During the crucial refueling process, initiated at 12:30 PM ET on Monday, mission managers temporarily halted operations twice to investigate a hydrogen fuel leak emanating from the rear of the rocket.
Although testing of the Orion spacecraft atop the rocket resumed, the hydrogen leak reoccurred in the final moments of the mock launch countdown.
NASA reported that a built-in control system on the rocket, designed to manage the booster in the countdown’s critical final minutes, “automatically halted the countdown due to a sudden spike in liquid hydrogen leakage.”
Engineers are also looking into audio issues that affected communication channels for ground teams during the wet dress rehearsals.
The four astronauts set to embark on Artemis II — NASA’s Reed Wiseman, Christina Koch, Victor Glover, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen — were expected to arrive at Kennedy Space Center on Tuesday afternoon after being quarantined in Houston since January 21 to minimize exposure to bacteria before their mission.
However, NASA has confirmed that the astronauts will not proceed to Florida as anticipated and will be released from their quarantine.
Instead, they will undergo quarantine again approximately two weeks before the next targeted launch opportunity, according to agency officials.
Artemis II marks the second flight for NASA’s Space Launch System rocket and Orion capsule, and it will be the first mission with humans on board.
This much-anticipated launch is set to advance NASA’s objectives of returning astronauts to the lunar surface.
The previous unmanned Artemis I lunar orbit mission in 2022 faced a six-month delay due to a hydrogen leak detected during the initial wet dress rehearsal.
The Artemis II flight carries significant importance, being the inaugural crewed mission aboard the Space Launch System rocket and Orion capsule.
“Our highest priority remains the safety of our astronauts, personnel, systems, and the public,” Isaacman stated on X, emphasizing that NASA will “proceed with the launch only when we are confident in our readiness for this historic mission.”
In 2016, LJ was just 19 years old and on the brink of a transformative journey. After graduating from college with commendable grades, he was excited to explore the world. However, he soon discovered what seemed like a harmless lump on his neck.
“I remember finding a large lump on my neck,” he recalls. “I felt exhausted all the time. It started to interfere with my life.”
Despite visiting the doctor, LJ was convinced it was “just an infection” and delayed follow-up appointments until he was urgently called back for test results. “The doctor told me, ‘This is leukemia,’” LJ reflects. “I couldn’t believe it—cancer at my age? I didn’t even know what leukemia was back then.”
We spoke with LJ about his inspiring cancer journey, how photography became a vital coping tool during a year of intensive treatment, and how Macmillan Cancer Support played a crucial role in guiding him through pivotal decisions in his life.
LJ’s Story: A Life-Altering Diagnosis
In 2016, LJ received a diagnosis of acute lymphoblastic lymphoma, an aggressive cancer necessitating immediate action. Instead of diving into student life, he faced grueling hospital stays with a bleak prognosis of only a 5% survival rate.
“I was stuck in a hospital bed undergoing chemotherapy, surgeries, radiation therapy, and stem cell transplants… it was overwhelming,” LJ shares. “I endured numerous procedures and constant needles…”
“The hardest part is hearing that treatments aren’t effective,” he continues. “Chemotherapy fails, radiotherapy fails, surgery fails. There’s a lot of chaos and distress. Despite your hopes and beliefs, things might not go as planned.”
LJ and his tutor Margot: discovering a passion for photography during treatment
Finding Freedom in Photography
Before his diagnosis, LJ was a typical teenager, exploring creativity, traveling, skateboarding, and enjoying time with friends in London. Suddenly, he found himself “isolated in a room or a ward”, painfully aware that days felt like they had no end.
As the walls of his physical environment closed in, LJ discovered that photography and videography opened a new world for him. By documenting his experiences through photos and videos, he created a much-needed escape: a creative outlet and a way to process his reality.
“I had a little Canon PowerShot G7 camera at the time,” he shares. “Taking photos helped me express my feelings without leaving the hospital. I could capture my emotions and enjoy the creative process. It was incredibly fulfilling.”
Macmillan’s guidance empowered LJ to make important decisions during critical moments
Macmillan Support During a Crucial Time
During this challenging treatment phase, LJ came across vital information from Macmillan Cancer Support in the form of a pamphlet, which provided essential guidance for his future. “I received a leaflet from Macmillan about cancer and fertility,” he states.
“After multiple surgeries, fertility can be affected, and I learned that I might not be able to have children,” he reveals. “The insights in that pamphlet helped me comprehend my situation significantly.”
Now, a decade after his diagnosis and in remission, the support from Macmillan has made a lasting impact on LJ’s life. “Without that booklet, I would have likely made decisions I’d regret,” he states.
Gifts in wills fund over a third of Macmillan’s services, including the resources that aided LJ, ensuring continued access to trusted cancer support, from helplines to informational booklets and community support across the UK. Having clear guidance and support from Macmillan was pivotal for LJ in making informed decisions about sperm storage at a critical time.
Thanks to Macmillan’s support, LJ is dedicated to raising awareness about cancer in young men
Why Consider Leaving a Gift to Macmillan Cancer Support in Your Will?
As LJ approaches a decade since his diagnosis, he has transformed his life, establishing himself as a skilled fashion and event photographer. You can view his remarkable portfolio here. Additionally, he is involved with Macmillan, helping to spread cancer awareness among young men.
“Macmillan helped me share my story and be heard. If my experience inspires someone to keep fighting, then I feel fulfilled,” he adds.
In the UK, someone is diagnosed with cancer every 90 seconds. LJ understands the importance of having Macmillan’s support when it matters most, and he has a special message for those contemplating leaving a legacy gift.
“Each day, many people receive a cancer diagnosis. While no one can fully understand your feelings, having someone who can clarify information about your cancer is invaluable. That’s the kind of support Macmillan offers.”
Thanks to Macmillan’s guidance, LJ was able to better understand his situation while focusing on his passions. Your legacy gift will empower Macmillan to provide essential care to more individuals facing cancer, regardless of their background. For more information on how to leave a gift in your Will to Macmillan Cancer Support, request our free Gifting in a Will guide.
Consuming oats exclusively for two consecutive days may significantly impact your metabolic health, based on new research.
A study involving 17 participants had them eat 300 g (10.5 oz) of oatmeal daily, prepared with water and optionally topped with fruits and vegetables, for two days without any other food.
Participants lost approximately 2 kg (4.4 lb) and experienced a 10% reduction in their LDL (bad) cholesterol levels. Improvements in gut health and blood pressure were noted, with lasting effects even six weeks after the diet.
Researchers from the University of Bonn in Germany compared this short-term intervention to a six-week long-term diet, where another group of 17 participants added 80 g (2.8 oz) of oats to their regular meals.
The short-term oat-only approach proved more effective, highlighting that the metabolic benefits observed stem from an intensive, short-term diet rather than gradual inclusion into everyday eating habits.
All participants were diagnosed with metabolic syndrome, which affects nearly one-third of adults and is often accompanied by weight gain, elevated blood pressure, increased blood sugar, and high cholesterol levels.
Metabolic syndrome heightens the risk of obesity-related diseases such as type 2 diabetes and heart conditions, and is linked to poor gut health.
Research indicates that oats may provide essential fiber, vitamins, minerals, and anti-inflammatory compounds known as polyphenols, making them beneficial for this demographic.
High LDL cholesterol is a significant risk factor for heart disease, heart attacks, and strokes – Credit: Getty Images
During the digestive process, some foods are metabolized by gut microorganisms, which release chemicals that can have various effects on your health depending on the food and the type of bacteria involved.
The two-day porridge diet led to an increase in beneficial compounds, particularly ferulic acid, known to lower cholesterol levels in past studies.
Participants who exhibited the highest increases in ferulic acid also experienced notable reductions in total and LDL cholesterol.
Scientists concluded that the gut interaction between bacteria and oats indicates that a brief oat-centric diet could serve as an affordable, sustainable, and effective strategy for addressing metabolic syndrome.
This research was published in Nature Communications.
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Cellulite is a common skin concern characterized by uneven, dimpled areas often likened to the texture of orange peel or cottage cheese. It is predominantly found on the thighs, buttocks, and hips.
Research indicates that 80-90 percent of women develop cellulite after puberty, while men are significantly less affected and not entirely immune.
Despite its prevalence, cellulite is often misunderstood and incorrectly associated solely with excess weight or an unhealthy lifestyle. In reality, multiple factors contribute to its formation.
What Causes Cellulite?
Cellulite results from an interplay between fat cells, connective tissue, and skin structure. Fibrous bands, known as septa, anchor the skin to the underlying muscles.
In women, these bands are vertically oriented, causing adipose lobules (fat cell clumps) to push through, creating dimples when the skin above is thinner or less elastic.
Men tend to have a cross-structure in connective tissue, which helps reduce the visibility of cellulite. This physiological difference is one reason men develop fewer wrinkles.
The structure of our skin helps explain why men are less likely to develop cellulite – Photo credit: Getty
Hormones, particularly estrogen, significantly influence this process. Estrogen affects blood flow to the skin, fat distribution, and tissue structure.
Factors like puberty, pregnancy, and hormonal changes during menopause or through hormonal contraceptives can lead to an increase in cellulite visibility.
Genetics also play a crucial role in determining skin thickness, collagen integrity, and fat distribution. Aging further exacerbates these effects as collagen production declines and skin thins, making cellulite more noticeable.
Lifestyle factors such as smoking and poor circulation contribute to the development of cellulite.
In conclusion, cellulite arises from a combination of biological and environmental factors, including chemical pollution. It’s not merely a result of being overweight.
Can Cellulite Be Removed?
Despite a booming industry promising quick fixes, no treatment has proven to permanently eliminate cellulite. It is not classified as a disease, but rather a typical structural characteristic of human skin. However, various approaches can temporarily diminish its appearance.
Lifestyle changes can be beneficial. Incorporating strength training enhances muscle tone and reduces skin laxity, while aerobic exercises improve circulation.
While managing weight may shrink fat cells, cellulite can still persist in those with a healthy weight. A balanced diet and quitting smoking promote overall skin and connective tissue health but do not specifically target cellulite.
Topical treatments featuring caffeine or retinol may yield minor short-term improvements by dehydrating fat cells or thickening the skin.
Massage techniques, ranging from manual methods to devices like endermologie, can enhance lymphatic drainage and circulation but offer only temporary results.
Medical procedures can provide more significant effects, such as laser and radiofrequency treatments designed to disrupt fibrous bands and stimulate collagen production. Subcision, a minor surgical technique, releases these bands under the skin.
Although these options can enhance skin texture for months or even years, they can be costly, invasive, and carry certain risks.
Conclusion
Cellulite should be viewed as a normal aspect of human skin, particularly in women. It does not indicate poor health, fitness, or self-care and does not require treatment unless one desires cosmetic improvements.
Embracing cellulite as a natural variation in body structure can help shift the perspective away from “fixing” it and towards accepting it as part of human diversity.
This article addresses the query “Why does cellulite form and can it be reduced?” (submitted by Judy Price from Solihull).
If you have any questions, feel free to reach out via:questions@sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please remember to include your name and location).
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Paleontologists have made significant strides in understanding Europe’s elusive ceratopsians through newly discovered fossils and advanced imaging techniques. Notably, the iguanodon has been reclassified as a true member of the ceratopsian clade.
Possible restoration of Aikaceratops kosmai. Image credit: Matthew Dempsey.
Ceratopsians are a fascinating group of herbivorous ornithischian dinosaurs recognized for their unique parrot-like beaks, bony frills, and distinctive horns.
These remarkable creatures thrived primarily during the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 100 to 66 million years ago.
While ceratopsian fossils are plentiful in Asia and North America, they are notably scarce in Europe.
Previously, evidence in Europe consisted of only a few incomplete and contentious specimens.
The recent discovery of new, well-preserved fossils of Aikaceratops from the Late Cretaceous in Hungary has sparked new research employing CT scans and thorough evolutionary analysis.
Initially described in 2010, Aikaceratops has faced controversy, with some experts regarding it as a horned dinosaur and others viewing it as a distant relative of the ceratopsians, particularly the iguanodon. Despite the debate, it exhibits traits that suggest ceratopsian characteristics.
Utilizing new skull material, Professor Susannah Maidment from the Natural History Museum and the University of Birmingham, along with her colleagues, determined that the dinosaur is not only a ceratopsian but also part of the previously identified rhabdodontid family, which includes Moclodon.
The analysis revealed that several previously misclassified dinosaurs assumed to be rhabdodontids were in fact ceratopsians.
“Although iguanodon and triceratops appear distinctly different, they share a common ancestor, inheriting certain traits,” Professor Maidment stated.
“Both groups uniquely evolved four legs, complex chewing mechanisms, and large body sizes.”
“This shared history makes their teeth and limbs quite similar, complicating classification based on partial skeletons.”
This study confirms the presence of ceratopsians in Europe, addressing a long-standing gap in our understanding of these dinosaurs’ migration across the Northern Hemisphere.
“The initial fossil of Aikaceratops was so incomplete that many scientists doubted its classification as a ceratopsian,” noted Professor Richard Butler from the University of Birmingham.
“What’s fascinating about the new findings regarding Aikaceratops is that they validate the existence of horned dinosaurs in Cretaceous Europe and challenge us to rethink our understanding of ancient ecosystems.”
The earliest ceratopsians, such as Yinlong, originated in Asia and migrated multiple times to North America, leading to the evolution of frilled species like triceratops and Torosaurus.
The most plausible route for this dispersal would have been through Europe, though the scarcity of fossils has posed challenges.
“We know that dinosaurs were capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean, which was just starting to form during the Cretaceous,” explained Professor Maidment.
“Dinosaurs like Allosaurus have been discovered in both Portugal and the United States, suggesting some level of intercontinental travel was possible.”
“Many dinosaurs could swim, and the islands within the Central European Basin were relatively close, making island-hopping a likely scenario.”
“While triceratops is one of the most recognized horned dinosaurs, most species are native to North America, and many were once misidentified as other types, leading to their obscured presence in Europe,” remarked Professor Steve Brusatte from the University of Edinburgh.
The findings are detailed in a study published in the journal Nature.
