Paleontologists have discovered an exceptionally well-preserved snake fossil in Brazil, reshaping our understanding of early snake lifestyles and complicating the long-standing debate regarding their ancestors—did they burrow underground, swim in oceans, or crawl on the surface?
Reconstruction of Tametaramirimu. Image credit: Gabriel Uguet.
He noted, “At some point during the dinosaur era, one lineage of lizards lost their limbs and elongated their bodies. The critical question is why?”
Dr. Ebell further explained, “Various theories have coexisted for over a century.”
Some scientists propose that early snakes adapted to aquatic environments with long, limbless bodies, similar to eels. Others believe they thrived on the surface among fallen leaves, while a third theory suggests they became adapted to a burrowing lifestyle, similar to modern blind snakes.
However, the debate is hindered by limited fossil evidence, with fewer than ten early snake skeletons identified from that era.
In their study, Dr. Ebell and colleagues analyzed the exceptionally preserved skull and post-cranial material of a new species of stem snake known as Tametaramirimu, which inhabited what is now Brazil during the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 85 to 75 million years ago.
This fossil, unearthed in 2020 near Presidente Prudente in São Paulo state, marks the first articulated snake fossil ever found in Brazil and one of the few three-dimensionally preserved Mesozoic snake fossils globally.
What sets Tametaramirimu apart are the extraordinary details preserved in its skull.
Paleontologists employed high-resolution CT scans to reconstruct the brain, cranial nerves, and inner ear with unprecedented detail, producing the most comprehensive picture of early snake brain anatomy to date.
These reconstructions reveal a brain structure distinct from both other early snakes and modern snakes, suggesting significant evolutionary changes in brain form and possibly sensory capabilities.
Dr. Ebell and his team correlated brain data with fossil bone microstructure analysis, which indicates an animal’s lifestyle through skeletal density and thickness.
Both lines of evidence lead to the same conclusion: Tametaramirimu was adapted for burrowing.
Dr. Ebell stated, “Burrowing animals develop denser, thicker skull bones, particularly in the skull roof.”
This adaptation likely reinforces the skull against stresses incurred during burrowing.
Tametaramirimu displays these characteristics, classifying it among the most specialized burrowing reptiles today, far removed from lizards and snakes with more common lifestyles.
Furthermore, the study’s evidence extended beyond the skull shape.
The researchers digitally reconstructed the brain cavity, achieving the most detailed visualization of an early snake brain yet.
They believe this layout closely resembles brain shapes of living burrowing species, marked by a reduced visual center and simplified forebrain indicating an underground lifestyle.
Holotype of Tametaramirim. Image credit: Simões et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10809-9.
The findings sharply contrast previous research on Dinilisia patagonica, an Argentinian snake known for its non-burrowing, surface-dwelling nature.
These comparisons suggest that early serpentine lineages were not uniform; instead, snakes appeared to diversify early into burrowing, terrestrial, and even marine adaptations, developing distinct lifestyles over tens of millions of years.
Dr. Ebell highlighted, “The two oldest snakes studied show even greater brain differences than most contemporary snake lineages.”
Dinilisia patagonica existed on the surface, while Tametaramirimu had vision adapted for a life spent in the dark.
This significant discovery contributes to the growing repository of well-preserved Cretaceous snake fossils, helping paleontologists unravel the complex puzzle of how lizard-like ancestors evolved into the diverse range of over 4,200 extant snake species today.
“Our results provide quantitative, multi-faceted confirmation of the fossilizability of stem snakes and address a long-standing debate previously reliant on qualitative assessments and isolated anatomical evidence,” the researchers concluded.
“More broadly, these findings illustrate that the origin of snakes was influenced by multiple ecological pathways, highlighting the diverse evolutionary adaptations that facilitated one of the most drastic changes in vertebrate body plans.”
The complete research paper can be found here, published in the journal Nature on July 22, 2026.
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TR Simões et al. Extraordinary brain and ecological diversity in early snakes. Nature published online on July 22, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10809-9
Recent findings from NASA’s Juno spacecraft reveal that temperatures are exceeding 20 degrees Celsius just below the surface of Io, the most volcanically active moon in the solar system. This groundbreaking discovery sheds light on the dynamics beneath Io’s crust, offering a glimpse into the workings of this extraordinary celestial body.
Io’s arctic region captured by NASA’s Juno spacecraft on December 30, 2023. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SwRI / MSSS / Gerald Eichstädt.
Io, one of Jupiter’s 79 moons, holds the title for the most intense volcanic activity in the solar system.
The immense gravitational forces exerted by Jupiter cause constant expansion and contraction of Io, generating significant internal heat.
Traditionally, heat observations have primarily relied on infrared measurements that only capture surface temperatures.
According to Dr. Scott Bolton, Juno’s principal investigator and a research fellow at the Southwest Research Institute, “Io offers a unique insight into tidal heating, a crucial process that provides energy and heat to celestial bodies far from their parent stars.”
“In Io’s case, this energy not only fuels the most massive volcanic structures in the solar system but could also sustain underground oceans on other moons like Europa and Ganymede.”
“Previously, we could only observe heat escaping at the surface or during eruptions,” Dr. Bolton added. “Now, we can analyze how heat transitions from the interior to the surface.”
Utilizing the Microwave Radiometer (MWR) on NASA’s Juno spacecraft, Dr. Bolton and his research team measured Io’s subsurface temperature for the first time, revealing a significant uptick exceeding 20 degrees Celsius just beneath the surface.
Long-range microwave observations indicate that Io’s surface appears smooth, while deeper layers are less dense than typical solid rock, resembling volcanic ash or pumice.
Temperature gradient map of Io based on data from NASA’s Juno spacecraft’s MWR instrument. The colors represent varying heat outputs, with red indicating the highest levels. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SwRI / USGS.
The research team also identified intense endogenous heating within the top few tens of meters of Io’s surface.
Two plausible theories emerge from their findings: heat can either rise steadily through the conductive crust or escape through thinner areas of the crust over lava flows, with hot vents covering about 10% of the surface.
Dr. Bolton noted, “The MWR instrument directly observed Io’s heat output from below the surface, marking a surprising pivotal moment for the study of planetary geology.”
“Our findings suggest that similar observations near volcanoes on Earth using MWR-type instruments could reveal valuable insights into underground temperature gradients, enhancing our understanding of volcanic activity.”
This impactful study will be published in the Geophysical Research Journal: Planets.
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Shannon Brown et al. 2026. Io’s subsurface temperature profile observed by the Juno microwave radiometer. Geophysical Research Journal: Planets 131 (7): e2025JE009622; doi: 10.1029/2025JE009622
Important Update: A 2021 study by researchers at the University of Michigan revealed that consuming hot dogs can be associated with a health burden comparable to losing 36 minutes of life.
This research assessed DALYs (disability-adjusted life years), which consider years spent in poor health, giving them less societal value compared to healthier years.
Interestingly, hot dogs aren’t even the top offender for your DALY score; for instance, a corned beef sandwich could reduce your healthy lifespan by 71 minutes.
On a brighter note, incorporating foods like peanuts, salmon, and beans can enhance your DALY scores!
In fact, based on the study findings, enjoying a peanut butter sandwich immediately after eating a hot dog can nearly negate the negative impacts of the hot dog.
Image credit: Jacopo Ricci
This article by Cillian Kirk from Wakefield addresses the question: “Should I stop eating hot dogs?”
If you have any questions, feel free to reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(Please include your name and location).
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New research published in Nature Earth Science reveals that climate change 201 million years ago transformed Europe into a fern-savannah landscape, leading to frequent wildfires. Explore the study here.
Artist’s impression of the late Triassic fern landscape. Image credit: Mark Garlick.
“Ferns are incredibly resilient plants that have survived multiple crises throughout Earth’s history, with some species adapting to extreme environments. They exemplify true survival instincts,” said Dr. Bas van de Schootbrugge, a researcher at Utrecht University.
“Certain ferns can quickly colonize disturbed areas, and the occurrence of wildfires can further stimulate their expansion.”
“Although ferns burn above ground, their underground root systems allow rapid regrowth, often overshadowing other plant species.”
“This ecological phenomenon may have significantly impacted the duration of the fern spike period, estimated to last between 40,000 to 300,000 years.”
In their study, scientists examined fossil deposits dating back to the end-Triassic mass extinction from drill cores located in Germany, Luxembourg, Denmark, and the United Kingdom.
The researchers compiled a record of historical wildfire activities by analyzing the abundance of fossilized charcoal and organic molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) formed during wildfires.
When combined with pollen and spore records, these proxy indicators revealed significant wildfire activity correlating with extinction events and pteridophyte expansion.
However, care must be taken with charcoal records, as larger pieces can fragment into smaller ones during sampling.
Similarly, PAHs generated during wildfires may not be accurately captured in the vicinity of the fire and might not be preserved.
