with just two injections annually.
Despite this, research continues on treating HIV through gene editing of immune cells and exploring preventive vaccines.
Consider having a life-threatening illness. All scientific assessments point to a definitive diagnosis and a grim prognosis. Yet, upon visiting a doctor, they fail to acknowledge the condition directly. After some brief small talk, they shake your hand and suggest scheduling your next appointment in a year.
No one would accept such a medical standard, yet this mirrors our approach to climate change. The 30th Conference of the Parties (COP) Summit wrapped up last weekend in Belém, Brazil. While notable strides have been made in addressing climate change, particularly with the 2015 Paris Agreement aimed at restricting temperature increases to below 1.5°C, this goal is largely unachieved. Nonetheless, it steers us towards reduced warming compared to what might have been without it.
However, it’s evident that the COP process is becoming inadequate for the challenges we face. As highlighted in our report on page 6, COP30 concluded without even mentioning fossil fuels—the primary driver of climate change—in the final document. Despite over 80 nations advocating for a roadmap toward a “post-fossil fuel transition,” this initiative faced resistance from oil-rich nations like Saudi Arabia, a former organizer of COP. The necessity of consensus within COP leaves us only with the promise of future discussions at COP31 in Turkey next year.
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Nations advocating for climate action should prioritize solar power and battery technology. “
This situation cannot persist, but changing the COP process will be a challenge. If we can’t advocate for an end to the fossil fuel era through scientific and political means, we must turn to technological and economic solutions.
Nations committed to climate action should concentrate on solar energy and battery technologies, providing the world with cheaper alternatives to oil and gas. Countries striving for a sustainable future might need to implement economic sanctions against those showing disinterest in progress. Whatever the course of action, simply saying “see you next year” is no longer a viable option.
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