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SCR Maidment et al. Hidden diversity of ceratopsians in Late Cretaceous Europe. Nature published online on January 7, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09897-w
Researchers from Korea University are paving the way for more efficient and cost-effective renewable energy generation by utilizing gold nanospheres designed to capture light across the entire solar spectrum.
Hung Lo et al. introduced plasmonic colloidal superballs as a versatile platform for broadband solar energy harvesting. Image credit: Hung Lo et al., doi: 10.1021/acsami.5c23149.
Scientists are exploring novel materials that efficiently absorb light across the solar spectrum to enhance solar energy harvesting.
Gold and silver nanoparticles have been identified as viable options due to their ease of fabrication and cost-effectiveness, yet current nanoparticles primarily absorb visible wavelengths.
To extend absorption into additional wavelengths, including near-infrared light, researcher Seungwoo Lee and colleagues from Korea University propose the innovative use of self-assembled gold superballs.
These unique structures consist of gold nanoparticles aggregating to form small spherical shapes.
The diameter of the superball was meticulously adjusted to optimize absorption of sunlight’s diverse wavelengths.
The research team first employed computer simulations to refine the design of each superball and predict the overall performance of the superball film.
Simulation outcomes indicated that the superball could absorb over 90% of sunlight’s wavelengths.
Next, the scientists created a film of gold superballs by drying a solution containing these structures on a commercially available thermoelectric generator, a device that converts light energy into electricity.
Films were produced under ambient room conditions—no cleanroom or extreme temperatures needed.
In tests using an LED solar simulator, the average solar absorption rate of the superball-coated thermoelectric generator reached approximately 89%, nearly double that of a conventional thermoelectric generator featuring a single gold nanoparticle membrane (45%).
“Our plasmonic superball offers a straightforward method to harness the entire solar spectrum,” said Dr. Lee.
“Ultimately, this coating technology could significantly reduce barriers for high-efficiency solar and photothermal systems in real-world energy applications.”
The team’s research is published in the journal ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces.
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Ro Kyung Hoon et al.. 2026. Plasmonic Supraball for Scalable Broadband Solar Energy Generation. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 18 (1): 2523-2537; doi: 10.1021/acsami.5c23149
Astronomers utilizing the groundbreaking Event Horizon Telescope—a global network of eight advanced radio telescopes—have pinpointed the likely origin of a massive space jet emanating from the core of Messier 87.
This Webb/NIRCam image showcases the extraordinary space jet of Messier 87. Image credits: Jan Röder, Maciek Wielgus, Joseph B. Jensen, Gagandeep S. Anand, R. Brent Tully.
Messier 87, a colossal elliptical galaxy situated approximately 53 million light-years away in the Virgo constellation, is of great scientific interest.
Also known as M87, Virgo A, and NGC 4486, this galaxy hosts a supermassive black hole, approximately 6 billion times the mass of our Sun.
This supermassive black hole generates a striking, narrow jet of particles that extends roughly 3,000 light-years into the cosmos.
To investigate such distant regions, astronomers are combining radio telescopes from around the world to create a virtual Earth-sized observatory known as the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT).
Using EHT observations of M87 conducted in 2021, researchers assessed the brightness of radio emissions at various spatial scales.
They discovered that the luminous ring surrounding the black hole does not account for all radio emissions, identifying an additional compact source approximately 0.09 light-years from the black hole that aligns with the predicted location of the jet’s base.
“By pinpointing where the jet originates and how it connects to the black hole’s shadow, we are adding significant insights into this cosmic puzzle,” stated Saurabh, a student at the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy and a member of the EHT Collaboration.
“The newly collected data is currently undergoing analysis with contributions from international partners and will soon incorporate additional telescopes, improving our understanding of this area,” remarked Dr. Sebastiano von Fehrenberg, an astronomer at the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics.
“This will provide us with a much clearer view of the jet’s launch region.”
“We’re transitioning from merely calculating the positions of these structures to aiming for direct imaging,” he added.
“The jet is postulated to be launched using the rotational energy of the black hole through electromagnetic processes, presenting a unique laboratory where general relativity and quantum electrodynamics intersect,” explained Professor Bert Lipperda, also from the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics.
“Studying how jets are launched in proximity to a black hole’s event horizon is a crucial advancement in our comprehension of these cosmic titans.”
“The observational data will empower scientists to test theories regarding the interplay between gravity and magnetism in the universe’s most extreme environments, bringing us closer to understanding the ‘engines’ that shape entire galaxies.”
Find more details in the result published in the Journal on January 28, 2026, in Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Saurabh et al. 2026. Investigation of the jet-based ejection from M87* with 2021 Event Horizon Telescope observations. A&A 706, A27; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557022
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured stunning new images of the lenticular galaxy NGC 7722.
This captivating Hubble image showcases NGC 7722, a lenticular galaxy located approximately 187 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Pegasus. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / RJ Foley, UC Santa Cruz / Dark Energy Survey / DOE / FNAL / DECam / CTIO / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / Mehmet Yüksek.
NGC 7722, also known by its alternate names IRAS 23361+1540, LEDA 71993, and UGC 12718, was first discovered on August 12, 1864, by German astronomer Heinrich Louis d’Arest.
This intriguing lenticular galaxy is part of the NGC 7711 group, which comprises seven prominent galaxies.
“Lenticular galaxies represent a unique classification that exists between the well-known spiral and elliptical galaxies,” Hubble astronomers stated.
“These galaxies are less common as their ambiguous morphology makes it challenging to classify them definitively as spiral, elliptical, or a hybrid of both.”
“Many known lenticular galaxies, including NGC 7722, exhibit features of both spiral and elliptical types.”
“Although NGC 7722 lacks the prominent arms characteristic of spiral galaxies, it showcases a magnificent glowing halo and a bright central bulge reminiscent of elliptical galaxies,” the researchers explained.
“Unlike elliptical galaxies, NGC 7722 possesses a visible disk featuring concentric rings swirling around a luminous core.”
“One of its most remarkable attributes is the long lanes of dark red dust that elegantly curl around the outer disk and halo.”
Recent images of NGC 7722 taken with Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) bring the galaxy’s striking dust lanes into sharp focus.
“Dust bands are common among lenticular galaxies and create a stunning contrast against the smooth, luminous halo typically surrounding such galaxies,” the astronomers added.
“The distinctive dust lane of NGC 7722, like many other lenticular galaxies, is believed to result from a past merger with another galaxy.”
“While the exact formation processes of lenticular galaxies remain elusive, mergers and gravitational interactions are thought to play a critical role in altering their shapes and influencing their gaseous and dusty content.”
Common air pollutants like ozone and nitric oxide can alter the scent of ants, triggering aggressive behavior from nestmates who perceive them as intruders.
Ants rely on scent for social recognition, and when they encounter individuals with unfamiliar scents, they often react with aggression—biting or even killing the perceived invader. Notably, ozone—a greenhouse gas emitted from vehicle exhaust and industrial processes—can impact the chemical makeup of alkenes, compounds important to the unique scent profile of their colony.
Markus Knaden and researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology in Jena, Germany, previously noted that ozone-induced changes in alkenes can disrupt insect communication, leading to phenomena such as fruit flies mating with inappropriate partners or pollinators like the tobacco moth losing interest in flowers. But how does ozone affect ant behavior?
To explore this, Knaden’s team established artificial colonies of six ant species, exposing them to glass chambers with varied ozone concentrations, mirroring summer levels recorded in Jena. Upon their return, the subjected ants faced attacks from their colony members.
“I honestly didn’t expect this outcome,” Knaden remarked. “We anticipated the ozone might alter just a small fraction—2 to 5 percent—of the overall scent blend.”
In natural settings, such aggressive behavior can hinder colony efficiency, even without any fatalities among the ants, though it is complex to design experiments that effectively measure these impacts.
Daniel Cronauer, a professor at Rockefeller University in New York, commented that the aggression observed is not surprising given the crucial role alkenes play in identifying nestmates.
Alkenes also facilitate other vital ant behaviors, including tracking via footprints and communication between larvae and adults. This study indicates that ozone exposure may lead clonal ant adults (Oseraea Billoi) to neglect their larvae, suggesting that these changes could disrupt various facets of ant life and potentially affect broader ecosystem dynamics.
“In most terrestrial ecosystems, the removal of ants would likely lead to catastrophic consequences,” Cronauer stated. Ants are pivotal for dispersing seeds, aerating soil, and fostering symbiotic relationships with other species.
With global insect populations in decline, this research adds to a growing body of evidence linking air pollution to these declines. Knaden asserts that while current ozone levels may not pose immediate dangers to humans, “we must acknowledge the unseen consequences of our actions.”
Insect and Ecosystem Exploration Safari: Sri Lanka
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A groundbreaking discovery has unveiled a new genus and species of small bipedal dinosaur from fossils found in Burgos, Spain.
Reconstruction of Foskeia pelendonum. Image credit: Martina Charnel.
Foskeia pelendonum thrived during the Early Cretaceous period, approximately 120 million years ago.
This newly identified species is part of the Rhabdodontomorpha, a group of ornithischian dinosaurs that existed primarily from the early to late Cretaceous period.
The diminutive dinosaur was roughly the size of a modern chicken, setting it apart from many of its larger ornithischian relatives.
“From the outset, we recognized the uniqueness of these bones due to their small size,” stated Dr. Fidel Torcida Fernández Baldor, a paleontologist at the Salas de los Infantes Dinosaur Museum.
“Remarkably, this study challenges established global theories regarding the evolution of ornithopod dinosaurs.”
“Miniaturization does not imply evolutionary simplicity. This skull is distinctive and highly specialized,” added Dr. Marcos Becerra from the National University of Córdoba.
“Foskeia pelendonum bridges a 70-million-year gap, serving as a small key to unlock a vast chapter of evolutionary history,” remarked Dr. Thierry Tortosa, a paleontologist at the Sainte-Victoire Nature Reserve.
“This is not a ‘mini’ iguanodon; it’s fundamentally different,” emphasized Dr. Tabata Zanesco Ferreira from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro.
“Its anatomy is peculiar in a way that fundamentally alters the evolutionary tree,” said Dr. Penélope Cursado-Caballero from the University of La Laguna.
The fossilized remnants of at least five individuals of Foskeia pelendonum were excavated from the Vegaguete site in Burgos, Spain.
“This site is part of the Castrillo de la Reina Formation, located between Villanueva de Calazo and Salas de los Infantes,” the researchers noted.
Histological analysis confirmed that the largest specimen was a sexually mature adult.
“The microstructure of the bones suggests that at least one individual was an adult with a metabolic rate akin to that of small mammals and birds,” said Dr. Cohen Stein from Vrije Universiteit Bruxelles.
“Understanding growth and development is vital for comparing anatomical structures within Foskeia pelendonum and other species.”
“Juveniles often exhibit anatomical changes as they mature.”
Phylogenetic analysis indicates that Foskeia pelendonum is closely related to the Australian dinosaur Muttaburasaurus, extending the European clade Rhabdodontia.
“Our findings indicate that herbivorous dinosaurs comprise a natural group called Phytodinosauria,” stated Dr. Paul-Emile Dieudonné from the National University of Rio Negro.
“This hypothesis requires further examination with additional data.”
Despite its modest size, Foskeia pelendonum exhibits specialized dentition and postural changes during growth, adapting for rapid movement through dense vegetation.
“These fossils illustrate that significant evolutionary experiments occurred at both small and large body sizes,” Dieudonné concluded.
“The future of dinosaur research relies on recognizing the significance of small details.”
The discovery of Foskeia pelendonum is detailed in a research paper published in the journal Paleontology Papers.
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l-Emile Dieudonné et al. 2026. Foskeia pelendonum, a new rhabdodontomorph from the Early Cretaceous of Salas de los Infantes (Burgos Province, Spain), and a new lineage of ornithischian dinosaurs. Paleontology Papers 12 (1): e70057; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70057
Timing Cancer Treatment: A Simple Yet Effective Intervention
Kenneth K. Lam/ZUMA Press/Alamy
The first randomized controlled trial investigating the timing of cancer immunotherapy has revealed that administering treatment earlier in the day may significantly enhance patient survival rates.
Human cells and tissues operate on a 24-hour cycle, known as the circadian rhythm, influencing various bodily functions including mood, metabolism, and immune response.
Numerous observational studies have indicated that cancer patients receiving checkpoint inhibitors (a class of immunotherapy drugs that empower the immune system to combat cancer) earlier in the day show a lower risk of disease progression and mortality.
Recently, Francis Levy and his team at the University of Paris-Saclay, France, conducted the first randomized controlled trial focused on chronotherapy—timing treatments based on circadian rhythms—utilizing both chemotherapy and immunotherapy.
In this study, 210 patients diagnosed with non-small cell lung cancer were given four doses of either pembrolizumab or sintilimab, two checkpoint inhibitors that function similarly.
Every three weeks, half of the participants received their doses before 3 p.m., while the others received treatments later. All patients also received chemotherapy immediately after each immunotherapy session. Chemotherapy targets rapidly dividing cells and is believed to have a lesser connection to circadian rhythms than immunotherapy.
This timing was strictly adhered to during the initial four cycles of the combined immunochemotherapy treatments. Following this period, all participants continued receiving the same medications until their tumors advanced or no longer responded, but without specific timing guidelines. Previous research suggests that the first four cycles are crucial, as noted by team member Zhang Yongchang from Central South University, China.
Participants were monitored for an average of 29 months post-initial treatment. Results showed that those treated before 3 p.m. had a median survival of 28 months, compared to 17 months for those treated later in the day. “The results are dramatically positive,” Levy stated. “Survival time nearly doubles.”
“When we compare our findings to significant trials that resulted in new drug approvals, such large effects are rarely observed,” noted Pasquale Innominato from the University of Warwick, UK. He emphasized that the study demonstrates a definitive link between treatment timing and survival outcomes, deeming it solid evidence of causation.
This dramatic improvement may be attributed to T cells, a type of immune cell targeted by checkpoint inhibitors, which tend to accumulate near tumors in the morning and gradually enter the bloodstream later. Administering immunotherapy earlier could position T cells closer to tumors, enabling more effective destruction, according to Levy.