“Our study’s novelty stemmed from analyzing color variations in organic microfossils,” Dr. van de Schootbrugge explained.
“We employed an affordable technique to quantify the ‘darkness’ of fossil pollen and spores, which we termed the palynomorph darkness index.”
“Typically, when organic microfossils are buried in sediments, their color changes due to pressure and temperature alterations.”
“As sediments undergo deeper burial, the temperature increases, causing the trapped organic matter to darken over time. However, we observed a unique pattern.” In the deepest, oldest core samples, pollen and spores showed lighter colors but became very dark brown during the extinction period, reverting to bright yellow thereafter.”
“This phenomenon puzzled us, as it occurred simultaneously across all four cores. Given their diverse geological histories, it seemed unlikely that sediment burial alone could explain it.”
The authors generated 15,000 measurements from both pollen and spores observed before, during, and after the end-Triassic mass extinction.
By comparing tree pollen with fern spores, they eliminated plant group-specific biological effects.
“All plant groups exhibited the same darkening effect, indicating it was likely due to an external factor,” Dr. van de Schootbrugge noted.
“When we compared color changes in microfossils to other indicators of fire, we found that this ‘dark zone’ represented an extended period of intense wildfires during the fern proliferation interval.”
This darkening correlated precisely with key extinction events and a surge in charcoal and PAH levels.
The remarkable increase of ferns during this major extinction was driven by factors like deforestation, soil erosion, greenhouse warming, and wildfires.
“As ferns dehydrate, their thick mats become perfect fuel for igniting large wildfires,” Dr. van de Schootbrugge added.
“Invasive and pioneering fern species contributed to the establishment of widespread fern savannahs, acting as ‘fire ladders’ while outcompeting other vegetation.”
“Consequently, ferns ultimately enhanced fire intensity, leading to recurring massive wildfires. It was a chaotic time in Earth’s history.”
“This serves as a reminder that climate change, deforestation, and opportunistic species can create the perfect conditions for ecological disasters.”
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“TP Horror et al. Continental-scale fern savannah wildfires during greenhouse warming at the end of the Triassic.” Nature Earth Science, published online July 21, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41561-026-02048-4
In 2025, a groundbreaking study conducted by American food scientists revealed that a healthy diet could inadvertently lead to jaw pain.
Researchers at the University of Missouri uncovered that kale, often dubbed the king of superfoods, doesn’t deliver the nutrient boost we expect when included in our meals.
While kale is packed with carotenoids, vitamins, and various beneficial compounds, our bodies struggle to absorb these vital micronutrients.
“Kale’s primary nutrients, especially carotenoids, are fat-soluble,” explains Professor Ruojie (Vanessa) Zhang, a lead researcher in the study. The findings reveal that when kale is consumed alone, it does not dissolve optimally in our digestive tract, significantly limiting nutrient absorption.
Fortunately, Zhang and her team demonstrated a simple, enjoyable solution through a laboratory model simulating human digestion.
By pairing kale with an oil-based dressing, they found that the absorption of fat-soluble nutrients from the leafy green was doubled.
“When these nutrients are combined with oil-based foods, such as dressings containing olive oil, the oil breaks down in the intestines, forming structures called ‘mixed micelles,'” explains Chan.
“These micelles facilitate the transport of carotenoids to the intestinal lining, significantly enhancing absorption.” This principle also applies to fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, E, and K.
This kale research exemplifies the concept of bioavailability, highlighting that while foods may be nutrient-rich, the actual rate of absorption is heavily influenced by how they are consumed.
Numerous examples exist illustrating how food combinations can amplify nutrient intake compared to consuming items in isolation.
Credit: Getty
For instance, adding olive oil or avocado to salads with tomatoes or carrots enhances the absorption of lycopene, a fat-soluble antioxidant, according to Zhang.
Incorporating black pepper and turmeric into your next curry can boost the absorption of curcumin, a nutrient linked to reduced dementia risk. This effect is due to a compound called piperine in black pepper, which slows curcumin metabolism, enhancing its bioavailability.
Take spinach as another example; while it seems rich in iron, its absorption is compromised when consumed alone due to antinutrients like oxalate that bind to minerals, diminishing their bioavailability,” explains Chan.
However, when paired with vitamin C-rich foods such as lemon juice, the absorption of iron from spinach significantly improves, as ascorbic acid neutralizes inhibitory compounds, promoting iron dissolution in the intestines.
Food preparation and cooking also play vital roles in nutrient availability. For instance, fermenting certain foods can enhance the bioavailability of minerals, while consuming some items raw may result in nutrient loss.
“Carrots are a great source of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A essential for visual health,” note Chan.
“Nevertheless, when raw, less than 5 percent may be absorbed. However, intake can soar if carrots are consumed with dietary fats like meat, fish, butter, and olive oil—potentially increasing absorption up to six times!”
Cooking methods can either increase or decrease the bioavailability of nutrients based on the food type and preparation techniques.
“Heat treatment often disrupts plant cell structures, enhancing nutrient availability by releasing bound bioactive compounds,” Zhang explains.
Past studies conducted by her team showed that cooking carrots and tomatoes boosted the release and absorption of nutrients like beta-carotene and lycopene.
“Light steaming can improve nutrient availability while minimizing nutrient loss by softening plant cell walls,” she adds. However, be cautious of overcooking.
“Excessive heat can degrade heat-sensitive nutrients and lead to a loss of water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and B vitamins.”
Undoubtedly, navigating all these nuances is challenging when interpreting food labels. Complicating matters further are the variations in individual gut microbiomes.
Nonetheless, by keeping essential ingredients handy—like drizzling olive oil and lemon juice over vegetables and leafy greens—one can maintain a healthy diet.
Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, a massive cloud of gas and dust in the universe underwent a dramatic collapse. As it collapsed, gravity pulled most of the matter into several compact points, one of which eventually became the Sun, while the others formed what scientists call an open star cluster.
In this nascent phase of the Sun’s existence, it was encircled by a swirling disk of residual material, known as a protoplanetary disk. Over time, this disk condense into the planets that now constitute our solar system. This typical formation process results in a star at the center with planets orbiting within the star’s equatorial plane.
However, scientific observations reveal that our solar system deviates from this norm. The planets in our solar system revolve around the Sun in a single plane, offset by approximately 6 degrees from the Sun’s equator. This configuration supports the protoplanetary disk theory of solar system formation, as the odds of capture by the Sun stand at 8 for a rogue planet. Such statistics suggest an astronomically low likelihood. So, what led to the bizarre orbital arrangements of the planets in our solar system?
Illustration depicting the tilt of our solar system, showcasing the four largest planets: Neptune, Saturn, Jupiter, and Uranus. Illustration: Andrew Bizarre.
To understand the reason behind the tilt of the solar system, Daohai Li from Queen Mary University of London utilized a computer program called NBODY6++. This program simulated various models of the open star cluster that birthed the Sun. Through these simulations, he varied the number of stars from 500 to 8,000 and adjusted the cluster’s radius. Additionally, he modified the ratio of binary companions from 10% to 90%, assigning random initial mass, position, and velocity to each star for simulations spanning 400 million years.
Initially, Li identified a star with a mass comparable to the Sun within simulation results. He noted that some stars within this group had formed in isolation or had separated from their original companions. He posited that such single stars shared characteristics similar to the Sun and could host solar systems resembling ours.
Li simulated the planets and their orbits around potential host stars, focusing on the four gas giants that influence our solar system’s dynamics: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Each solar system was simulated independently for 200 million years to ensure gravitational stability, providing valuable insights into the solar system’s historical evolution.
Ultimately, Li’s research unveiled two scenarios that could account for our solar system’s tilt. In the first scenario, a crowded stellar environment within the cluster leads to chaotic orbital paths, making a consistent tilt improbable. Conversely, the second scenario suggests that a temporary companion star may have briefly influenced the Sun, resulting in a coordinated tilt of the planets’ orbits. The likelihood of this occurrence for stars born with a binary companion stands at 10%, while the probability for solitary stars is less than 0.1%.
Li concluded that our solar system’s tilt may stem from interactions with a fleeting companion star, emphasizing the importance of close stellar encounters for maximizing influence. Despite this, the existence of a twin or former neighbor to our Sun somewhere in the cosmos remains a tantalizing possibility, potentially accounting for our solar system’s unique structure.
For decades, Liopleurodon ferox has intrigued paleontologists. This short-necked marine reptile inhabited the waters of present-day Britain and France approximately 163 million years ago, earning its reputation as one of the largest predators to ever swim the oceans. Some estimates suggest it could reach an astonishing length of 25 meters (82 feet). By reevaluating known specimens, researchers at the University of Portsmouth have determined that, although smaller, Liopleurodon ferox‘s massive skull still positions it as a formidable apex predator.
Artist’s impression of a pliosaur. Image credit: Megan Jacobs, University of Portsmouth.
According to Edward Bartlett and his team from the University of Portsmouth, “Liopleurodon ferox is a well-known Thalassophonian pliosaur from the Middle Jurassic (Callovian) Oxford Clay Formation in England and a comparable formation in northwest France.”
“It represents one of the earliest thalassophoniae, identified from a nearly complete skeleton,” they noted.
This reassessment has made Liopleurodon ferox a benchmark for systematic studies and size comparisons within the Thalassophoniae family. However, the complex taxonomic history stemming from the diagnosis of the holotype—a single canine tooth first described in 1873—has led to numerous Callovian-Tithonian pliosaurid specimens being assigned to this genus, resulting in a wide range of size estimates, from 6.39 meters to the mythical 25 meters featured in the 1999 BBC television series Walking with Dinosaurs.
In their study, Dr. Bartlett and colleagues calculated that Liopleurodon ferox measured between approximately 2.46 and 8.09 meters, with more complete skeletons averaging around 4.8 to 6 meters.
The researchers concluded that the average length for this species was probably closer to 5 meters—a fraction of the dramatic 25 meters.
“Our research marks the first comprehensive reassessment of all specimens linked to Liopleurodon ferox,” stated Dr. Bartlett. “By compiling all available material, we can finally deliver a solid estimate of its size and body proportions.”
While smaller than some iconic reconstructions, it remains a significant marine predator of the Jurassic Oxford Clay Sea.
In constructing the revised model, paleontologists relied on two well-preserved skeletons (one housed in Tübingen, Germany, and another at the Natural History Museum in London) alongside a complete skull used to adjust estimations of the skull’s proportions.
It was revealed that the skull constituted approximately 24% of the animal’s skeletal length, a considerably larger proportion than earlier estimates, indicating that Liopleurodon ferox was equipped to tackle relatively large prey compared to other contemporary pliosaurs.
Even reduced in size, Liopleurodon ferox still holds the title of the largest known creature from the Oxford Clay ecosystem.
However, the researchers hinted at an even more striking discovery. Several fossil fragments from the same rock layer appear to belong to a much larger pliosaur, with length estimates reaching up to 12.2 meters.
The true identity of this pliosaur remains a mystery, as these specimens lack the distinguishing characteristics required for species identification, but findings suggest that titanic creatures coexisted with Liopleurodon ferox in the mid-Jurassic oceans.
“This specimen, estimated between 7.02 and 12.2 meters, provides evidence that pliosaur gigantism (greater than 10 meters) evolved during the late Middle Jurassic,” the scientists concluded.
These findings will be published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Edward O. Bartlett et al. “Re-evaluating the Body Size of Mid-Jurassic Pliosaurs: Liopleurodon ferox Sauvage, 1873.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on July 16, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2691149
Ararat-1 Cave, a fascinating limestone formation situated at an elevation of 1,034 meters on the eastern flank of the Ararat Depression in central Armenia, presents intriguing insights into the navigation strategies of Middle Paleolithic humans.
View of Ararat-1 cave from the base of the Ararat depression. Image credit: Ariel Malinsky Buller.
“The Caucasus is a region characterized by diverse geographical and ecological conditions that shaped complex environments for ancient human populations as well as unique plant and animal species,” stated Dr. David Nora from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and his research team.
“The archaeological landscape here is rich, with the Middle Paleolithic period being the most prominent, accounting for approximately 60% of over 450 known Paleolithic sites.”
“These sites encompass caves, rock shelters, open-air locations, and isolated finds.”
“They are strategically positioned across a variety of landscapes, including river canyons, terraces, coastal areas, mountain plateaus, hills, and volcanic formations.”
In their recent study, the authors analyzed 1,770 stone tools discovered in Ararat-1 Cave, located to the northeast of Mount Ararat and atop the Ararat Depression.
The tools date back approximately 52,000 to 35,000 years, during the Upper Middle Paleolithic period.
Researchers uncovered a narrative featuring two key raw materials: obsidian and chert.
Obsidian, a volcanic glass that served as the primary material in the region, showed significant signs of reworking, shaping, and repair. This indicates that toolmakers transported finished or partially finished obsidian fragments and meticulously maintained them, sometimes originating from various locations up to 200 kilometers away.
Conversely, chert artifacts were generally fashioned on-site, with minimal evidence of curation, signifying that they were locally collected and utilized quickly before disposal.
This distinction is vital because archaeologists often assess “select” versus “opportunistic” technology use to gauge group mobility.
Durable and versatile curated toolkits typically signify populations with high mobility, while local, easily replaceable toolkits suggest longer stays in one location.
The complication, according to the researchers, lies in the evidence from Ararat-1 Cave, which displays characteristics of both high mobility and long-term occupation within the same archaeological layer. This creates a complex narrative regarding migratory behaviors.
“The findings from Ararat-1 Cave pose a puzzling challenge in interpreting the mobility patterns,” they explain.
“Within the same geological layer, we observe two contrasting scenarios for mobility: one characterized by a high mobility toolkit indicated by obsidian assemblages, and another showing a lower mobility toolkit represented by chert.”
“These diverse signatures lead to questions about whether chert or obsidian might represent exceptions in technological strategies (select versus opportunistic).”
To unravel this contradiction, scientists focused on an unusual type of evidence: tiny fragments—often less than 2 centimeters—that result from sharpening and rejuvenating tool blades.
Many of the Ararat-1 artifacts were smaller than 2 cm, prompting researchers to develop a five-category system to track these remnants as direct indicators of tool maintenance, even when the tools themselves were absent.
By examining this maintenance evidence alongside the distances traveled by the obsidian, they propose that Ararat-1 was used as a transit point rather than a long-term base camp. It likely served as a stop where groups could rest, repair, and replenish their portable obsidian toolkits during short, repeated visits, while utilizing locally sourced chert for immediate needs.
“Our research illustrates that ancient hunter-gatherers were adaptive and strategic in their thinking,” commented Dr. Ariel Malinsky Buller, a researcher at the Hebrew University’s Institute of Archaeology.
“They employed a multifaceted approach rather than relying on a single strategy, skillfully balancing their portable long-range toolkits with readily available local resources, using caves like Ararat-1 as key locations for resting, repairing equipment, and strategizing future movements through challenging terrains.”
This study was published in the journal Quaternary Science Review.
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David Nora and colleagues. 2025. The role of stone technology in shaping mobility and decision-making: The case of Ararat-1 Cave. Quaternary Science Review 366: 109524; doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2025.109524
Groundbreaking research reveals the first evidence that high-energy particle bursts from the sun significantly warm Mars’ lower atmosphere during massive dust storms, highlighting an unexpected connection between space weather and Mars’ climate.
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured these images showing Mars before (left) and during (right) a dust storm in June 2018. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / University of Arizona.
“Solar energetic particle (SEP) events occur when highly energetic charged particles are expelled into space by solar flares or coronal mass ejections (CMEs),” explained astronomer Lana Williams from Lancaster University and her colleagues.
“Mars is particularly vulnerable to these particles due to its thin atmosphere and lack of a strong global magnetic field, unlike Earth.”
“While previous studies indicated that SEPs could influence Mars’ upper atmosphere — causing ionization, auroral activities, and disruption of radio communications — their effects on the lower atmosphere, where weather phenomena occur, remain largely unexplored.”
The researchers noted, “Dust storms naturally heat parts of Mars’ atmosphere by absorbing sunlight. However, we discovered an unusual heating pattern during this complex event that cannot be attributed solely to the storm.”
In this study, Williams and her team analyzed five SEP events to explore whether persistent SEPs could elevate temperatures in Mars’ lower atmosphere.
While four of the SEP events showed no significant effects, the fifth event in June 2018 coincided with the growth of a global dust storm that also marked the end of NASA’s Opportunity spacecraft.
Notably, during this global storm, evidence of low-level atmospheric heating was recorded.
“We anticipated some temperature variation in Mars’ lower atmosphere due to these high-energy particles; however, we only found clear heating during the global sandstorm,” Williams stated.
For this investigation, astronomers utilized data from NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft alongside ESA’s Trace Gas Explorer.
The team compared their findings against expected temperature profiles from the Mars climate database, observing conditions before, during, and after the five long-term SEP events.
Interestingly, “Sandstorms were not part of our original research focus, making their simultaneous occurrence with the heating results quite unexpected,” Williams remarked.
This implies that Mars’ atmosphere and weather might be influenced by a combination of factors, rather than each heat source acting in isolation.
New research on chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pongo niger) indicates that behaviors like hugging, touching, and other comforting gestures prior to competing for food are linked to more peaceful sharing. This suggests that the roots of human social interaction extend back at least 6 million years.
Reassuring behaviors in bonobos and chimpanzees. Image credit: Z. Clay / JS Brooker.