Levy also emphasized the need for further studies to explore if more precise timing, such as 11 a.m., offers additional advantages compared to broader scheduled treatments. Innominato pointed out that having flexibility in timing is advantageous for busy healthcare facilities.
Further investigation is necessary to determine whether managing the timing of chemoimmunotherapy beyond the first four cycles yields greater benefits, Levy mentioned. Individual variability could also play a critical role; for example, a morning person may have different immune responses compared to a night owl.
Whether these findings apply to various cancer types remains an open question. Innominato anticipates similar results in other tumors commonly treated with immunotherapy, like skin or bladder cancers, but tempered his expectations for tumors such as prostate or pancreatic cancers that often resist treatments.
Possible Large Clump of Dark Matter Near Our Galaxy
Credit: Alamy
A significant discovery indicates the presence of a gigantic dark matter cloud adjacent to our solar system. These clouds, previously unidentified in the Milky Way, have been detected thanks to precise cosmic clocks known as pulsars.
Current cosmological models propose that galaxies are enveloped in diffuse clouds of dark matter called halos, with smaller subhaloes scattered throughout. However, the elusive nature of dark matter, which neither emits, absorbs, nor reflects light, complicates the detection of these halos and subhalos.
To quantify this dark matter phenomenon, Sukanya Chakrabarti and her research team at the University of Alabama in Huntsville leveraged pairs of rapidly spinning neutron stars known as pulsars. These cosmic clocks emit beams of light at consistent intervals, allowing researchers to measure variations in their trajectories when influenced by large nearby mass.
Given that dark matter interacts with ordinary matter solely through gravity, an adjacent dark matter subhalo would alter the orbit of neighboring pulsars. This is precisely what Chakrabarti and her collaborators identified approximately 3,000 light years from our solar system. “Our observations detected a pair of pulsars whose motions indicate an unexpected gravitational pull from an unseen object,” comments Philip Chan from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
The research revealed that this gravitational influence originated from an object approximately 60 million times more massive than the Sun and spanning hundreds of light years. After mapping the location against stellar data, no correlations with known celestial bodies were found. If validated, this object could be a unique example of dark matter.
This potential dark matter subhalo could be the only instance of such size in our local galactic vicinity. “There may only be one or two of these large features nearby, depending on dark matter models,” suggests Alice Quillen at the University of Rochester in New York. “Different dark matter theories propose varying distributions of these structures.”
This pursuit is what catalyzed Chakrabarti’s interest in subhalo research. “Our objective is to map as many subhaloes as we can throughout the galaxy, and we’re just beginning to achieve that. Ultimately, we aim to elucidate the nature of dark matter,” she asserts.
However, pulsar binaries are scarce; only 27 instances provide sufficient accuracy for measuring gravitational acceleration. This scarcity explains why this subhalo remained undetected until now. “Given the finite number of pulsars, we are exploring alternative methods to monitor them using a broader array of objects,” states Zhang. If successful, this could be a breakthrough in understanding the true nature of dark matter.
Plastics are embedded in nearly every aspect of modern life, from packaging and apparel to construction and automobiles. Derived from petroleum, they persist as waste for centuries and are now fragmented in our environment. Research shows plastics are polluting ecosystems, impacting marine life, and even entering human bloodstreams. Despite their affordability, durability, and versatility, finding sustainable replacements remains challenging. Scientists are now exploring eco-friendly plastic alternatives made from naturally sourced materials, like bioplastics. However, traditional bioplastics often lack strength, are temperature sensitive, and are tough to mass-produce.
Researchers at Northeastern Forestry University in China are pioneering a new bioplastic derived from bamboo. This innovative material retains bamboo’s inherent strength and flexibility while being fully recyclable, making it suitable for a range of applications—from everyday household items to demanding industrial uses.
The research team began by extracting long chains of plant molecules, specifically cellulose, tightly bound within the bamboo. They utilized peroxyformic acid to remove the bonds without damaging the cellulose bundles. This washing step also eliminated plant cells that could disrupt and weaken the bioplastic’s structure.
To further process the cellulose bundles, researchers treated them with a special concoction of formic acid, zinc chloride, and water, forming a deep eutectic solvent (DES). Zinc chloride acted as a molecular zipper, breaking hydrogen bonds in the cellulose chains. Formic acid stabilized the fibers and prevented premature bond reformation, allowing for a more uniform arrangement of cellulose strands.
Next, calcium chloride was introduced as a molecular zipper slider to facilitate the reformation of hydrogen bonds among the rearranged cellulose chains. This process created an enhanced 3D network known as hydrogel. Both DES and calcium chloride acted as dual-function molecular zippers, effectively restructuring the cellulose network while avoiding the extreme temperatures, pressure, and harsh chemicals commonly used in cellulose processing.
Afterward, the researchers soaked the hydrogel in ethanol, which triggered a tightening and hardening of the cellulose chains by drawing out water. This transformation converted the flexible hydrogel into a denser, more robust bioplastic. The team then assessed how these changes impacted the mechanical performance of the bioplastic.
Their experiments indicated significant improvements in mechanical properties, revealing that the bioplastic was five times harder and could endure 11 and 1,150 times higher stretching and bending forces before failure. Unlike traditional soft gels, this new bioplastic could withstand 1,290 to 3,330 times greater shape alterations under the same conditions.
To investigate its adaptability, researchers subjected the bioplastic to various environmental conditions. Samples stored at -30°C (-22°F) and 100°C (212°F) for 7 days showed no signs of melting or brittleness. The bioplastic was capable of bending at temperatures above 250°C (482°F), far exceeding the temperature limits of most conventional plastics. It also maintained its shape and structural integrity after 30 days in high humidity and 7 days exposed to harsh acids and solvents.
In terms of manufacturing versatility, the researchers found that the bioplastics could be molded and cast using similar techniques as traditional plastics, without requiring high temperatures or pressures. Waste from the production process was recyclable, with both bioplastic remnants and DES recoverable for reuse. Remarkably, new bioplastics produced from recycled materials exhibited mechanical properties on par with those derived from fresh components.
Furthermore, they buried bioplastic samples to observe their degradation. Unlike conventional petroleum-based plastics that can persist for centuries, bamboo-based bioplastics fully decompose in soil within just 50 days.
The research concludes that bamboo can be transformed into a recyclable bioplastic through a scalable, sustainable synthesis process. With exceptional mechanical performance and environmental resilience, bamboo-based bioplastics may serve as a superior alternative to commercially available plastics, potentially mitigating pollution and reducing reliance on petroleum.
As NASA gears up for the highly anticipated Artemis II mission, the space agency is preparing for a crucial test that will determine the readiness of its powerful Moon rocket, the Space Launch System (SLS).
This essential “wet dress rehearsal” simulates a full launch day, allowing engineers to fill the SLS rocket with fuel and perform all launch operations up to 30 seconds before liftoff, mimicking real mission conditions.
The results of this rehearsal will be instrumental for engineers and mission managers to evaluate the booster’s performance and overall readiness for the Artemis II mission.
Set to launch by Sunday, Artemis II will embark on a groundbreaking 10-day mission, taking four astronauts farther from Earth than any humans have ventured before.
However, the actual launch date will heavily rely on the outcomes from the wet dress rehearsal.
NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman will hold a press conference with the Artemis II crew on January 17th at Kennedy Space Center. Joe Radle/Getty Images
“We’ll take some time to review the data and prepare for launch,” stated Artemis launch director Charlie Blackwell Thompson during last month’s press conference.
If the rehearsal proceeds without issues, NASA could announce a targeted launch date in a matter of days. Conversely, any problems could lead to mission delays.
Engineers and mission managers will execute a countdown to the mock launch scheduled for 9 PM ET on Monday. Over 700,000 gallons of cryogenic propellant will be loaded into the SLS in the hours leading up to the test, with NASA planning to livestream this crucial process. For more information, check out the Artemis Rocket 24/7 Live Stream at the launch pad.
As part of the rehearsal, mission managers will simulate the countdown several times during the final 10 minutes, which will provide essential data on the rocket’s systems, including an automated control that engages 30 seconds prior to launch.
Artemis II marks NASA’s second mission using the Space Launch System rocket and Orion capsule, with this being the inaugural crewed flight—a pivotal step toward NASA’s goal of returning astronauts to the lunar surface.
The Artemis II crew consists of NASA astronauts Reed Wiseman, Christina Koch, Victor Glover, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen, who have been in isolation at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston to ensure they remain healthy prior to the mission.
On January 17, NASA successfully positioned the Space Launch System rocket carrying the Orion capsule at Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The agency initially planned a wet dress rehearsal for Saturday but rescheduled due to unexpected cold weather across the Southeast and mid-Atlantic.
NASA’s Artemis II at Kennedy Space Center on January 17th. Joe Radle/Getty Images
Due to the scheduling changes, NASA has eliminated the first two launch windows (Friday and Saturday) for this month, which ends on February 11th. If additional launch opportunities arise, slots may also be opened in March and April.
Ensuring a successful wet dress rehearsal is crucial for a smooth launch this month.
Should issues arise during testing, NASA may need to return the rocket to the vehicle assembly building, reminiscent of the six-month delay faced by Artemis I’s unmanned lunar orbit flight after a hydrogen leak was detected during its initial wet dress rehearsal.
In the corridors of power in the UK, a vital adage states that scientific advisers need to be grounded rather than elevated. This principle, often credited to Winston Churchill, asserts that in a democracy, it is essential for science to inform policymaking, rather than dictate it.
This idea became particularly relevant during the Covid-19 pandemic, when British leaders claimed to be “following the science.” However, many critical decisions—like paying individuals to self-isolate or shutting down schools—couldn’t rely solely on scientific guidance. Numerous questions remained unanswered, placing policymakers in a challenging position.
In stark contrast, the Trump administration has been working to dismantle established guidelines from health agencies regarding various issues, from vaccination to cell phone radiation, in pursuit of the “Make America Healthy Again” initiative, all while curtailing scientific research.
“
By mid-2027, we should have stronger evidence on the harms of social media. “
But what should policymakers do when scientific understanding is still developing and no immediate global crisis is present? The pressing question is how long they should wait for scientific clarity.
Currently, a significant debate is brewing in various nations regarding the potential ban on social media use for those under 16, as Australia implemented late last year. While public support for such a ban is high, the prevailing scientific evidence indicates that social media’s impact on teens’ mental health is minimal at a population level. Should political leaders disregard this evidence to cater to public opinion?
To do so would align with Churchill’s maxim. Yet, as we explore further, by mid-2027, more reliable evidence regarding social media’s negative influences should emerge from both a randomized trial in the UK and data stemming from Australia’s ban. Thus, the most prudent course of action is to allow scientists the time to gather concrete evidence before implementing significant policy changes. Progress in policy must stem from proactive science—not from its supremacy—and this requires adequate time.
Homo sapiens and Neanderthals likely interbred across a vast region, extending from Western Europe to Asia.
Modern humans (Homo sapiens) and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) exhibited mixed ancestry, with most non-Africans today possessing Neanderthal DNA, approximating 2% of their genome. Neanderthals also engaged in interbreeding, leading to a lineage shift in the Y chromosome influenced by Homo sapiens.
Despite increasing knowledge about the timing of this hybridization, the specific regions and scales of these interactions long remained a mystery. Ancestors of Neanderthals departed Africa around 600,000 years ago, migrating toward Europe and Western Asia. The first evidence of Homo sapiens moving from Africa includes skeletal remains from sites in modern-day Israel and Greece, dating to approximately 200,000 years ago.
Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens contributed genetically to the Neanderthal population in the Altai Mountains around 100,000 years ago. However, the primary wave of migration from Africa occurred over 60,000 years ago. Recent studies utilizing ancient genomic data indicate that significant gene flow between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals began around 50,000 years ago, with findings documented in studies of 4000 and 7000 gene transfers.
This interaction is thought to have primarily taken place in the eastern Mediterranean, although pinpointing the exact locations remains challenging.
To investigate, Matthias Karat and his team from the University of Geneva analyzed 4,147 ancient genetic samples from over 1,200 locations, with the oldest dating back approximately 44,000 years. They studied the frequency of genetic mutations (introgression alleles) originating from Neanderthal DNA that were passed down through hybridization.
“Our objective was to use Neanderthal DNA integration patterns in ancient human genomes to determine the sites of hybridization,” Carlat explains.
Findings revealed that the proportion of transferred DNA increased gradually as one moved away from the eastern Mediterranean region, plateauing approximately 3,900 kilometers westward into Europe and eastward into Asia.
“We were surprised to identify a distinct pattern of increasing introgression rates in the human genome, likely linked to human expansion from Africa,” Carlat notes. “This increase toward Europe and East Asia allows us to estimate the parameters of this hybrid zone.”
Computer simulations showed a hybrid zone potentially spanning much of Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, extending into western Asia.
Interbreeding Zone between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens
Lionel N. Di Santo et al. 2026
“Our findings suggest a continuous series of interbreeding events across both space and time,” notes Carlat. “However, the specifics of mating occurrences in this hybrid zone remain unknown.”
This hybrid zone encompasses nearly all known Neanderthal remains found across Western Eurasia, with the exception of the Altai region.
“The extensive geographical breadth of the putative hybrid zone suggests widespread interactions among populations,” states Leonard Yasi from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.
Notably, the Atlantic periphery—including western France and much of the Iberian Peninsula—was not part of the hybrid zone, despite the established presence of Neanderthals in these regions. Currat suggests that interbreeding may not have occurred here or may not be reflected in the analyzed genetic samples.
“This study reveals ongoing interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals over extensive geographical areas and extended periods,” adds Yasi. The hybrid zone may extend further, though limited ancient DNA sampling in regions like the Arabian Peninsula complicates assessment of its reach.
“This pivotal research challenges the notion that interbreeding occurred only in one area of West Asia with a singular Neanderthal population (not represented in existing genetic samples). Homo sapiens appear to have dispersed from Africa in increasing numbers across expanding territories, likely outcompeting smaller Neanderthal groups they encountered throughout most of the recognized Neanderthal range,” comments Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.