“Social tolerance, defined as the tendency of similar species to gather closely around valuable resources with minimal aggression, is a key factor for information transfer and effective cooperation,” explained Professor Zannah Clay and her team at Durham University.
“In primates and other animals, a tolerant social environment promotes a variety of adaptive social outcomes, including prosocial behavior, cooperation, empathy, and social learning.”
“Historical behavioral studies often defined tolerance using dominance paradigms, focusing on whether higher-status individuals allowed others to access resources and engaged in shared eating or drinking.”
“However, social tolerance is now increasingly viewed as a broader characteristic of social dynamics that can vary beyond hierarchical contexts.”
“Humans are believed to exhibit particularly notable variations of tolerance and aggression towards both in-groups and out-groups. Similar trends are observed among bonobos and chimpanzees, our closest living relatives.”
For this study, researchers filmed 116 chimpanzees and bonobos across five semi-wild groups in Africa, capturing the five minutes leading up to food distribution in a communal area.
They tracked the instances of touching (hugging, stroking, and even a finger in a mate’s mouth) and assessed how peacefully the individuals dined together afterward, while also recording aggressive incidents.
In both species, primates that engaged in reassuring contact before feeding were more likely to tolerate each other and share their meals side by side instead of resorting to aggression.
This impact varied by sex: in bonobos, the effect was most pronounced among females, highlighting the importance of female alliances in their social structure, whereas in chimpanzees, males showed the strongest effects, reflecting male bonding dynamics.
Such patterns were particularly evident in more socially tolerant groups, indicating that reassuring behaviors enhance rather than merely reflect a collaborative social environment.
Male chimpanzees often engage in the riskier behavior of putting their fingers or hands in each other’s mouths, a practice notably common in more tolerant groups, suggesting a display of trust and vulnerability.
Given the similarities in behaviors, researchers propose that these practices likely trace back to a common ancestor shared by chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans approximately 6 million years ago, establishing touch as a fundamental method for alleviating social tension and fostering group harmony long before the advent of language.
Dr. Jake Brooker, also from Durham University, remarked, “Studying bonobos and chimpanzees—our closest relatives—provides valuable insights into the evolutionary roots of social behaviors and how these species manage tension, competition, and cooperation.”
“Social touch serves as a potent communication tool, existing long before language and perhaps one of our earliest methods for forming social bonds.”
“This instinctive behavior is something we share with our closest relatives.”
“The remarkable act of intimate mouth-to-body contact, such as inserting fingers or hands into another’s mouth, showcases a deep level of trust and vulnerability during high-stress moments.”
“Our research originated from observing a particularly tolerant group of chimpanzees where one male hugged another from behind, prompting a chain reaction of hugs that calmed the group. We referred to this as the ‘reassurance train.’
“Our findings underscore the ancient and profound role of touch in managing social interactions, especially during emotional or stressful times,” stated Professor Clay.
“While much emphasis has been on aggression and competition in human evolution, our research reveals that our lineage has also cultivated a rich suite of behaviors for managing social tension, safeguarding relationships, and promoting social harmony.”
“It’s fascinating that many reassuring behaviors seen in our closest ape relatives are mirrored in human interactions today.”
This reflects our reliance on age-old behavioral mechanisms that date back millions of years, enabling us to navigate social challenges, particularly during our most trying moments.
For more information, refer to the study published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
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Jake S. Brooker et al. 2026. Reassuring physical contact promotes social tolerance in bonobos and chimpanzees. Proceedings R. Soc. B 293 (2075): 20253190; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.3190
A head-on collision with another galaxy billions of years ago may have drastically reoriented the Milky Way’s disk. New supercomputer simulations reveal how this violent merger created a spiral galaxy that appears surprisingly normal today.
Batrakov and his team deployed supercomputers to simulate galaxies like the Milky Way. Their findings suggest galaxies with slowly rotating stellar halos underwent large “disk flips,” leading to significant changes in orientation. Image credit: Batrakov et al.
Most stars in the Milky Way reside in a flat spiral disk, surrounded by a larger, sparser stellar halo, primarily made up of stars that formed in smaller galaxies and were drawn into the Milky Way through cosmic mergers.
ESA’s Gaia mission observations reveal that the Milky Way’s stellar halo rotates slowly, leaving astronomers puzzled about the reasons behind this phenomenon.
To investigate further, Dr. Kirill Batrakov from Durham University and his team studied the evolution of 25 Milky Way-like galaxies in the Auriga series of cosmological simulations, tracking their development over billions of years.
The researchers discovered that galaxies with the slowest rotating stellar halos shared two crucial traits: they experienced major head-on mergers and disk flips during their evolution.
“The Milky Way has undergone a significant head-on collision with a galaxy known as Gaia Sausage Enceladus, often referred to as Gaia Sausage,” Dr. Batrakov stated.
“This suggests it’s quite plausible that the Milky Way’s disk has flipped in the past.”
Gaia Sausage Enceladus, a massive dwarf galaxy, collided with and merged into the early Milky Way around 10 to 11 billion years ago, marking a pivotal moment in our galaxy’s history and contributing to the formation of elongated, sausage-shaped stellar orbits.
Understanding past disk flips could provide astronomers with insights into the Milky Way’s formation and offer indirect clues about the behavior of its dark matter halo.
“The flipping of the disk suggests that many stars in the Milky Way, including our Sun, once followed very different orbits than they do today. This indicates our ‘stable’ position in the galaxy may not have been stable throughout our solar system’s history,” Dr. Batrakov noted.
Disk flips are not common in all galaxies. If the Milky Way’s history includes substantial flips without observable signs, it may shed light on the formation of similar galaxies.
“Since we inhabit the Milky Way, we can delve into its intricacies more than any other galaxy, making it a vital testing ground for understanding galaxies comprehensively,” Dr. Batrakov emphasized.
“The revelation that the disk has flipped adds a significant chapter to its history, which needs to be considered when placing the Milky Way in the broader context of other galaxies.”
“What excites me the most is that this intricate history can be pieced together solely from current observations.”
The research team also determined that the rotation of the Milky Way’s stellar halo is closely tied to its dark matter halo’s rotation, indicating that both may have evolved jointly as the Milky Way amassed smaller satellite galaxies.
“This finding offers a potential explanation for one of the Milky Way’s distinctive features and provides new insights into our galaxy’s formation and evolution over billions of years,” the researchers concluded.
You might believe that all cyber attacks are complex operations masterminded by a network of elusive experts. However, many notorious attacks are surprisingly simple and, more importantly, preventable.
With TryHackMe, you can enhance your cybersecurity skills through various assignments and courses inspired by real-world scenarios, including:
WannaCry (2017)
Credit: Just_Super/Getty
On May 12, 2017, the WannaCry ransomware virus spread globally, encrypting data on infected computers and demanding ransom payments from victims. This malware exploited known vulnerabilities in Windows systems that had existing patches, but many organizations failed to apply these updates.
WannaCry led to significant disruptions, including the cancellation of thousands of appointments and surgeries, affecting numerous healthcare trusts. This incident highlighted how a simple oversight, like neglecting software patches, can yield substantial consequences.
Uber (2022)
Credit: Fajrul Islam/Getty
Uber’s major 2022 breach didn’t stem from advanced malware but rather from an 18-year-old hacker obtaining third-party contractor login credentials, potentially purchased from the dark web. According to reports from Bleeping Computer, the attacker impersonated an Uber IT staff member and persuaded the contractor to approve a two-factor authentication request via WhatsApp.
SolarWinds (2020)
Credit: Photo/Getty
Unlike most cyberattacks, which rely on malicious files or links, the SolarWinds attack targeted the company’s software development processes. Attackers inserted malicious code into the updates of SolarWinds’ Orion monitoring platform, widely used by IT professionals in government agencies and major corporations globally.
This breach became one of the most significant supply chain attacks ever and serves as a stark reminder that even our most trusted tools can harbor risks.
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The key takeaway from these cybersecurity incidents is not the level of technological sophistication but the absence of awareness regarding prevalent vulnerabilities. Cybersecurity entails technical skills, yet being an astute investigator is paramount. Want to test your abilities? Sign up for TryHackMe, a platform created for novices eager to investigate attacks through realistic scenarios.
Paleontologists in India have discovered a partial skeleton of a previously unknown small neosauropod dinosaur in the Middle Jurassic rocks of Gujarat’s Kutch Valley. This groundbreaking find pushes back the known global distribution of major dinosaur lineages by tens of millions of years.
Reconstruction of Ceratocaudia Antiqua, the oldest known large neosauropod species from India. Image credit: Connor Ashbridge / CC BY 4.0.
The Ceratocaudia Antiqua belongs to the neosauropoda group, which eventually gave rise to gigantic dinosaurs like diplodocus, Brachiosaurus, and Argentinosaurus. However, this new species measures only about 7 meters (23 feet) in length.