Have you skipped eating grapefruit due to its bitterness? The new CRISPR gene-edited variety may change your mind. Researchers have discovered that by disabling a specific gene, they can greatly diminish the bitter compounds found in grapefruit.
“The market for grapefruit could significantly expand,” states Nil Karmi from the Volcano Center in Rishon Lezion, Israel. “Many children avoid grapefruit due to its bitter taste.”
Karmi posits that this innovative approach could also aid the citrus industry amidst the threat of a devastating bacterial disease known as citrus greening.Huanglongbing poses significant risks to citrus, but cold-resistant varieties might mitigate these problems. “The insects responsible for spreading the disease cannot survive in regions with cold winters; however, the citrus varieties that can tolerate the cold are often too bitter for consumption,” he explains.
Gene-editing technology opens doors to creating cold-tolerant edible citrus varieties, allowing for cultivation in regions with temperate climates, such as Northern Europe, instead of only subtropical areas like Florida.
Citrus fruits have their distinctive sourness, particularly evident in lemons, but their bitterness stems from various compounds. Previous studies indicate that grapefruit’s bitterness is primarily linked to a compound called naringin, alongside related molecules like neohesperidin and poncitin.
To address this, Karmi’s team utilized CRISPR gene editing on a grapefruit variety to deactivate the genes responsible for producing these three bitter compounds. While grapefruit trees take several years to bear fruit, preliminary tests on the leaves show no presence of naringin, indicating that the fruit will likely be less bitter.
The modified trees also carry “marker genes” that facilitate easy identification of successfully edited plants. However, these marker genes complicate and increase the cost of obtaining permission to sell the fruit in various countries. In places like the United States and Japan, simple gene edits are not classified as genetic modifications, easing the approval process.
The team plans to replicate these gene edits in grapefruit without incorporating marker genes. “It’s a feasible plan, but it requires extensive effort,” adds Elena Plesser, also from the Volcano Center. “The process is quite challenging.”
While research teams globally are exploring similar gene-editing strategies, Karmi believes his group’s advancements are noteworthy.
The researchers are also targeting the same enzymes in cold-tolerant citrus varieties, such as pomelo, whose fruits are currently inedible due to elevated bitterness levels. The goal is to cross-breed these with popular citrus varieties like oranges to maintain cold hardiness while generating delicious, seedless fruit—a process expected to take years.
This gene editing may revolutionize the taste profile of numerous citrus fruits, claims Erin Mulvihill, who has studied naringin at the University of Ottawa, Canada.
Moreover, grapefruit consumption can pose challenges for some medications, particularly statins, as it inhibits liver enzymes responsible for processing these drugs, risking dangerously high drug levels for users. Naringin is a major player in these interactions, but, according to Muribihir, it’s not the sole factor. “To eliminate all grapefruit-drug interactions, multiple gene deletions would be necessary,” he states.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing education by automating tasks like grading and communication with parents, allowing teachers to focus more on student guidance, engagement, and hands-on learning. As technology advances, the future may hold real-time tracking of student progress, automated assessments, and personalized learning paths.
While AI enhances classroom efficiency, the UK government stresses its use should be limited to low-stakes assessments, urging teachers to maintain transparency. This emphasizes the crucial role of human expertise in ensuring the integrity and fairness of high-stakes evaluations.
Science educators possess profound subject knowledge, which is vital for equitable assessments. Their professional judgment and contextual understanding are key to accurately reflecting each student’s potential while maintaining assessment integrity.
Leverage Your Expertise in Education
Pearson, the world’s leading educational company, employs over 18,000 professionals across 70+ countries, positively impacting millions of learners and educators. Roles like examiners, facilitators, and subject experts are crucial in ensuring students achieve the grades necessary to thrive in their careers.
By becoming an Examiner with Pearson, you can play an essential part in our mission to empower students, using your expertise to help maintain the rigorous standards that shape educational qualifications and open doors to future opportunities.
Professional Development Opportunities
Taking on the role of an Examiner offers numerous benefits that positively impact your professional trajectory:
Insight: Gain a comprehensive view of national performance, learning from common mistakes and successful strategies that can benefit your students.
Additional Income: Enjoy flexible work-from-home opportunities that fit seamlessly with your existing educational responsibilities.
Expand Your Network: Connect with fellow education professionals from diverse backgrounds, exchanging ideas and building a supportive community.
Professional Evaluation: Achieve recognized CPD credentials, enriching your professional portfolio with respected subject matter expertise.
What Qualifications Are Required?
To qualify for most Pearson Examiner roles, candidates typically need at least one year of teaching experience within the last eight years, a degree in the relevant subject, and a pertinent educational qualification or its equivalent. A recommendation from a senior professional with teaching experience at your institution is also necessary.
Some vocational qualifications may only require relevant work experience, bypassing the need for a degree or teaching certification.
Ozempic is a well-known name, primarily approved for diabetes treatment in the UK and US, yet it is commonly prescribed ‘off-label’ for weight loss. This medication has essentially become synonymous with a groundbreaking new category of weight loss drugs.
Injectable medications like Ozempic, Wegovy, Mounjaro, Zepbound, Rybelsus, and Saxenda can facilitate significant weight loss, approaching 20% of a person’s body weight in certain individuals.
Now, the next generation of weight loss solutions has arrived, and they are available in pill form.
The debut of these tablets occurred in the United States, with Novo Nordisk (the producer of Ozempic) launching Wegovy tablets on January 5, 2026. Their quick rise in popularity resulted in over 18,000 new prescriptions issued in the first week alone.
But Wegovy won’t stand alone for long. Eli Lilly’s competing drug, orforglipron, is projected to gain FDA approval this spring, and several alternatives are in development.
(Currently, these tablets are not available in the UK; however, UK policies are anticipated to follow the FDA’s example.)
The mechanism of these tablets mirrors that of injectables. The active compounds, known as “incretins” (like Wegovy’s semaglutide and Mounjaro’s tirzepatide), deceive the body into feeling full by imitating natural satiety hormones.
As digestion slows down, you naturally consume less, leading to weight loss. Don’t let hunger hinder your journey to success.
Now available in pill form, this medication promises similar life-altering effects and protection against obesity-related illnesses, all while being more affordable than ever.
Is it too good to be true? Experts caution that while the pill presents notable risks, it also brings substantial benefits.
Read more:
Can Weight Loss Drugs Transform the Landscape of Treatment?
These tablets could signify a new chapter in the management of obesity, providing broader access to life-altering healthcare.
“Not everyone prefers injectable medications,” states Dr. Simon Cork, a senior lecturer in appetite and weight regulation at Anglia Ruskin University in the UK. “Injections can be uncomfortable for many patients, making oral administration a more appealing option.”
Besides comfort, switching from injections to pills could massively reduce monthly costs. Those using weight loss drugs today often spend hundreds of dollars each month on injections.
Weight loss pills can be stored at room temperature in standard pill blister packs, making them more accessible – Credit: Getty Images
Thanks to the absence of needles and refrigeration needs, these pills can be produced and distributed at lower costs, providing weight loss solutions to millions who previously faced exorbitant prices.
“Overall, these pills are expected to be significantly more affordable than current injection therapies,” says Cork.
This trend is already visible in the US, where Wegovy pens are priced at $349 (approximately £250) per month, whereas Wegovy tablets retail for $149 (around £110).
In the UK, nearly 95% of incretin users incur high private fees. According to Professor Giles Yeo from the University of Cambridge, the NHS often cannot prescribe these expensive medications to all patients who need them.
“Patients may need to maintain these drugs for extended periods, which exacerbates the financial barrier, particularly for those from disadvantaged backgrounds most susceptible to obesity,” Cork noted. “I hope that these oral medications will democratize access.”
Addressing Long-Term Challenges
However, these drugs may not be the most effective options, even as their availability increases.
Incretins tend to offer lower efficacy in pill form. Injectable Wegovy has demonstrated a capacity to help users lose 15% of body weight after 68 weeks, while Wegovy tablets showed only 13.6% weight loss across 64 weeks.
The efficacy of pills may not match that of modern injected solutions. Retatortide, still in development, has shown results of 24% body weight reduction in just 48 weeks.
Administering these drugs through pills poses inherent challenges. Oral medications must traverse the stomach and liver before entering circulation, resulting in the manufacturer needing to increase the amount of active ingredient to achieve desired outcomes.
Consequently, weight loss results from pills may not be as rapid as from injections. Nevertheless, a significant complaint regarding injections—that discontinuing them often leads to weight regain—may see improvement.
A 2022 study revealed that participants who halted Wegovy injections regained up to two-thirds of their lost weight within one year.
The emergence of the pill could provide a solution. A recent study, the Eli Lilly ATTAIN-MAINTAIN Trial, showed that Orforglipron tablets helped participants stabilize their weight after stopping injectable therapy.
“Many might rely on these medications to maintain weight loss,” Yeo suggests.
Cork adds, “Injectables can be utilized for optimal weight loss, and pills can help maintain this weight affordably.”
Most incretins mimic the natural satiety hormone GLP-1, but new treatments are targeting multiple hormones for enhanced effectiveness – Credit: Getty Images
The Risks and Concerns of the Pill Revolution
While these drugs possess the potential to catalyze significant positive change, their widespread availability also raises risks for vulnerable populations.
“The major danger is these drugs entering the wrong hands,” warns Yeo. “Since there’s no weight limit to how these drugs might impact individuals, a 300-pound person aiming to lose 50 pounds could utilize it as well as a 16-year-old girl weighing 75 pounds.”
“Pills can easily be trafficked, making them accessible to anyone. It’s essential to establish strict regulations around their distribution,” he urges.
Cork shares concerns over side effects. Incretins can provoke various symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, constipation, and diarrhea. Clinical trials found that three-quarters of participants experienced digestive issues.
Moreover, there are rare but serious risks such as pancreatitis, gallstones, and gastroparesis. Additionally, interactions with other medications, including contraceptives, could affect their efficacy.
“The risk of pancreatitis is low, around 1%,” Cork notes. “But with millions potentially using these drugs, this risk becomes concerning without appropriate oversight.”
Though these warnings are sobering, they remain speculative. The actual impact of these drugs is still uncertain.
“2026 is poised to be a crucial year in understanding the efficacy, prevalence, and applications of these medications,” Yeo concludes. “Time will tell how things unfold.”
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Does skill affect the outcome in Snakes and Ladders?
Sipa USA/Alamy
Have you ever played Snakes and Ladders (also known as Chutes and Ladders)? If so, are you a serious competitor?
The game traces its roots back to ancient Indian games like Pachisi, where players roll dice to progress on a square board. While Pachisi incorporates elements of luck and skill, the earliest variations of Snakes and Ladders relied solely on chance to impart a spiritual lesson about accepting one’s fate. Players advanced across a board inspired by Hindu, Jain, and Sufi teachings, cultivating virtues represented by ladders while avoiding vices symbolized by snakes.
This game made its way to the UK through families returning from British colonies. Starting in 1892, a British adaptation appeared, focusing more on simplistic morality and minimizing the spiritual aspects. Over time, moral teachings faded, leaving just the snakes and ladders.
I believe that playing a game entails making decisions that influence the outcome. In games devoid of choice, like Snakes and Ladders, the player isn’t truly engaged. If you step out of the room and someone else takes your turn, does the result change?
The randomness of gameplay can be analyzed using probability theory. A Markov chain illustrates how each step in a sequence is dictated by the probability of transitioning from the preceding position. For Snakes and Ladders, it’s possible to calculate the likelihood of landing on different spaces after rolling the dice (factoring in ladders and snakes). By analyzing all possible moves, you can determine a player’s expected position after a specified number of rolls, the estimated game duration, and other valuable statistics. Markov chains find applications across various fields in applied mathematics, including thermodynamics and population modeling.
Some games, like chess, are purely skill-based, while many others blend elements of chance and strategy. This balance significantly impacts player engagement and immersion, explaining why some favor games like Catan, which require strategic resource allocation amidst randomness, over others like Monopoly that demand fewer decisions.
For older kids who might find Snakes and Ladders monotonous, consider adding a twist: after rolling, let players decide whether to navigate up or down the board. This small adjustment enhances player interaction and engagement.
The next time you explore a new board game, ensure you’re making choices that impact the results. If not, consider pivoting to games that incorporate Markov Chains and strategic decision-making.
Peter Rowlett – A mathematics lecturer, podcaster, and author at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Follow me on Twitter @peterrowlett
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Beyond Quantum Anthony Valentini, Oxford University Press
Physics is experiencing unexpected challenges. Despite extensive research, the elusive dark matter remains undetected, while the Higgs boson’s discovery hasn’t clarified our path forward. Moreover, string theory, often hailed as the ultimate theory of everything, lacks solid, testable predictions. This leaves us pondering: what’s next?
Recently, many physicists and science writers have shied away from addressing this question. While they used to eagerly anticipate groundbreaking discoveries, they now often revert to philosophical musings or reiterate known facts. However, Antony Valentini from Imperial College London stands out. In his book, Beyond Quantum: Exploring the Origins and Hidden Meanings of Quantum Mechanics, he introduces bold, innovative ideas.
The book’s focus is quantum mechanics, a pillar of physics for the last century. This field hinges on the concept of the wave function—a mathematical representation capable of detailing the complete state of any system, from fundamental particles to larger entities like us.
The enigma of wave functions is their tendency not to describe ordinary localized objects but rather a diffuse, fuzzy version of them. Upon observation, the wave function “collapses” into a random outcome with probabilities defined by Born’s law, a principle established by physicist Max Born, typically covered in academic literature. This results in objects manifesting with clear attributes in specific locations.
The debate surrounding the interpretation of the wave function has persisted, with two primary perspectives emerging. One posits that wave functions represent reality itself, suggesting that electrons, cats, and humans exist in multiple states simultaneously across time and space—a many-worlds interpretation fraught with metaphysical implications.
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Pilot wave theory has long been known to reproduce all the predictions of quantum mechanics. “
The alternative interpretation suggests that wave functions are not the entirety of reality. This is where pilot wave theory, significantly advanced by Valentini and initially proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1927, comes into play.