“Neosauropods represent one of the most successful groups of saurischian dinosaurs, flourishing from the late Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous,” said Dr. Abhishek Natarajan from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay and his team.
“Despite this, the early evolution of the neosauropod lineage, particularly the Diplodocoidea and Macronaria branches, remains hotly debated due to factors such as inadequate outcrop availability, uncertain dating of Lower Middle Jurassic deposits, and poor sampling rates,” Natarajan elaborated.
“Recent research into neosauropods aims to clarify these issues, revealing that both diplodocoids and macronarians had extensive geographic distributions and rich biodiversity during the Middle Jurassic, indicating a global presence for neosauropods by that time.”
The Ceratocaudia Antiqua fossils were excavated from the Kaladongal Formation in the Kutch Valley, western India, yielding a total of 181 fragments, including vertebrae, ribs, and limbs, believed to belong to a single individual.
The fossil deposits date from the Pliensbachian period of the Early Jurassic to the Bajocian period of the Middle Jurassic, making precise dating challenging. Ceratocaudia Antiqua could potentially date back 190 million years.
The fossil collection is housed at the Vertebrate Paleontology Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Utilizing advanced digital reconstruction techniques, researchers modeled the musculature of Ceratocaudia Antiqua‘s tail based on comparisons with modern crocodiles and lizards.
The study suggests that this species could keep its tail horizontally aligned and execute forceful lateral swings, possibly serving as a defense mechanism against predators. “The hypothetical model of Ceratocaudia Antiqua indicates that sauropod tails may have acted as a mild deterrent against predators, despite lacking specialized adaptations like flagellated tails,” the researchers noted.
Phylogenetic analyses position Ceratocaudia Antiqua as an early branch of the Macronaria, making it one of the earliest diagnosable neosauropods discovered globally.
Alongside two Chinese species, Dachampsaurus dongi and Prunus crenensis, evidence suggests that neosauropods had achieved a global distribution prior to the Bajosian period of the Jurassic.
“Kutchi sauropods represent some of the earliest neosauropods and contribute significantly to the limited global record of Early to Middle Jurassic neosauropods,” the researchers concluded.
The findings are detailed in their paper published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology this month.
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Abhishek Natarajan et al.. A new small Jurassic neosauropod excavated from the Kaladongal Formation (Kadir Uplift) in the Kachhi Basin, western India. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on July 16, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2677749
Did you know that most individuals can only hold their breath for under 90 seconds? With dedicated training, elite freedivers can extend this remarkable feat to over four minutes!
However, when diving deeper than 100 meters, the need to exert significant force while pulling up a rope diminishes your capacity to hold your breath effectively.
Static breath-holding exercises are crucial for honing this skill.
The current world record is an astounding achievement by Croatian freediver Vitomir Maricic, who inhaled pure oxygen and then remained motionless at the bottom of a hotel pool, achieving a mind-blowing 29 minutes.
This article addresses the question: “What is the longest time someone can hold their breath?” This query originated from Durham resident Elijah Lewis.
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Near-Earth Object 1998 SH2 (875163), initially classified as an asteroid, has uncovered a surprising truth: it may actually be a comet. Recent research published in Nature Astronomy sheds light on its enigmatic identity.
This artist’s concept depicts a near-Earth asteroid with an elongated orbit. Such objects can experience significant perturbations around the Sun, potentially becoming comets with faint tails and comas like SH2 in 1998. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
The intrigue began on August 28, 2025, when 1998 SH2 safely passed Earth at a distance of 3 million kilometers (approximately 1.86 million miles) during its four-and-a-half-year solar journey.
Dr. Davide Farnocchia and his team at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory aimed to track it using the Deep Space Network’s planetary radar and its known orbit for precise predictions.
However, the object didn’t appear as expected, raising suspicions of anomalous forces influencing its path.
This “something” was identified as gas emissions, a hallmark of cometary activity linked to comet tails.
“Upon measuring the non-gravitational forces affecting 1998 SH2’s motion, we concluded it was more compatible with an active comet rather than an asteroid,” stated Dr. Farnocchia.
Median stack of exposures of 1998 SH2 taken by the ATLAS Chile telescope on September 3 and 4, 2025. No coma or tail is evident. Image credit: ATLAS/Farnocchia et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02913-7.
Delving into observations from its 1998 discovery, researchers hypothesized that sunlight warms the icy material within, transforming it into gas and generating weak jet-like thrust.
Unlike typical comets with prominent tails, this activity was subtle enough to evade most telescopes.
The August 2025 flyby provided an invaluable chance to test their theory, utilizing equipment from the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescopes, ESO’s Denmark Telescope, and the Very Large Telescope.
The images captured showcased a faint yet undeniable tail, confirming that 1998 SH2 is indeed a comet.
Subsequently, it was reclassified as P/1998 SH2 to reflect its new status.
“Observations from these telescopes revealed a weak but clear tail, confirming that 1998 SH2 is a comet,” remarked Dr. Olivier Hainaut from ESO.
“This exemplifies the scientific process: forming a hypothesis and then rigorously testing it.”
“The data we obtained were crucial in substantiating our hypothesis that 1998 SH2 is a comet.”
Dr. Farnocchia emphasized the significance of consistently monitoring near-Earth objects. “Due to gas emissions, the motion of comets is more disturbed compared to asteroids.”
“Detecting these disturbances can serve as an essential diagnostic tool for planetary defense, helping us differentiate between comets and asteroids, track their orbit evolution, and assess the potential risks they pose to Earth.”
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D. Farnocchia et al. Non-gravitational acceleration indicating the cometary activity of near-Earth objects. Nat Astron published online on July 10, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02913-7
A newly discovered genus and species of cryptobranchial salamander, which thrived in Japanese lakes approximately 3.5 million years ago, has been identified from three fossil vertebrae. This finding fills a critical gap in the fossil record of one of the world’s oldest amphibian lineages.
Reconstruction of Limnospondylus ajimuensis. Image credit: Kanon Tanaka
The Cryptodactylidae family includes giant, fully aquatic salamanders found in the United States, Japan, and China.
This family includes the largest living amphibian, which can grow up to 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length.
This family has existed for over 60 million years, yet its fossil record in East Asia remains limited.
The newly identified cryptobranch species, named Limnospondylus ajimuensis, inhabited the freshwater lake ecosystems of modern-day Japan during the Pliocene epoch, around 3.5 million years ago.
This amphibian may have reached an estimated total length of about 1.1 meters (3.6 feet).
Three vertebrae from this creature were excavated from sediments in the Tsubusu River Formation on Kyushu Island, Japan, between 1995 and 1997.
Initially classified within the modern giant salamander genus Andrias, further examination by Dr. Masahiro Noda and his team at Kyoto University revealed that these specimens belonged to a completely new genus and species.
“The Tsubusu Formation hosts an incredibly rich collection of vertebrate and invertebrate fossils, contributing to our understanding of the Ajimu fauna,” they stated.
“This is the only region globally where fossils of both giant salamanders and extant genera have been discovered.”
Paleontologists employed microcomputed tomography to analyze the fossil and compared its anatomy with that of modern giant salamanders and related species.
Geometric morphometric analysis was also utilized to quantify variations in spine shape.
The study revealed a unique combination of characteristics not previously observed in known giant salamanders.
These fossils also offer insights into the environment that once dominated western Japan.
About 3.5 million years ago, the Ajimu region was a vast freshwater lake, bordered by wetlands and forests.
This habitat supported a diverse subtropical ecosystem, including crocodiles, turtles, rhinos, elephants, and numerous bird and fish species.
In contrast to modern giant salamanders that inhabit fast-flowing rivers, Limnospondylus ajimuensis primarily occupied lake environments, indicating that extinct members of this family occupied a broader range of habitats than their modern counterparts.
Researchers hypothesize that a cooling climate beginning around 2.6 million years ago, along with dwindling freshwater habitats due to environmental shifts, may have led to the extinction of lake-dwelling salamanders.
In contrast, Japan’s giant salamander had already adapted to river ecosystems and may have been more resilient in the face of these changing conditions.
“Currently, Japan’s native giant salamander faces threats such as hybridization with non-native species and habitat loss,” notes Dr. Noda.
“This research highlights the critical importance of preserving existing species for future generations.”
The team’s findings were published in an online journal, PeerJ, in their paper.
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Masato Noda et al.. 2026. A new genus of giant salamander from the Pliocene of Japan (Squamata, Epibranchidae). PeerJ 14: e21362; doi: 10.7717/peerj.21362
Despite the lack of documented sightings of living giant squids in the wild, a dedicated team of experts is on a mission to change that.
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Build Your Own Simulation Racing Rig. If you’re ready to elevate your gaming experience, plan to invest around £700 for essential components such as wheels, pedals, a seat, and a monitor (excluding console or PC). This setup will make you feel like a professional racer.