Louis de Broglie: Pioneer of Pilot Wave Theory
Granger – Historical Photo Archive/Alamy
Pilot wave theory posits a real yet incomplete wave function, suggesting the wave guides individual particles instead of being mere waves influencing a floating plastic bottle. In this model, particles remain specific, and their wave-like behavior originates from the pilot wave itself.
This theory has consistently validated all quantum mechanics predictions, eschewing fundamental randomness. However, Valentini underscores that this agreement rests on the assumption that particles maintain equilibrium with waves, which aligns with current experimental data but isn’t universally applicable.
Valentini’s hypothesis suggests that in the universe’s infancy, particles existed far from quantum equilibrium before settling into their current states, akin to a cup of coffee cooling down. In this scenario, the Born rule and its inherent randomness morph from core natural features into historical anomalies shaped by cosmology.
Moreover, quantum randomness also hinders the practical utilization of nonlocality, implicating direct interactions between separate objects across time and space. Valentini argues that if the Born law had not prevailed in the universe’s early stages, instantaneous communication across vast distances may have occurred, potentially leaving traces on the cosmic microwave background. If any relics from that era exist, superluminal signal transmission might still be feasible.
Though Valentini’s insights might appear speculative without concrete evidence, his rigorous examination of how conventional quantum mechanics became dominant makes his work noteworthy. While there could be gaps, especially in clearly explaining the pilot wave aspect, Valentini’s contributions illuminate what a ‘big idea’ looks like in a field rife with uncertainty.
Three highly skilled NASA astronauts are embarking on an exciting mission into space. Reed Wiseman, a former Navy officer who transitioned to astronaut status in 2009, brings significant experience, having spent six months aboard the International Space Station (ISS) in 2014.
Reed Wiseman and daughters. Provided by Reid Wiseman
Since the passing of his wife in 2020, Wiseman has taken on the challenging role of raising two children as a single parent. He acknowledges the stress that comes with being an astronaut, noting that the thrill of the mission is often tempered by the sacrifices it demands from their families.
“I’m a dedicated single father to two daughters,” he shared with NBC’s “TODAY” during a candid interview with fellow crew members. “While it might be easier to relax on the couch with a football game, the reality is that we have four individuals ready to undertake extraordinary and groundbreaking explorations in our civilization.”
Wiseman expressed hope that the outcomes of this monumental mission will validate the sacrifices made by the families of the crew.
“We often look toward the moon and proudly state, ‘We’ve been there.’ However, for this generation—both current and future, known as the Artemis generation—they will look at the moon and proudly declare, ‘We are there,'” he emphasized.
A pendant featuring Jeremy Hansen’s family birthstones accompanied by the engraving “Moon and Back”. Provided by Jeremy Hansen
Each astronaut will carry personal tokens on their historic flights around the moon. Wiseman and Koch will carry letters from their families, while Grover plans to bring a Bible, wedding ring, and a cherished heirloom for his daughters. Hansen will carry a moon pendant featuring his family’s birthstone and the phrase “Moon and Back.” These items serve as meaningful mementos and ways for the astronauts to connect their families to the journey.
Koch, a veteran of profound space missions, holds the record for the longest single spaceflight by a woman, having spent a remarkable 328 days on the ISS in 2019. Alongside fellow astronaut Jessica Meir, she made history with NASA’s first all-female spacewalk.
Christina Koch with her husband and dog. Provided by: Christina Koch
Koch expressed her contentment about not participating in another significant milestone, stating her excitement for her colleagues who are set to leave footprints on the lunar surface.
“I’m genuinely thrilled to see familiar faces taking steps toward walking on the moon. However, if that is not my destiny, I am completely at peace with it,” Koch mentioned, noting NASA has yet to assign a crew for the Artemis III mission.
Victor Glover with his family. Provided by: Victor Glover
In a similar vein, Grover previously participated in a historic flight, flying the SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule to the ISS in 2020. Glover, a former U.S. Navy captain and test pilot, was transitioned from his position in the U.S. Senate when he was selected for NASA’s astronaut program in 2013. Grover and his wife are parents to four children.
Hansen, marking his spaceflight debut, is set to become the first Canadian to explore lunar terrain. A graduate of the Canadian Space Agency’s astronaut program in 2009, he previously served as a fighter pilot and colonel in the Canadian Armed Forces.
With three children, Hansen highlighted the camaraderie that has developed among the crew, remarking that they’ve formed a familial bond through years of intense training together.
Jeremy Hansen with his family. Provided by Jeremy Hansen
The upcoming Artemis II launch will be only the second deployment of NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) rocket paired with the Orion capsule. The inaugural launch, Artemis I, conducted an unmanned mission that circled the moon over three years ago.
Wiseman, Koch, Grover, and Hansen view this mission as a crucial stepping stone towards the Artemis III ambition, which aims to land four astronauts near the moon’s polar regions in 2027. Throughout their mission, the crew will practice docking procedures in Earth orbit, conduct scientific experiments, and evaluate various systems inside the Orion capsule, serving as a trial run for a forthcoming lunar landing.
“To us, achieving success is synonymous with landing on the moon during Artemis III,” Koch stated. “Success is always Artemis 100. Everything we do is centered around that.”
Approximately 2% of the world’s fish species, or about 500 species, are known to change sex at some point during their adult life.
Some species, like the black-spotted fish (as shown above), switch from female to male periodically. Others, such as clownfish, can change from male to female, while species like coral-dwelling gobies switch genders based on environmental conditions.
This phenomenon is distinct in fish because, unlike mammals and birds, many fish species do not have their sex determined by sex chromosomes.
Environmental cues trigger changes in gene activity, influencing the production of essential hormones and enzymes. A key enzyme, aromatase, plays a critical role by converting male hormones into female ones and changing gonads into ovaries.
Social dynamics can also act as environmental signals. Clark clownfish, for instance, live among sea anemones in small groups during the breeding season. If a breeding female passes away, the largest subordinate male is known to change sex and assume her role.
Changes in water quality can signal a shift in gender as well.
Research indicates that pollutants entering rivers can induce male fish to exhibit female traits, such as spawning behaviors.
Furthermore, a 2008 study found that a mere 1 to 2 degrees Celsius increase in water temperature could skew the sex ratio of certain fish towards a higher male count.
Some sex changes are advantageous; for example, clownfish evolve to switch genders as a survival strategy to enhance reproduction. However, human activities are disrupting natural sex change processes.
Polluting rivers or warming oceans presents severe risks to future aquatic species.
This article addresses the question posed by Alex Jackson via email: “How can animals switch gender?”
For inquiries, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with usFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramand include your name and location.
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A recent analysis of archival data from NASA’s Galileo spacecraft’s Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) has uncovered the first evidence of ammonia-containing compounds on Jupiter’s icy moon Europa. This groundbreaking discovery provides vital clues about Europa’s subsurface ocean and recent geological activity.
This composite image highlights red pixels indicating sites on Europa where ammonia compounds were detected; purple indicates areas without detection. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
“The detection of ammonia (NH3) is significant for understanding not only the geology of icy bodies in our solar system but also their potential habitability and astrobiological relevance,” stated Dr. Al Emran, a researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“On Europa, the identification of ammonia or ammoniated species is crucial for revealing ocean chemistry, assessing habitability, and reconstructing the moon’s early atmosphere.”
Ammonia functions as an antifreeze agent, reducing the freezing point of liquid water by up to 100 K, which may help preserve underground oceans in icy celestial bodies.
Though it’s unclear if Europa’s underground ocean is directly linked to the surface, detecting ammonia compounds could imply such a connection, given that these materials are unstable under cosmic radiation.
In a new study published in Planetary Science Journal, Dr. Emran reported detecting a distinct ammonia absorption feature at 2.20 microns in Europa’s near-infrared spectrum.
This signal was confirmed through observations from Galileo’s NIMS instrument, which examined Europa during a flyby in the 1990s.
Ammonia hydrate and ammonium chloride are likely responsible for the detected spectral features.
The instability of ammonia under strong cosmic radiation highlights the importance of its presence on Europa’s surface.
The discovery of ammonia-containing materials suggests they may have originated from Europa’s subsurface ocean or shallow subsurface during the moon’s geologically recent past, possibly through cryovolcanism or similar processes.
This analysis also hints at significant implications for Europa’s internal structure.
The presence of ammoniated compounds aligns with a subsurface ocean characterized by a thinner, chemically reduced ice shell with a higher pH.
Ammonia’s antifreeze properties are essential, as they lower the freezing point of water ice, allowing for the maintenance of a liquid ocean beneath Europa’s icy shell.
“Faint signals of ammonia have been detected near fractures in the moon’s frozen surface, where liquid water, rich in dissolved ammonia compounds, is expected to ascend,” Emran noted.
“These compounds might have traversed the surface due to recent geologically active cryovolcanic events.”
Ammonia’s presence, which significantly lowers the freezing point of water, acts as a natural antifreeze.
Similar ammonia-bearing species have been identified on other icy objects in the outer solar system, including Pluto, Charon, certain moons of Uranus, and Saturn’s moon Enceladus. However, earlier attempts to confirm ammonia’s presence on Europa produced inconclusive results.
“The identification of ammonia-containing compounds in this research marks the first evidence of nitrogen-based species on Europa, a finding of considerable astrobiological importance due to nitrogen’s fundamental role in life’s molecular structure,” Emran concluded.
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A. Emran. 2026. NH3 detection at Europa’s 2.2 μm absorption band. Planetary Science Journal 6,255; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae1291
A recent research study by palaeontologists at University College London reveals that the long-necked giant hatchlings of the past frequently became prey to various carnivores, including the iconic tyrannosaurus rex.
A reconstruction of the Late Jurassic ecosystem at the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry, approximately 150 million years ago in Colorado, USA. Image credit: Sergey Krasovskiy / Pedro Salas.
“Adult sauropods, such as diplodocus and Brachiosaurus, were larger than modern blue whales,” Dr. Cassius Morrison from University College London explains.
“The ground trembled when they moved. Yet, their eggs were merely a foot in diameter, taking years for the hatchlings to mature.”
“Given their immense size, it was challenging for adult sauropods to tend to their eggs without causing damage, suggesting that, like today’s baby turtles, young sauropods did not receive parental care.”
In this groundbreaking study, Dr. Morrison and his team examined fossils from the Morrison Formation dating back 150 million years and developed a detailed map of the ecosystem’s food web.
The fossils were sourced from a single site, the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry, renowned for its rich assortment of dinosaur remains over a span of up to 10,000 years, including at least six sauropod species: diplodocus, Brachiosaurus, and Apatosaurus.
To analyze the dietary habits of these prehistoric creatures, paleontologists utilized various data, including dinosaur size, tooth wear, isotopic composition of remains, and, in some cases, fossilized stomach contents revealing their last meals.
With advanced software typically used in modern-day ecosystems, they visualized the intricate food web, mapping the interconnected relationships between dinosaurs, other fauna, and flora with unprecedented detail.
The findings underscored the significant ecological roles sauropods played, highlighting their closer associations with plants and animals compared to other major herbivorous dinosaur groups, such as the ornithischians (like the armored stegosaurus), which presented more formidable predation risks.
“Sauropods had a transformative influence on their ecosystems,” noted Dr. Morrison.
“This research provides a quantifiable measure of their ecological impact.”
“By reconstructing the food web, we can more effectively compare dinosaur ecosystems across different geological periods.”
Scientists suggest that the eventual decline of sauropods, which acted as readily available prey, may have influenced evolutionary adaptations in predators like tyrannosaurus rex, such as increased bite force, size, and enhanced vision. Moreover, larger and more dangerous creatures like triceratops evolved, possessing formidable defenses with their three large horns.
During the late Jurassic period, apex predators like Allosaurus or torvosaurus might have had easier access to food compared to their contemporaries like tyrannosaurus rex, according to Dr. William Hart, a paleontologist at Hofstra University.
“Fossils of Allosaurus display severe scars from encounters, including those inflicted by the spiky tail of a stegosaurus. Some injuries healed, while others did not,” he elaborates.
“However, an injured Allosaurus may have been able to survive due to the abundance of vulnerable young sauropods as easy prey.”
Cassius Morrison et al. 2026. “Size is No Accident Here”: A Novel Food Web Analysis of the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry and Ecological Implications for Sauropod Fauna of the Morrison Formation. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science
Astronomers have recently identified a new exoplanet, HD 137010b, orbiting the nearby K dwarf star HD 137010, following the detection of a single shallow transit in archived data from NASA’s Kepler Expansion K2 mission.
HD 137010b is estimated to be 6% larger than Earth, with surface temperatures akin to those of Mars, possibly dipping below -70 degrees Celsius. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Keith Miller, California Institute of Technology and IPAC.
HD 137010 is classified as a K3.5V dwarf star located approximately 146 light-years away in the constellation Libra.
This star’s age ranges between 4.8 billion and 10 billion years, and its low magnetic activity reflects its status as an old, relatively calm star.
Commonly referenced as BD-19 4097, HIC 75398, 2MASS J15242123-1944215, or TYC 6179-1111-1, HD 137010 has an apparent magnitude of 10.1 and is recognized as one of the brightest stars hosting an Earth-sized planet in temperate orbits.
The new exoplanet, designated HD 137010b, was observed during K2 Campaign 15 when NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope monitored its parent star for about three months in 2017.
“Most Earth-sized planets discovered in the habitable zone orbit red dwarfs, which are smaller and dimmer than the Sun,” explains lead author Astronomer Alexander Venner from the University of Southern Queensland.
“Concerns arise regarding these planets losing their atmospheres due to intense radiation from their host stars, rendering them uninhabitable for known life forms.”
“However, HD 137010b’s star shares characteristics more closely aligned with the Sun, increasing the likelihood that a stable atmosphere could be retained, according to current theoretical models.”
In their study, Venner and colleagues analyzed K2 data, light curves from nearby stars, archival images, and radial velocity measurements to clarify the nature of the transit signal, which lasted roughly 10 hours.
These evaluations strongly suggest that the observed transit is astrophysical and not a result of background interference, eclipsing binaries, or solar-system debris.
Astronomers have determined that the planet’s radius is approximately 1.06 times that of Earth based on the transit depth.
Considering the transit’s duration and the star’s properties, the orbital period of HD 137010b is estimated to be around 355 days.
At its distance from the host star, HD 137010b is estimated to receive about 29% of the stellar flux that Earth obtains from the Sun, placing it near the outskirts of the star’s habitable zone.
“If HD 137010b has an atmosphere similar to that of Earth or Mars, it could experience temperatures colder than Antarctica,” noted Dr. Venner.
“However, if the atmosphere thickens, conditions could warm up sufficiently for liquid water to exist, creating a potentially viable environment for life.”
“Current astronomical instruments are unable to fully characterize this newly discovered planet, but it stands out as a primary candidate for future radial velocity tools aimed at detecting Earth-like analogs.”
“Upcoming space missions, like NASA’s Habitable World Observatory, could also provide images of HD 137010b.”
This discovery is detailed in the following article: paper published in Astrophysics Journal Letters.
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Alexander Venner and others. 2026. A cool Earth-sized planet candidate orbiting a K2 magnitude K-dwarf star. APJL 997, L38; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adf06f
Since the mid-2000s, renowned electronic musician and visual artist Ryoji Ikeda has been reimagining vast datasets into immersive art installations that invite viewers into the hidden realms of science.
During my visit to his latest project, Data Cosm [n°1], I found myself surrounded by an array of sprawling LED screens pulsating with strobe lights. This exhibition, intent on “charting the myriad data of nature,” created an atmosphere that felt both familiar and exhilarating as I navigated through visuals of our planet, our minds, and the cosmos, all synchronized with glitchy soundscapes.
Ikeda’s innovative approach offers an exhilarating experience, reminiscent of virtually traversing a DNA strand at hyper-speed, serving as a visceral reminder of the vastness of the human genome. However, amidst the sensory overload, one can feel detached, raising important questions about our connection to the overwhelming data presented.
Don’t miss this captivating exhibition at 180 Studios in London, running until February 1st.
Biologist George Church Curates Beneficial Genetic Variants
Don Emmert/AFP via Getty Images
“Why should only tall people have access to tall genes? And why should only intelligent people have access to smart genes? Instead of accepting genetic inequality, we aim to provide everyone the opportunity to select beneficial genes for themselves and their future offspring. Genetics should not be a game of chance.”
This is the vision of Bootstrap Bio, a startup striving to empower future parents by enhancing genetic qualities for their children. While it seems that affluent families might already have genetic advantages, the pressing question remains: Can we genuinely enhance our children’s genetics if we choose to?
To understand the possibilities, I began with the List of Protective and Enhanced Gene Variants, curated by Harvard biologist George Church. When I inquired about the list’s purpose, Church explained that it addresses common questions from his lectures—such as whether all rare genetic variants are detrimental and what types of enhancements might be feasible. This list is particularly popular among transhumanists interested in genetic engineering for superhuman traits.
Let’s delve into its details.
Are You Sure You Want Extra Fingers?
The list is intricate, containing over 100 items, yet only about half represent specific genetic mutations linked to concrete effects, with the rest stemming from animal research or medical trials. Church identified mutations that may yield significant “positive effects,” from disease resistance to lower aggression levels in men.
Some traits on this list, however, may not be universally desirable. For instance, a mutation could theoretically lead to six fingers on each hand, enhancing “manipulative capabilities.” But is that really an improvement? Imagine trying to find gloves that fit!
Additionally, two genetic deletions that cause pain insensitivity are also featured, yet lacking the ability to feel pain is not an enhancement—children who are pain-insensitive can suffer severe injuries.
Many remaining traits appear to fall into the “nice to have” category but may not warrant genetic modification. For instance, “low odor production” seems unnecessary in an era of deodorants. While I would appreciate being able to hold my breath longer or endure high altitudes, I doubt my descendants will value these traits as much.
Only a limited number of mutations confer highly desirable characteristics, like extended lifespans or enhanced intelligence—traits for which wealthier prospective parents might be willing to pay. Still, we lack sufficient confidence that incorporating these mutations into children will actually lead to increased intelligence or longevity.
Less Sleep, But at What Consequence?
It is crucial to note that some associations may be misleading, and certain genetic variations might not produce the anticipated effects. Moreover, achieving the desired outcome may depend on combinations of other specific mutations.
Trade-offs are often present too. For example, high-intelligence mutations may increase the risk of future blindness, and resistance to norovirus might predispose individuals to Crohn’s disease, as noted in Church’s list. Personally, I would prefer to be a bit less intelligent and tolerate occasional bouts of norovirus rather than risk potential consequences for my children.
Most variants do not explicitly list drawbacks, but that does not imply they are without consequences. Consider mutations associated with sleep deprivation; the essential role of sleep in maintaining brain health suggests that trade-offs likely exist.
Moreover, many people fail to realize that our understanding of these genetic variations is still developing. In many instances, it is uncertain whether a specific change is genuinely beneficial. This is because biologists must study vast populations—tens of thousands or more—carrying a particular genetic mutation to ascertain both its positive and negative effects.
Creating a Fair Genetic Lottery
To maximize the likelihood that an individual will benefit from genetic engineering, multiple genetic modifications may be necessary simultaneously. This is especially true concerning traits promoted by Bootstrap Bio, as height and intelligence rely on hundreds of mutations, each contributing marginally. The challenge is that we currently lack the technology to safely implement multiple changes in human embryos, much less hundreds at once, as discussed in my previous article on preventing genetic illnesses.
I support the idea of genetic enhancement for children—it’s preferable to leaving a child’s destiny to a random genetic lottery. However, I remain skeptical about the immediate feasibility of heritable genome editing. Expanding studies like the UK Biobank, which tracks large populations over the years to clarify genetic variant effects, is essential.
Finally, the notion that companies offering genetic enhancements can create a fairer world deserves scrutiny. Currently, a fifth of all children worldwide are born shorter than their potential due to inadequate nutrition, and many lack access to quality education. Those genuinely interested in enhancing children’s life chances should prioritize ensuring that all children meet their existing genetic potential rather than focusing narrowly on selective gene enhancements.
“Hour after hour we pass over a country as black as the night sky, across a fallen heaven adorning the stars with jets of white ash and smears of milky soot.” Tim Winton’s Juice
Shutterstock / Denis Tolkhov
As dawn breaks, I drive relentlessly, halting only when the plains turn black, with nothing but clinker and ash stretching to the horizon.
I stop, lower the side screen, and breathe in the calm southerly air—a fleeting stroke of luck in recent days. I know firsthand the danger wind poses to old fireplaces. In strong gusts, ash can suffocate in moments, and I’ve watched comrades succumb.
Wrap your scarf around your mouth and nose. Hang your glasses around your neck. Break the door. Please step out. Test the surface gently—ankle deep, or worse, to the shins. Silence looms, except for the hum of the rig’s motor.
Stay there; I’m calling.
I know she’s awake, but the child remains slumped in the cab, unmoving. I cautiously check the trailer—everything is secure: manufacturer, water, pods, equipment—but my greens lie disheveled from long, hard days. Some leaves have been windburned, but the overall damage appears manageable. I tap the reservoir to fill the flask, then don my glasses and scan the western approach—clear, with no smoke or movement.
I attempt to wipe the dust off the panels, but it’s futile; they’ll be covered with ash again within minutes. The turbine must release enough fluid to cross.
Back in the cab, I slam my boot heel on the step and climb in. She still doesn’t move. I can’t quite decide if this is a relief or an annoyance.
We’re okay, I reassure her. I’ll handle this.
She gazes out at the scorched earth.
This land, I reminisce, was once all woods. I flew over it when I was younger.
She blinks, her expression perplexed.
Trees stretched endlessly beneath us. The air was ripe, almost tangible.
She stays silent.
Have you ever flown?
No response.
I know your experiences at sea. I wondered if my status changed.
She shifts, resting her head against the side screen.
That’s quite something.
No sign of interest from her. After sitting, sun stains remain on the glass.
Yet, for once, I wish my flight had been for the sake of adventure, not heading to a dangerous place.
The sun rises, molten, tilting before us like a soaring airship before it vanishes. Break free from all comparisons and become your true self. A comforting yet terrifying thought.
I talk excessively, I admit. You too? You never utter a word. For once, I feel I’ve said too little.
She offers nothing in response.
I know you hear me—you’re following my words.
She scrapes the glass, spreading more grease than she removes.
Listen, I say. Those we lost—none will come for us. We must cross through these ashes. It’s crucial. There’s a fresh land waiting for us on the other side. We’ll move and set camp, understood? I hope it’s out there. It’ll be fine.
The child shifts away, and I tear a piece from my scarf, catching her attention. Pull the remaining fabric over your face and wrap it around your hat’s brim. She flinches but doesn’t resist. Dried blood from her forehead incident glints in her pale blue eyes, which appear even brighter now.
So, I say, the smell might lessen a bit. I’ll clean this rig later. You’re not merely looking, trust me. So, are you ready? Water’s here. We’ll eat on the other side.
Lift the side screen and move the rig. Walk swiftly to get through, but slowly enough to avoid an ash blizzard.
For hours, we cross a land as dark as the night, over fallen heavens adorned with jets of ash and milky soot.
The vehicle jolts but perseveres until my energy wanes. As midday sunlight pierces through, I witness colors emerge—tans, silvers, khakis, and bone hues—and the relief I feel is almost overwhelming.
Upon touching solid ground, I let the child out into the secret space. She appears invigorated by newfound freedom, yet hesitates to return to the rig. I won’t pamper her, but I must guide her firmly. My fatigue is palpable, and we need distance from that fireplace. When we finally start moving again, the atmosphere in the cab dims, disappointing—but soon we have reason to celebrate. As the bat finally flexes its power, a mighty gust from the south shakes the entire rig.
I will descend steadily. The child goes outside. I point to a dirty column rising into the sky in the distance behind us.
Look, I say. We could have been enveloped. But we are positioned upwind, right? It’s not mere luck. That’s our cleverness.
I close the shade and set the array.
She observes the ash cloud swirling north. As winds intensify, they intertwine. She follows me to the trailer, where I distribute the mash—she accepts Dixie and Spoon. With her back turned from the wind, she devours her meal eagerly.
Luck alone won’t suffice, I explain. You and I must remain composed.
She’s already licking the dirty container clean. I take it, hand her mine, and while she eats, I pull out the swag and roll it to the car’s side. Then, I lower the makeshift nightgown I crafted for her. Spread it beside me—close enough to keep watch, but not too close for comfort.
We’re all exhausted. Machines and living beings alike. Let’s sleep.
She finishes the last of her mash, licking my clean spoon as well. I rise, stow them in the trailer, then settle cross-legged on my swag again. She gazes east, her hat’s tail swaying in the breeze.
Be yourself, I urge.
And then I step outside.
——-
Later in the afternoon, I awaken to a slight ache. For a moment, I mistake it for home. A sick chicken downstairs threatens the whole flock. A disaster at my property. I know I should rise and head to the grow house, but as I open my eyes, the swaying shade above me grounds me to the dirt, far from my home. The child’s tear-stained face reminds me I’m not alone. I yearn to reach out, but she recoils. I leave her be and drift back to sleep.
When I wake again, shadows of the car and trailer stretch long, like lifelines. The rig stirs awake. I gingerly climb out, feeling sore and stiff, and attempt to resume our journey.
This is an excerpt from Juice by Tim Winton (Picador), part of the New Scientist Book Club’s February 2026 reading. You can purchase a copy here. Sign up to join the reading community here.
Examining Resilience to Alzheimer’s Disease: Why Some Individuals Remain Symptom-Free
Associated Press/Alamy
Recent studies reveal that some individuals exhibit brain changes tied to Alzheimer’s disease yet show no symptoms like memory loss. Though the reasons remain unclear, innovative research is uncovering protective factors that may prevent cognitive decline.
Alzheimer’s disease is marked by amyloid plaques and tau tangles accumulating in the brain, widely believed to contribute to cognitive decline. However, some individuals, known for their resilience, defy this notion. In 2022, Henne Holstege and her team at the University Medical Center in Amsterdam discovered that certain centenarians retain good cognitive function despite these pathological changes.
Expanding on this research, the team conducted a new study involving 190 deceased individuals. Among them, 88 had Alzheimer’s diagnoses, while 53 showed no signs of the disease at death. Their ages ranged from 50 to 99, and 49 were centenarians with no dementia, though 18 exhibited cognitive impairment previously.
The focus was on the middle temporal gyrus—an early site of amyloid plaques and tau tangles in Alzheimer’s. Interestingly, centenarians with elevated amyloid levels had tau levels akin to those without Alzheimer’s, suggesting that limiting tau accumulation is critical for resilience, according to Holstege.
While amyloid plaques are linked to cognitive decline, Holstege posits that tau accumulation may activate a cascade of symptoms. Notably, amyloid plaques alone may not cause significant tau tangling. “Without amyloid, tau can’t spread,” she explains.
Further analysis of approximately 3,500 brain proteins revealed only five were significantly associated with high amyloid plaques, while nearly 670 correlated with tau tangles. Many of these proteins are involved in crucial metabolic processes like cell growth and waste clearance. Holstege emphasizes, “With amyloid, everything changes; with tau, it’s a different story.”
In the cohort of 18 centenarians with high amyloid levels, 13 showed significant tau spread throughout the middle temporal gyrus, a pattern similar to Alzheimer’s, but the overall tau presence remained low.
This distinction is vital, as diagnosis hinges on tau spread, indicating that accumulation, not just proliferation, triggers cognitive decline. “We must understand that proliferation doesn’t mean abundance,” Holstege clarifies.
In a second study, Katherine Prater and her team at the University of Washington examined 33 deceased individuals—10 diagnosed with Alzheimer’s, 10 showing no signs, and 13 deemed resilient. Most subjects were over 80 and underwent cognitive assessments within a year before death.