Q&A: This month’s expert responses cover questions like: Did plants experience the Black Death? Is it safe to drink from a plastic bottle left in a hot car? Is burnt toast unhealthy? What caused Saturn’s rings? What future developments can we expect in cheese production? Why do some people prefer cats? Do sharks form friendships? Is confidence contagious? And much more…
No. 435 Released on Tuesday, July 21, 2026
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Meet Holly, a talented staff writer for BBC Science Focus, where she expertly manages the Q&A section. Holly holds an MSc (Special Award) in Earth Sciences, focusing on Space and Climate Physics from UCL, with a specialization in Astronomy and Earth Sciences. Before her role at Our Media, she worked as a geo-environmental consultant and engineer, exploring exoplanets in her spare time and offering insights on ground risk and remediation across northern England.
With over nine years as a regional editor for a prominent theater website, Holly has significant experience in content curation and digital marketing. She is also an accomplished artist and illustrator, frequently contributing to the craft website Gathered. Her portfolio includes collaborations with respected organizations such as RSPB, English Heritage, Disney, Pilot, and Brother, along with contributions to BBC Good Food Magazine, Home Style Magazine, and Papercraft Inspiration Magazine. In her free time, Holly enjoys photography and has a keen interest in antiques.
Paleontologists have unveiled an exciting discovery: a new genus and species of ancient gecko, identified as Carinasquama rusmithii, found in two pieces of amber from a 99-million-year-old (Middle Cretaceous) deposit in Kachin State, Myanmar. Notably, one specimen features a bulge at the base of its tail, indicative of a male lizard’s hemipenis, suggesting the presence of copulatory organs.
Ventral views of the holotype (A) and paratype (B) of Carinasquama rusmithii. Image credit: Daza et al., doi: 10.3897/sjp.145.188227.
The Carinasquama rusmithii gecko inhabited the tropical forests of what is now Myanmar about 99 million years ago.
This species had a snout-to-mouth length of 1.6 to 2.2 cm, placing it alongside some of the tiniest living geckos.
What distinguishes this discovery is the prominent bulge at the base of one specimen’s tail.
Paleontologist Juan Daza from Sam Houston State University and his team interpret this feature as a hemipenile ridge, suggesting the presence of copulatory organs, or hemipenes, that are often retracted into the tails of male squamates (including lizards and snakes).
This finding is significant as it represents one of the oldest lizard fossils that can be confidently classified as male, given that soft tissue structures rarely survive fossilization.
“While paleontologists typically use skeletal features for sex determination, this process can be complicated by the incompleteness of fossil remains,” the researchers stated.
“In fossil assemblages, sexual dimorphism may manifest through ornamentation or can be detected via multivariate analysis.”
“Gender estimation might occur if embryos or eggs are found within or associated with female specimens, but other sex-specific traits are seldom preserved in fossils.”
“Squamates exhibit a hemipenile protuberance observable externally in males.”
“These structures generally leave no trace in hard rock fossils, yet they can be preserved in amber.”
Carinasquama rusmithii detailing integument features: (A) Dorsal view showing head and back scales. (B) Ventral view illustrating hemipenes at the cloaca. (C) Closer look at the multi-carnation scale. (D) Tail view showcasing spotted scales. Image credit: Daza et al., doi: 10.3897/sjp.145.188227.
To visualize their skeletons in three dimensions, the scientists employed micro-CT technology on two specimens. Carinasquama rusmithii has remarkable preservation, where the surrounding integument (scales, skin texture, and even cloacal outlines) remains detailed despite much of the enclosed space being hollow.
“Carinasquama rusmithii‘s characteristics, such as lack of frontal scales, absence of frontoparietal scales, homogeneous head scales, fused eyelids, and uniform scale size throughout the body with visible interstitial skin, are common in modern Gekkotan,” the authors highlighted.
The precise phylogenetic placement of Carinasquama rusmithii remains ambiguous, yet it is tentatively classified within the broader Pan-Gekkota group.
“Genetic studies have positioned Scottish lizards as members of the Pan-Gekkota family, which includes one of the earliest fossil lizards with clear male identification,” the researchers noted.
“This hemipenile bulge found in one of the fossils evidences the presence of hemipenes in mid-Cretaceous squamates, but its origins likely predate this group’s emergence.”
The research team’s findings will be published in the Swiss Journal of Paleontology. You can access their paper here.
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JD Daza et al., 2026. Evidence of male anatomy in a dwarfed amber gecko from mid-Cretaceous Burma. Swiss Journal of Paleontology 145: 785-799; doi: 10.3897/sjp.145.188227
Physicists from the CMS Collaboration at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) have significantly advanced a decades-old test of the delicate imbalance that enables the universe’s existence. This breakthrough utilized the largest sample ever of particles known as beauty mesons.
Beautiful neutral mesons can transform into their antimatter counterparts. Image credit: Ansar Iqbal/CMS.
One of the greatest enigmas in physics is why the universe is predominantly comprised of ordinary matter, like that which forms us and our environment.
Each matter particle is paired with an antiparticle that shares the same mass but has an opposite charge. Our leading theories suggest that the Big Bang should have generated approximately equal amounts of matter and antimatter, yet very little antimatter remains today.
Among these investigations, a new research paper by CMS physicists examined a potential factor explaining this disparity: a subtle difference in the behavior between matter and antimatter known as charge parity (CP) violation.
“Studying the neutral beauty meson, which consists of a beauty antiquark paired with a down-type quark, is one of the most effective ways to explore CP violation,” the researchers stated.
“This is due to the unexpected ability of neutral mesons to transform spontaneously into their own antiparticles and back.”
By analyzing the minute differences in the decay rates of matter and antimatter variants of these particles over time, scientists can test the Standard Model with immense precision.
The research team evaluated proton-proton collision data collected between 2022 and 2025, reconstructing the distinct decays of around 1.4 million B0 mesons containing down quarks and 16,000 B0s mesons with strange quarks.
A major challenge was identifying the type of each meson at the time of its creation, before it decayed into a J/ψ meson and a neutral kaon.
To overcome this, scientists utilized cutting-edge artificial intelligence algorithms.
This system integrates data from muons, electrons, jets, and, for B0s mesons, surrounding particles produced during the collision event.
This approach significantly enhanced the experiment’s ability to ascertain the initial state of the meson compared to earlier analyses.
“The observed CP violations align with Standard Model predictions and comprise the most precise measurements to date of CP violations in the decay of B0 particles into J/ψ mesons and neutral kaons,” the researchers stated.
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CMS Collaboration. 2026. Time-dependent CP violation in B0(s) → J/ψK0S decay measured using the CMS detector. CMS-PAS-BPH-26-005
Feeling rejected is never pleasant. The lingering emptiness, the weight on your chest, the lump in your throat, and that telltale blush of embarrassment can be overwhelming.
For many, these intense reactions are infrequent and generally tied to significant instances of rejection. Yet, for some, such emotional turmoil is a regular occurrence.
Interestingly, feelings of rejection don’t always arise from obvious scenarios. Subtle triggers, like a friend overlooking a text, receiving a less-than-glowing performance review, or encountering awkward comments can also provoke this discomfort.
Does this sound familiar? You might be experiencing RSD.
Understanding RSD
While you might not be familiar with the acronym RSD, the emotions it entails may resonate with you. RSD stands for Rejection Sensitive Dysphoria, a term describing profound emotional reactions to perceived rejection.
According to Dr. Victoria Barclay-Timmis, a clinical psychologist at the University of Southern Queensland, “Many of us experience distress when faced with criticism or disapproval, but RSD encompasses a more intense reaction.”
Despite the growing awareness of RSD, it’s not yet officially recognized as a clinical condition. However, psychologists are beginning to emphasize its relevance.
In 2024, psychologist William Dodson, Ph.D., introduced RSD to a wider audience through a research paper, documenting experiences of around 300 patients.
Dodson noted a consistent pattern: a triggering event, such as rejection, teasing, or internal fears of failure, leads to a sudden and intense mood shift that can manifest as profound mental anguish, often expressed as sadness or anger.
Patients have described this experience as “feeling like your guts are on the floor” or “feeling like someone punched you in the chest.”
RSD does more than simply impact immediate emotional reactions; the dread of potential rejection can lead individuals to adopt strategies aimed at avoiding such experiences.
Dr. Antonia Ditner from King’s College London explains, “Coping behaviors may inadvertently exacerbate the situation, causing individuals to withdraw from social interactions or shy away from conflict.”
For instance, one of Dodson’s patients, known as Josh, became socially withdrawn, feeling that the pain of rejection was too great to bear.
At 29, Josh had never asked anyone out or applied for a job, paralyzed by fear of rejection.
Individuals with RSD may shy away from uncertain situations, such as job interviews – Credit: Getty
Other coping mechanisms can emerge. “People may react angrily to those around them or impulsively lash out, creating needless conflicts,” Ditner adds.