In line with previous findings, the research indicated that tau was present but not accumulated in resilient brains. Though the mechanisms remain elusive, Prater theorizes that microglia—immune cells regulating brain inflammation—might play a crucial role in maintaining cognitive function in resilience.
The team also conducted genetic studies on microglia from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, essential for managing complex tasks. They discovered that resilient individuals’ microglia exhibited heightened activity in messenger RNA transport genes compared to those with Alzheimer’s. This suggests effective gene transport, vital for protein synthesis, is preserved in resilient brains.
“Disruptions in this process can severely impact cell function,” Dr. Prater remarked at the Neuroscience Society meeting in San Diego. However, its direct relationship to Alzheimer’s resilience remains to be elucidated.
Moreover, resilient microglia demonstrated reduced activity in metabolic energy genes compared to those in Alzheimer’s patients, mirroring patterns in healthy individuals. This suggests heightened energy expenditure in Alzheimer’s due to inflammatory states that disrupt neuronal connections and lead to cell death.
“Both studies indicate that the human brain possesses mechanisms to mitigate tau burdens,” Prater concludes. Insights gained from this research could pave the way for new interventions to delay or even prevent Alzheimer’s disease. “While we aren’t close to a cure, the biology offers hope,” she stated.
Edward Jenner Administering the First Smallpox Vaccination in 1796
Ernest Board/Wellcome Collection/De Agostini via Getty Images
Recent insights into one of history’s most effective vaccination campaigns highlight critical lessons for expediting vaccine adoption today. This successful effort eradicated smallpox in Copenhagen during the early 1800s.
Smallpox, a devastating infectious disease, resulted in a mortality rate of 30% and left survivors with disfigurement and blindness, leading to an estimated 500 million deaths before its global eradication in 1980 through vaccination.
Copenhagen saw one of the earliest local triumphs over smallpox, achieving eradication in 1808 after claiming over 12,000 lives over fifty years.
The world’s first vaccine, developed by British physician Edward Jenner in 1796, quickly gained traction among Denmark’s medical and social elite, sparking “excited attention and anticipation,” as documented by leading physician Henrik Kalissen.
Doctors in Copenhagen swiftly sought smallpox vaccine supplies from Jenner in England. The inaugural recipient was a Danish judge’s child, followed by a bishop’s child. The vaccine proved remarkably effective, preventing transmission even among close contacts of infected individuals, including breastfeeding mothers, according to Calisen’s observations.
In response, the King of Denmark founded a Vaccine Commission in 1801, tasked with broadening the vaccine’s reach and meticulously tracking vaccination rates and smallpox outbreaks.
Researchers from Roskilde University analyzed these records, revealing that by 1810, 90% of Copenhagen’s children had been vaccinated, leading Denmark to rank as the highest in Europe for vaccination rates per capita.
Due to the rapid dissemination of the smallpox vaccine, the disease was eliminated from Copenhagen just seven years after the campaign’s initiation. “We will be free from one of the most destructive diseases known to us,” Calisen expressed in 1809.
Eilersen and his team identified key factors behind the high vaccination rates. Vaccines were offered free of charge to families in need, and many church leaders and school teachers actively promoted and administered the vaccines. The Vaccine Commission commended clergy who traversed the nation to disseminate knowledge about vaccinations, with one priest vaccinating nearly 2,000 children in just one year.
As smallpox cases dwindled, concerns arose about public apathy towards vaccination. To sustain high rates, the committee mandated that vaccination be a prerequisite for a child’s enrollment in church activities as of 1810.
While some resisted vaccinating their children, citing “ignorance and prejudice,” the broader public largely supported vaccination, Calisen noted. He acknowledged initial fears about vaccines but ultimately recognized their tremendous impact on public health and population growth.
Eilersen believes that the collaboration among Danish leaders fostered public trust and encouraged widespread vaccine acceptance. “Unified authorities, including government, medical institutions, and religious leaders, contributed to convincing a diverse population to embrace vaccination,” he stated.
Denmark continues to enjoy robust confidence in its governmental and health institutions, currently ranked first in public trust by Transparency International. In turn, this commitment has contributed to high childhood vaccination rates, with approximately 96% of Danish children vaccinated against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis, contrasting with only 80% in the United States, which ranks 28th in public trust levels.
Mars: The backdrop of two new science fiction novels launching in February
dottedhippo/iStockphoto/Getty Images
If you dream of traveling to Mars, an alternate 1939 London, or into the distant future, February’s lineup of science fiction books is sure to excite you. Among the intriguing titles is Forest at the End of Time, which explores the theme of time travel to combat climate change. Another captivating read, All We Have is Time, tells the romantic tale of a time traveler offering solace to a lonely immortal woman. Plus, fans of fungal horror won’t want to miss Vast Pedro. Join the debate about whether these titles truly belong in the science fiction genre!
One of the standout novels is marketed as a time-travel thriller. It follows Echo and Hazel, recruited by a secret organization to alter history and combat climate change. Set in ancient Athens and a dystopian future, their paths converge in a shared dream as they uncover the choices that could save humanity.
Brandon Sanderson’s anticipated new book is coming this month
Provided by: Dragon Steel
Set in the expansive Cosmere universe, Sanderson’s work falls under the science fantasy category. It follows the Twilight Six, a group of supernatural bird trappers known as Avials who must modernize to fend off threatening invaders called the “Things Above.”
The author of Hamajan Rack returns with the story of Maria, the ultimate hacker bored after achieving the coveted Atlas heist. Her ordinary life takes a thrilling turn when she attracts the attention of a dangerous gang on the Kepler space station.
Mark Winters, a dedicated wildlife ranger, grapples with climate change on a remote island, battling a cult that believes in a “psychotropic mushroom-fueled collective dream” as a solution. They think he possesses vital knowledge.
Additionally, five-time Hugo Award winner Michael Swanwick shares a collection of thought-provoking short stories. These tales range from a scientist evading capture for his dangerous fusion of human intelligence and sentient AI to an aging military veteran acquiring a virtual reality robot.
The film adaptation delves into the life of an immortal woman, haunted by love lost to death, who encounters a time traveler in 1605 London. The publisher likens it to Karian Bradley’s remarkable Time Saving, making it a must-read.
Frances Spafford’s latest novel set against the backdrop of an alternate London during the Blitz
Frances Spafford, an award-winning author, presents a tale steeped in fantasy yet laced with science fiction themes, featuring time travel. Set in an alternate London of 1939, ambitious city worker Iris realizes that time can indeed bend and history can be rewritten. As she grapples with the realities of the Blitz, she learns that time-traveling fascists are also on the hunt.
This book is perfect for romantics and fans of STEM-themed romances, reminiscent of works by Ali Hazlewood. In Hannah Blohm’s debut novel, neuroscientist Frances Silverstein faces her past at a prominent conference and finds herself on a fake date with her charming competitor, Lewis North. The intriguing tagline: “For any worthy scientist, falsifying data is out of the question. But what about fake dating?” Sounds like a delightful read!
Sakunja Salazar, a prominent interviewer on Earth, embarks on a journey to Mars while battling her past as an alcoholic. Her mission takes an unexpected turn when she is tasked with documenting the first human encounter with rain on Mars—an enticing prospect for any space enthusiast!
Mars also serves as the backdrop for the adventure of a stowaway girl and a wealthy hunter, stranded amidst a mercenary threat. Clearly targeted at a younger audience, this young adult novel offers a refreshing dive into teen-focused science fiction—a genre that’s often overlooked.
Written by Simon López Trujillo (translated by Robin Myers)
A mysterious fungal disease is ravaging workers on a barren eucalyptus farm in Chile, but one survivor, Pedro, draws attention from local priests and foreign mycologists alike. The publisher suggests it appeals to fans of Jeff VanderMeer, whose work I adore, especially Extinction, making this a must-read for me.
Elon Musk, known for his leadership in several multibillion-dollar companies, continues to capture headlines. While his polarizing views draw attention, his flagship companies—Tesla and SpaceX—are undeniably pioneering advancements in electric vehicles and space exploration. Recent corporate maneuvers indicate that Musk may have an ambitious plan to integrate these ventures.
In a strategic development, Tesla has announced plans to halt production of its Model S and Model X. This shift does not signify an end to vehicle manufacturing; rather, the production facilities are to be reconfigured to advance Tesla’s humanoid robot, Optimus. Concurrently, Tesla is set to invest $2 billion into xAI, another of Musk’s enterprises, which oversees the social media platform X and its controversial chatbot, Grok.
This collective shift suggests Tesla is prioritizing AI-driven initiatives. In a recent report, both Bloomberg and Reuters revealed Musk’s intentions to merge SpaceX with either Tesla or xAI—or potentially both—in light of his plans to take SpaceX public this year.
What is Musk aiming to achieve with this consolidation? “By integrating xAI and SpaceX, he may be seeking to enhance resource efficiency across data, energy, and computing,” explains Marbe Hickok from the University of Michigan. “He also suggested a merger with Tesla to leverage their technologies for distributed computing.”
Projected plans for humanoid robots, with Musk expressing a goal to manufacture 1 million third-generation Optimus robots annually, require substantial computing resources for AI. Interacting with humans and the surrounding environment necessitates sophisticated AI systems capable of managing extensive data.
Nevertheless, the rise of generative AI is already straining energy resources. Musk’s xAI recently faced scrutiny at the Colossus Data Center in Memphis, which came under fire from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for exceeding legal power generation limits. Musk has previously advocated for establishing data centers in space, positing that a rollout could occur within two to three years. However, many experts caution that various technical challenges—including cooling and radiation protection—must be resolved first.
Despite these challenges, launching a data center into orbit presents an opportunity, and SpaceX stands as a leading provider of reliable launches for both private and public sectors. Their extensive experience, particularly with their Starlink satellite internet division, supports this ambition.
“SpaceX is actively deploying a satellite grid in orbit—currently over 9,000 satellites—focused on internet distribution,” states Robert Scoble, a technology analyst at Unaligned. “While xAI works on internet distribution and news, its primary focus is developing innovative AI models that empower our vehicles, humanoid robots, and daily lives,” he says, “the convergence of these endeavors makes strategic sense.”
Ultimately, Musk envisions that the collaboration of SpaceX, Tesla, and xAI could position them at the forefront of the AI landscape, competing against major players like OpenAI, Google, and Microsoft. However, all three companies have not publicly commented on these developments, and Musk himself remains silent.
Contrarily, some experts challenge Musk’s strategic direction. “Currently, only Tesla possesses financial capabilities, but its trajectory is concerning for funding future growth,” asserts Edward Niedermayer, author of Ridiculous: The True Story of the Tesla Motor. He suggests these moves are “defensive,” aimed at bolstering the companies for future prospects and attracting broader retail investor interest.
Niedermayer emphasizes the necessity of public investment due to mounting operational costs: “Running out of cash is a significant concern,” he notes. “The expenses associated with training and operating AI models are considerable.” His belief is that by consolidating resources, Musk aims to present an attractive investment opportunity. However, if his vision doesn’t materialize, it could result in significant repercussions.
“Annie Bott” by Sierra Greer was the Book Club’s January pick
Dittmeyer
The New Scientist Book Club transitioned from classic science fiction reads to a contemporary choice in January with Sierra Greer’s award-winning novel, Anniebot, the recipient of the 2025 Arthur C. Clarke Award.
I felt a mixture of apprehension and excitement when announcing this book to our community. Anniebot explores the haunting tale of a sex robot entangled in a toxic, abusive relationship. With its darker themes and explicit scenes, I aimed to prepare readers for its intense narrative. Some found the scene in the cupboard particularly disturbing.
As anticipated, reactions varied. While a few opted out early due to the heavy content, many engaged deeply with the story, which sparked significant discussion (and disagreements) among members.
Let’s highlight some positive perspectives. I personally appreciated how Greer navigated the fine line between explicitness and narrative depth, steering clear of simply becoming “roboporn.” During my interview with her, she affirmed her intention to avoid categorizing the book as erotica. To me, she succeeded. Each scene, while uncomfortable, provoked thought about humanity and freedom. Annie’s existence raises questions: is she less human than primitive robots like Delta? What future awaits her? The marking of a truly impactful read is its lingering questions in your mind.
Laura Akers echoed this sentiment: “Hearing people discuss Annie as though you had no emotional investment was intriguing.” She likened it to pre-feminist exploitation, noting how Annie’s perception of sexual abuse highlighted deeper societal issues.
Annie Arnott shared her initial struggles with the portrayal of sex in Greer’s writing. “Things started off well,” she explained. “But I now carry a profound respect, recognizing the important narrative work being done—perhaps reminiscent of The Yellow Wallpaper. Greer showcases the nuanced experience of many women, culminating in an ending steeped in bitter hope.”
Before delving into the conclusion debate, let’s hear from our insightful reader, Alan Perret. He found Anniebot challenging to complete. “Annie’s plight was so harrowing that while I was relieved to finish, it was a tough journey,” he remarked.
Alan’s critique included insights into Doug’s extreme brutality, stating, “While Doug isn’t questioned about his humanity, it’s evident he lacks the vital traits that define it. Interestingly, Annie, despite not being human, displays more empathy than he does. Does that imply that humanity is merely about biological composition?”
Though Alan pointed out some plot inconsistencies—like Annie’s need for exercise—he and I both left with many profound questions after finishing the book. “I’m glad to have read it, as it pushed boundaries many would shy away from,” he concluded.
In contrast, Jennifer Bertrand struggled to connect with Annie. “The narrative reminded me constantly of her artificial nature, hindering any empathy,” she noted, wondering if Doug treated real humans poorly too.
Niall Leighton, while recognizing Greer’s strong character study, felt it lacked a nuanced exploration of AI autonomy. “I wanted deeper analysis on male behaviors within the existing patriarchal context,” he expressed. “While the book is disturbing, it didn’t offer the groundbreaking feminist perspective I hoped for.”
Jacqueline Farrand additionally criticized the absence of distinct science fiction elements in Anniebot, echoing sentiments shared by Phil Gursky, who viewed it as a raw tale of abuse.
Annie’s resolution brought a divided response. Many, including Pauline Moncrief, expressed relief that it concluded positively. In contrast, Karen Sears found the ending unsatisfactory, feeling it lacked depth. Ken Lynch too expressed disappointment, viewing Annie’s freedom as diminishing her agency. Nonetheless, he recognized the book’s ambition in tackling difficult themes.
Amid the discussions, Octavia Butler’s name frequently resurfaced, with many praising her ability to address similar themes with greater depth.
“After immersing myself in Butler’s works, I found her talent for weaving themes of slavery and oppression far more compelling,” Jennifer noted.
Members also discussed Greer’s depiction of race and recommended other books touching on similar themes, including Sarah Gary’s Echo Wife and Joanna Sinisalo’s chilling commentary on patriarchy in The Core of the Sun.
These suggestions are excellent, but I encourage our readers to finish the upcoming February books first. This novel stands as a monumental literary piece that will continue to resonate. Next in the New Scientist Book Club is Tim Winton’s Juice, depicting a future Australia plagued by devastation, questioning what led to this reality. Our science fiction critic, Emily H. Wilson, found it profoundly impactful upon its hardcover release. Prepare to explore the complexities of our world through this engaging read, and don’t forget to join the discussion in our book club or Facebook group here.
For immediate help, reach out to the UK Domestic Abuse Helpline at 0808 2000 247. using safe equipment. Click here for helplines in 46 countries.
Recent MRI studies reveal that yawning is not simply a sign of fatigue or boredom; it reorganizes fluid flow in the brain, indicating that yawning is unique for each individual.
Yawning is observed in most vertebrates, yet its precise purpose remains largely unclear. Theories suggest that yawning enhances oxygen intake, regulates body temperature, boosts fluid circulation in the brain, and modulates cortisol hormone levels.
“Crocodilians yawn, and even dinosaurs likely did too. This behavior has evolutionary significance, but why does it persist today?” queries Adam Martinac from Neuroscience Research Australia, a non-profit medical organization.
To understand yawning’s mechanisms and its impact on the body, Martinac and his team involved 22 healthy participants, evenly divided by gender, in their study.
Participants underwent MRI scans while performing four distinct breathing actions: regular breathing, yawning, voluntarily suppressing yawns, and deep breathing.
The data analysis revealed surprising findings. The initial hypothesis was that yawning and deep breathing would similarly facilitate the movement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) out of the brain.
“However, yawning caused CSF to flow in the opposite direction compared to deep breathing,” states Martinac. “We were genuinely surprised by this outcome.”
Specifically, the study discovered a strong directional coupling between CSF and venous blood flow during yawning, both moving away from the brain toward the spine. This stands in contrast to deep breathing, where CSF and venous blood typically travel in opposing directions—CSF flows in while venous blood flows out.
The specific mechanisms governing CSF movement during yawning, including the volume expelled, remain unclear. Current estimates suggest a mere few milliliters of CSF are moved per yawn. Future research aims to quantify this further.
“It’s likely that neck, tongue, and throat muscles collaborate to facilitate this fluid movement,” he adds.
Another noteworthy finding is that yawning augmented carotid artery inflow by over one-third compared to deep breathing. This is presumably because yawning clears CSF and venous blood from the cranial cavity, allowing for increased arterial inflow.
Each participant exhibited a distinct “yawn signature,” showcasing variability even in tongue movements. “It seems that everyone has a unique pattern to their yawns,” says Martinac.
One intriguing area for future research is the physiological benefits arising from CSF movement during yawning.
Theories suggest that this could relate to thermoregulation, waste removal, or potentially other unexplored functions. “It is possible to live without yawning, but there are several subtle effects that likely assist in waste management, temperature control, and even the social dynamics of yawning,” he explains.
The contagious nature of yawning adds another layer of mystery and proved essential for this study, as video footage of yawns was shown to participants while they were inside the MRI scanner.
“In our lab meetings, I always have to speak last because my discussion of this research triggers yawning in everyone else,” Martinac shares.
Researchers like Andrew Gallup from Johns Hopkins University highlight the significant findings of the study, emphasizing its contributions to our understanding of yawning. He also noted that some of the findings have been understated, particularly those affirming yawning’s role in temperature regulation.
“The observed 34% increase in internal carotid artery flow during yawning is a critical finding that deserves more attention,” Gallup asserts.
He further noted that the study focused on contagious yawns versus spontaneous yawns, indicating that spontaneous yawns may induce even greater changes in CSF and blood flow.
“The video suggests contagious yawns are shorter than the average spontaneous yawn, which lasts about six seconds,” he notes.
Professor Yossi Rathner from the University of Melbourne agrees the team may have underestimated certain findings but opposes some claims concerning thermoregulation.
“Increased sleep pressure can elevate levels of a compound called adenosine that accumulates in the brain stem. Yawning seems to facilitate fluid movement in the brain stem, helping to flush out adenosine, temporarily alleviating sleep pressure and boosting alertness,” Rathner explains. “While this isn’t a direct conclusion from the study, the data strongly implies this relationship.”
Publishing a book on the history of disease seems timely given the ongoing challenges with public health. As we face yet another tough winter in the Northern Hemisphere, we reflect on the previous harsh winter during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our vulnerability to illness has never been more evident.
Introducing The Great Shadow: A History of How Disease Shapes Our Actions, Thoughts, Beliefs, and Purchases, authored by Susan Wise Bauer. This work chronicles how disease influences individual lives and collective societal behaviors over centuries. From our guilty pleasures to our shopping habits, microbial influences are always at play.
However, the subject isn’t entirely new; similar works have emerged since the pandemic, such as Jonathan Kennedy’s comprehensive essays, along with updated versions of Sean Martin’s A Short History of Disease and Frederick F. Cartwright and Michael Biddis’s Disease and History. So, what sets this work apart?
The distinction lies in Bauer’s emphasis. She explores the shift from the “Hippocratic universe” to our contemporary understanding steeped in “germ theory.” The former relies on antiquated beliefs regarding bodily humors and inner balance, while the latter focuses on scientific evidence.
A key revelation of this book is the prolonged timeline for this transition; the acknowledgment that microbes cause disease took centuries to establish and only gained traction in the late Victorian era—resulting in millions of unnecessary deaths.
Yet, have we completely moved past Hippocratic medicine? The Great Shadow doubles as a discussion piece. Each chapter unveils a timeline, navigating through urbanization, the Black Death, and the trenches of World War I, before linking historical events to current beliefs surrounding disease.
At its best, this research provokes contemplation. Are we surprised that 19th-century anti-vaccination advocates resemble today’s skeptics? At its worst, some discussions may prove perplexing. For instance, Bauer confesses that following COVID-19, she avoided checkups out of fear of being criticized for her weight gain—a worrying reflection on the pressures surrounding health discussions.
Nevertheless, glimmers of insight are present in The Great Shadow. Despite moments of verbose writing, Bauer efficiently crafts narratives from historical archives. Her account of early germ theory proponents like Alexander Gordon and Ignace Semmelweis, often marginalized for their views, merits cinematic adaptation.
The final, memorable aspect of this book discusses our shift from superstition to science, presenting the current crisis termed the Third Epidemiological Transition. Bauer notes that we face not only epidemic failures with antibiotics but also the rapid emergence of novel diseases for which vaccines and treatments are yet unavailable, facilitated by modern global travel.
Peter Hoskin is the Books and Culture Editor at Prospect magazine.
Elizabeth Homan with her valuable stool donor, Mr. Dmitri
Elizabeth Homan
Fecal transplants have become a vital treatment for Clostridioides difficile relapses. However, sourcing high-quality stool donors remains a significant challenge.
“This process can be quite frustrating; only about 1 percent of those who respond to donor ads are in optimal health,” states Elizabeth Homan, an infectious disease specialist at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. “Finding qualified donors is tough, so we really appreciate their generosity.” Over the years, some donors have contributed their stools over 100 times.
Homan has overseen the fecal transplant program at her hospital for 15 years. Her responsibilities include collecting donations, processing them into oral capsules, and administering them to patients suffering from challenging intestinal conditions, particularly recurrent C. difficile infections that are resistant to antibiotics. The beneficial gut bacteria in the donor’s stool help to eliminate harmful bacteria in the recipient’s gut, alleviating symptoms.
To recruit donors, Homan advertises online, offering $1,200 for a month’s worth of stool donations.
Potential donors undergo a rigorous screening process. Many do not advance past the initial phone interview due to health criteria, such as being a healthcare worker or recent travel to Southeast Asia, both of which heighten the risk of transmitting drug-resistant bacteria. Furthermore, donors need to be within a healthy weight range, as past experiences showed that stools from obese donors could cause adverse reactions in recipients.
Individuals who pass the initial screening undergo comprehensive testing, including blood tests to evaluate their overall health, screenings for infectious diseases like HIV and COVID-19, and rectal examinations to detect any intestinal abnormalities.
Homan’s most successful donors are often fitness enthusiasts with balanced diets. One notable donor is a “semi-professional athlete, personal trainer, and gym owner.” Generally, superior stools result from diets rich in natural foods while minimizing ultra-processed options. “We’ve considered using only vegan donors, but in reality, my best donors have been omnivores,” she notes.
Donation periods typically last from 2 to 4 weeks. During this time, donors are encouraged to make frequent visits to the hospital for donations. “They often have regular bowel movements, coming in around the same time daily after a coffee boost,” Homan explains. Each stool sample is collected in a plastic container and processed in the lab.
Fresh stool is quickly converted into capsules. “I blend it with saline and strain it through a graduated mesh filter,” Homan explains. After additional processing, the liquid is encapsulated. “It’s not pleasant, but you adapt,” she adds.
After each donation period, donors are screened again for any infections, making sure they are not exposed to pathogens like Salmonella. If they test positive, the capsules are discarded, and new donor sourcing begins.
Despite these hurdles, Homan expresses her passion for the job, highlighting the life-changing effects fecal transplants can have on patients. Recently, a patient who was unable to work has returned to a 30-hour work week thanks to the transplant capsules. “I continue this work because it makes a meaningful difference in people’s lives,” she remarks.
Sadly, Elizabeth Homan is nearing retirement and is struggling to find a replacement. “I keep asking my department, ‘Who’s willing to help?’ The response has been silence. It seems they’re overwhelmed with the basics and hesitant to take on this responsibility.”
Ornithologists at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology have unveiled the most comprehensive evolutionary tree of birds to date. This groundbreaking research reveals unexpected relationships and serves as a fascinating illustration for bird enthusiasts. Explore the World Bird Lineage Explorer, where you can track lineage and evolutionary milestones.
European bee-eater (Merops apiaster). Image credit: Rashuli / CC BY 2.0.
Understanding the phylogeny of birds is crucial for advancing bird research.
With over 11,000 bird species worldwide, consolidating phylogenetic trees into a singular, updated resource has posed significant challenges for ornithologists.
The Birds of the World Phylogeny Explorer directly addresses these challenges, remaining current with the latest scientific discoveries.
“This tool combines centuries of avian research with advanced computational tools, creating a captivating interactive resource that narrates the story of bird evolution,” stated Dr. Elliott Miller, a researcher with the American Bird Conservancy.
“New evolutionary relationships are constantly being discovered. We release annual updates to our phylogenetic tools, ensuring our datasets align with the latest taxonomy,” he added.
“This tool holds immense value for the scientific community,” remarked Dr. Pam Rasmussen from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
“The complete tree of bird life, built on cutting-edge phylogenetic research, is now a downloadable, interactive dataset from Birds of the World, encouraging further inquiry and exploration.”
“This evolutionary tree provides crucial insights into how evolutionary history has shaped traits such as beak shape, wing length, foraging behaviors, and habitat preferences in birds.”
“Bird lovers will appreciate the personalized features of the Birds of the World Phylogeny Explorer,” Dr. Marshall Iliff noted, also from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
“By logging into the platform, birders can visualize the diversity of their eBird species list, diving deep into bird history across orders, families, and genera, thus revealing noteworthy evolutionary patterns.”
“For birdwatchers, their lifetime list transforms into a personal journey through evolutionary history, highlighting how each species fits into the broader narrative of avian evolution.”
“Users are sure to encounter surprising revelations. For instance, why does the North American woodpecker closely resemble other woodpeckers yet belong to a different lineage?”
“Or why are peregrine falcons fierce hunters like hawks and eagles, even though they originate from a separate branch of the family tree?”
“Solving these taxonomic enigmas can become a lifelong pursuit for anyone deeply passionate about birds.”
Earlier this month, NASA’s TESS space telescope successfully captured the faint glow and tail of an interstellar comet, further enriching its archive with observations that may provide critical insights into this unique celestial visitor from beyond our solar system.
This 3I/ATLAS image was captured by NASA’s TESS satellite on January 15, 2026. Image credit: NASA/Daniel Muthukrishna, MIT.
The interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS was discovered on July 1, 2025, by the NASA-funded ATLAS survey telescope in Rio Hurtado, Chile.
Known as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11pl3Z, this comet originated from the Sagittarius constellation.
3I/ATLAS holds the record for the most dynamically extreme orbit of any object tracked in our solar system.
It reached its closest approach to the Sun, or perihelion, on October 30, 2025.
The comet passed within 1.4 astronomical units (approximately 210 million km) of our Sun, just crossing Mars’ orbit.
After its brief obscuration behind the Sun, it reemerged near the triple star system Zania, located in the Virgo constellation.
According to MIT astronomer Daniel Muthukrishna and his team, “The TESS spacecraft systematically scans vast areas of the sky for about a month, looking for variations in light from distant stars to identify orbiting exoplanets and new worlds beyond our solar system.”
“Additionally, this technology enables TESS to detect and monitor remote comets and asteroids,” they added.
Notably, 3I/ATLAS had been observed prior to its official discovery in May 2025. For more details, you can read the findings.
From January 15 to 22, 2026, TESS re-observed the interstellar comet during a dedicated observation period.
The comet’s brightness measured approximately 11.5 times the apparent magnitude, making it about 100 times dimmer than what the human eye can perceive.
By revisiting the TESS data, astronomers successfully identified this faint comet by stacking multiple observations to track its motion, showcasing the extraordinary capabilities of the TESS mission.
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