Such was the case for another of Dodson’s clients, Amy, who felt her marriage strained by perceptions of constant teasing related to her challenges at home. Her reactions often involved outbursts or retreating from the situation.
Barclay-Timmis observes that many RSD patients struggle with anxiety in their relationships.
Furthermore, the anxiety surrounding potential disapproval can manifest as perfectionism, leading to heightened stress and exhaustion or even chronic fatigue.
Take Hannah, for example—a 17-year-old who sought Dodson’s help due to severe stress-induced migraines that affected her school attendance. Despite this, she was determined to excel academically, fearing any misstep would lead to rejection.
The extreme reactions associated with RSD set it apart from mere sensitivity to criticism.
“Many experience intense feelings of crying, shame, sadness, and disruption in daily life,” says Ditner. This marked suffering contributes significantly to their overall experience.
If this resonates with you, RSD might be at play. However, there’s another important aspect to consider.
Read more:
RSD and ADHD: The Connection
A distinct factor that characterizes RSD is its association with neurodivergence, specifically ADHD.
Some research indicates a strong correlation between RSD symptoms and classic ADHD indicators, such as attention difficulties and impulsiveness.
For instance, studies in the U.S. involving children aged 10 to 15, and Hungarian research with 300 college students have demonstrated a link between ADHD symptoms and self-reported RSD.
“The stronger the ADHD symptoms, the more pronounced the rejection responses appear to be,” observes Barclay-Timmis in reference to the Hungarian study. “Additionally, individuals tend to be less receptive to positive reinforcement, creating a compounded effect.”
This connection likely roots back to childhood experiences of ADHD.
“By age 10, kids with ADHD often receive upwards of 20,000 more negative comments compared to their neurotypical peers,” notes Barclay-Timmis. This disproportionate feedback can instill a desire to evade criticism later in life.
Further, Ditner highlights that emotional sensitivity and reactivity are intrinsic to ADHD.
“Consequently, individuals may experience heightened emotional responses,” she notes. “Repetitive thought patterns can also lead to rumination on negative experiences, prolonging emotional distress.”
This increased emotional sensitivity is supported by brain imaging studies that reveal altered emotional processing in individuals with ADHD.
“Neurobiology may present some differences,” Barclay-Timmis explains. “Altogether, these factors contribute to heightened sensitivity to rejection.”
ADHD brains often exhibit different emotional processing and executive function patterns, contributing to RSD – Credit: Getty
RSD Treatment Options
If you identify with the symptoms described, there is hope—RSD is manageable. You don’t have to navigate this alone.
Ditner and Barclay-Timmis emphasize that traditional mental health strategies, including therapy, mindfulness, and grounding techniques, can be beneficial.
“Therapy allows individuals to approach negative thoughts with compassion,” says Barclay-Timmis.
Moreover, ADHD medication may also be effective. “I’m not suggesting a quick fix, but I encourage you to consult a healthcare provider about medication options,” she recommends.
“Balancing your neurobiology can help not only with attention and concentration, but also with regulating emotional responses.”
These interventions have proven successful for Dodson’s patients. For instance, two years post-diagnosis, Josh graduated from college, began working as an aerospace engineer, and even entered into a relationship.
While he still experiences occasional RSD episodes, he has learned to navigate them using cognitive behavioral techniques.
Amy, after starting ADHD medication, noted a “life-changing” impact, admitting, “I didn’t realize how terrified I was of being hurt by others, particularly my husband.”
As for Hannah, she has also benefited from medication; her migraines have reduced significantly, and she has returned to school.
Though medication has helped many, it’s important to note that not all individuals with RSD require it.
Barclay-Timmis points out that simply labeling RSD can have a transformative effect, fostering self-compassion and allowing loved ones to provide support during challenging moments.
“Having a name for your experiences and realizing you’re not alone can cultivate a greater sense of compassion for yourself,” she concludes. “As a psychologist, it’s truly powerful to see this realization in others.”
In a comprehensive review, Dr. Gregory Marcus from the University of California, San Francisco, and his team delved into extensive research on how caffeine, primarily consumed through coffee, impacts cardiovascular health and its risk factors. They classify moderate caffeine consumption as up to 400 mg per day, equivalent to roughly 3 to 5 cups (8 ounces each) of coffee.
Marcus et al. found that moderate coffee consumption is associated with a reduced risk of several cardiovascular conditions. Image credit: Sci.News.
Caffeine consumption dates back to 2737 BC and remains the most widely used stimulant and psychoactive agent across the globe.
Over 60 plant species, such as cocoa beans and tea leaves, naturally produce caffeine. Additionally, caffeine is present in many commercial and prescription products, as well as various over-the-counter foods.
Caffeine is classified as a methylxanthine and has alkaloid characteristics that can be administered orally, intravenously, topically, or rectally.
Thanks to its complete oral bioavailability and high solubility, caffeine is quickly dissolved and absorbed after ingestion, achieving maximum concentration within one hour.
While caffeine does not accumulate in organs or tissues, it can reach significant concentrations (up to 80%) in the brain.
Based on Dr. Marcus’s recent research, a daily intake of up to 400 mg of caffeine, or 3 to 5 cups of regular, black caffeinated coffee (without sugar or additives), is considered safe for most adults.
Standard brewed coffee typically contains between 9.4 to 20.6 mg of caffeine per fluid ounce.
“Caffeine intake from coffee plays a crucial role in the daily routines of millions. Our review confirms that for the majority of adults, consuming up to 400 mg per day—or up to five cups of black coffee without added sugars or fillers—is safe and does not increase cardiovascular risk,” said Dr. Marcus.
“Conversely, high doses of caffeine found in energy drinks and energy shots can pose risks to heart health and should be avoided.”
The findings indicate that consuming black coffee without added sugars, flavors, or cream is linked to a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, heart failure, and certain irregular heartbeat patterns.
Rigorous randomized trials show an association between caffeine consumption from coffee and a decreased risk of atrial fibrillation, though they also indicate a potential increase in premature ventricular beats.
Incorporating sugar, flavored syrups, milk, or cream into coffee may lessen its health benefits, necessitating further exploration into the effects of these additives.
Excessive caffeine intake, especially from energy drinks, is linked to cardiovascular issues, including heightened blood pressure and irregular heart rhythms.
Energy shots can possess 40 to 69 mg of caffeine per fluid ounce, considerably exceeding the caffeine levels in standard brewed coffee.
“While evidence suggests caffeine may offer cardiovascular benefits for some, individual responses can vary widely, influenced by age, medications, existing health conditions, genetics, and metabolic rates,” stated Dr. Marcus.
“A caffeine dose safe for one individual may lead to adverse effects like heart palpitations, anxiety, or sleep disturbances in another.”
It’s essential to observe personal reactions to caffeine and consult healthcare professionals regarding appropriate consumption levels.
For further reading, refer to the review paper published in today’s Circulation.
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Gregory M. Marcus et al. Caffeine and cardiovascular disease: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation published online on July 20, 2026. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001454
After decades of exploration, astronomers have finally identified the first of an estimated 10,000 stellar-mass black holes. Omega Centauri is the most massive star system in the Milky Way, boasting an impressive mass of 3.6 million solar masses.
Whitaker et al. discovered the first stellar-mass black hole in Omega Centauri. This black hole features a visible stellar companion shown in greater detail. Image credits: ESA / NASA / Maximilian Häberle, MPIA / Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
Located about 18,000 light-years away in the constellation Centauri, Omega Centauri is a fascinating astronomical body.
Also referred to as NGC 5139, this globular cluster spans approximately 150 light-years in diameter and is around 12 billion years old.
As the largest among the 200 globular clusters circling the Milky Way, Omega Centauri houses over 10 million gravitationally bound stars.
It stands out as the brightest globular cluster in our galaxy, visible to the naked eye from the southern hemisphere with an apparent magnitude of 3.9.
Previous astronomical research indicated the presence of intermediate-mass black holes at the centers of star clusters, using NASA/ESA’s Hubble Space Telescope. However, models predict that Omega Centauri should contain approximately 10,000 smaller stellar-mass black holes.
This remarkable population of black holes had previously evaded detection through methods like radial velocity or observations of radio and X-ray emissions from matter falling into black holes.
The recent discovery employed a novel approach known as astrometry, which analyzes the tiny movements of stars over time.
By meticulously examining over two decades of archival data from Hubble, alongside recent findings from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, University of Utah astronomer Matthew Whitaker and his team uncovered a star orbiting an invisible object so massive that it must be a black hole.
This black hole, named oMEGACat BH-2, marks the first detection of a stellar-mass black hole in Omega Centauri and showcases some intriguing characteristics.
oMEGACat BH-2 has a lower mass than anticipated, and along with its visible companion star, it possesses the longest orbital period of any known black hole binary system to date.
“Utilizing the Hubble and Webb data, we could observe the motion of the visible main-sequence stars within this binary system, located 18,000 light-years away in the dense surroundings of Omega Centauri,” Dr. Whitaker stated.
“The precision of these measurements is remarkable, achieving a fraction of a pixel with the Hubble and Webb detectors.”
“The discovery of this black hole would have been impossible without these two space telescopes.”
Thanks to the accurate data from Hubble and Webb, astronomers were able to analyze the star’s orbit over more than 20 years, focusing on its closest approach to the black hole’s companion star.
Using extensive data, they found that the visible star orbits oMEGACat BH-2 every 94 years, making it the longest-period black hole binary system known to date.
This system likely formed dynamically, indicating that the star and its black hole companion did not originate together but rather encountered each other within the cluster.
The researchers estimate that star systems like oMEGACat BH-2 may only persist for less than a billion years before being disrupted by collisions with nearby stars, much shorter than the cluster’s age.
“Understanding black hole populations within globular clusters is crucial, as there are ongoing uncertainties regarding their physics and formation,” declared Dr. Anil Seth from the University of Utah.
“Grasping the processes of black hole formation and subsequent binary star creation is vital for interpreting gravitational wave phenomena.”
“Environments like Omega Centauri are thought to be prime locations for binaries merging and generating these waves.”
For further insights on this discovery, refer to the research paper published in the Astrophysical Journal Letters.
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Whitaker et al. 2026. ω Centauri’s long-period stellar mass black hole binary. APJL 1006, L1; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae7a5c
You might have come across the term “fibermaxing” trending on social media platforms like TikTok, where individuals are dramatically increasing their daily fiber intake, often exceeding recommendations. The recommended daily fiber intake is 25-30g (0.9-1 oz), aiming to enhance gut health.
Influencers are now promoting fiber as the “new protein,” advocating for high-fiber foods such as beans, lentils, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, in addition to fiber supplements, to meet their increased intake goals.
The theory behind this trend is that increasing fiber intake can offer a range of health benefits, including improved digestion, regular bowel movements, a boost in healthy intestinal bacteria, and even relief from symptoms associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
This movement arises from the concern that modern diets often lack sufficient fiber, a notion supported by data indicating that: 91% of individuals in the UK are not consuming enough fiber. Similarly, in the United States, national consumption surveys reveal that 95% of people fail to meet their fiber needs.
So, is increasing your fiber intake beneficial? While it seems beneficial, the reality is slightly more complicated.
Understanding Fiber and Gut Health
Fiber plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy gut for various reasons.
As a carbohydrate, fiber differs from starch and sugar because it isn’t digested or absorbed in the small intestine. Instead, it travels onward to the large intestine, where gut bacteria ferment it, producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that offer numerous health benefits.
Fiber also absorbs bodily fluids, increases waste volume, and softens stools, ultimately making bowel movements easier. Therefore, incorporating more fiber into your diet can help prevent constipation and promote regularity.
Many IBS sufferers have reported symptomatic relief through increased fiber intake, particularly those with constipation-predominant symptoms.
Vegetables are rich in diverse fibers, both soluble and insoluble, which are essential for gut health.
Having sufficient fiber may even lower your risk of colon cancer. Among the SCFAs produced, butyrate is believed to have protective anti-inflammatory properties for colon cells.
Fiber also minimizes colon cell exposure to harmful substances as it moves through the intestines. A reduction in fiber-rich food intake is thought to contribute to the alarming rise of colon cancer, particularly in younger populations. This trend is significant.
However, while increasing fiber intake can generally benefit your health, ‘FiberMax’ can lead to overzealous nutrition practices. It’s akin to attempting a marathon on a whim.
Too Much of a Good Thing
The gut functions as a delicate ecosystem, and flooding it with excessive amounts of certain nutrients can have adverse effects.
Some “fiber maxers” recommend consuming over 50g (1.8 oz) of fiber daily, which may result in side effects like bloating, cramps, and diarrhea.
Moreover, different fiber types exist, including soluble fiber that absorbs water and slows digestion, insoluble fiber that remains largely intact and hastens digestion, and fermentable fiber that fuels your gut bacteria.
It’s crucial to maintain a healthy balance among these fibers. Excessive insoluble fiber (present in wheat bran and some vegetables) can lead to increased stool bulk but may irritate sensitive intestines. Additionally, certain fermentable fibers known as FODMAPs can exacerbate IBS symptoms due to poor absorption.
A balanced approach toward fiber consumption is necessary, as each fiber type contributes uniquely to gut health. When individuals endeavor to meet lofty fiber goals, they often restrict their diet to foods high in fiber content.
For instance, many high-fiber breakfast cereals contain approximately 12.4g of dietary fiber per 100g (0.5 oz per half cup), leading to excessive consumption of these cereals to meet fiber targets.
While cereals can provide insoluble fiber, they might not be as abundant in fermentable fiber or soluble fiber.
Overindulging in fiber without considering various types can lead to digestive discomfort and disrupt your gut’s delicate balance.
Questioning Cleansing Trends
FiberMax represents the latest in a series of cleansing and detox fads aimed at enhancing digestive health through selective nutrient increases.
Various colon cleansing regimens often surface on social media; while they might seem appealing, they commonly do more harm than good.
For instance, juice cleanses can deprive you of essential nutrients, while “detox” teas and laxatives may result in dehydration and long-term intestinal damage.
Additionally, recent social media trends promoting enemas can disrupt your intestines’ natural rhythm and wash out beneficial bacteria.
Juice cleanses are not a healthy or safe weight loss strategy.
Experts advise caution regarding fad supplements and extreme elimination diets, as they often limit whole food groups without professional guidance.
Such practices can decrease microbiome diversity and adversely affect digestion; your gut deserves more than dramatic resets—it requires consistent, balanced support.
Monitoring Your Fiber Intake
How can you determine if you’re getting enough fiber in your diet and if an increase is necessary?
Fatigue and weight gain often serve as preliminary warning signals. Soluble fiber slows digestion, gradually infusing sugar into your bloodstream, helping you feel full longer.
Inadequate fiber intake can lead to sharp spikes and drops in blood sugar levels, resulting in fatigue shortly after meals. This low energy can prompt snacking, potentially causing weight gain.
While fibermaxing may have originated from a well-meaning initiative to enhance health, it often oversimplifies complex nutritional needs and risks going overboard.
Most individuals would benefit from increasing their fiber intake, especially from whole plant foods that promote digestion, lower disease risk, and aid in maintaining healthy weight. Nonetheless, more isn’t automatically better, particularly if the increase is abrupt, excessive, and unbalanced.
Your gut operates as a finely-tuned ecosystem, thriving on variety, consistency, and balance rather than drastic changes or quick fixes.
A recent review published in Appetite challenges the traditional belief that water can fill your stomach during meals. Conversely, a separate study in Food Quality and Taste reveals that spicy salsas, often shunned by those on diets, may actually lead to reduced food intake.
A new study suggests that common dietary advice may be misleading. Research indicates that while water is traditionally viewed as a weight management tool, it might actually lead to increased food intake when combined with meals, while spicy foods can help mitigate consumption. Image provided by: Yukuaikuai.
Conventional dietary advice recommends increasing water intake to control weight and energy consumption.
This guidance is prevalent, with a 2019 study revealing that 42% of over 48,000 participants trying to lose weight cited increased water consumption as their third most popular strategy, following reduced food intake and increased physical activity.
This notion seems logical; drinking water before or during meals is believed to create a feeling of fullness by causing stomach bloating, thereby reducing overall food intake.
“The idea that drinking water keeps you feeling full is widely accepted,” states Professor Paige Cunningham of Cornell University.
“However, water exits the stomach quickly, which may mean you don’t feel full for long.”
“Rather, water might encourage increased consumption by acting as a lubricant, hastening eating speed, and promoting longer enjoyment of meals by preventing dry mouth.”
The authors analyzed existing data from two crossover experiments where adults consumed 650 g meals of beef chili or chicken tikka masala, accompanied by 450 g of water, under observation in a lab setting.
In these experiments, the spiciness of the meals was manipulated by varying the ratios of spicy to sweet paprika.
Videotape analysis was conducted to track the number of sips taken, bite sizes, alcohol consumption, and transitions between food and water sips.
For each additional 100 grams of water consumed, participants increased food intake by approximately 39 grams and added about 49 calories to their meals.
Those who frequently alternated between bites of food and sips of water consumed even more; each additional transition raised food intake by roughly 4.4 grams.
A related study involved 49 adults who were served tortilla chips with either mild or spicy salsa weekly for two weeks, varying only the cayenne component of the salsa.
Findings indicated that the spicier salsa reduced total snack intake by 28%, despite using the same chips. Additionally, participants consumed spicy snacks about 30% more slowly than milder options, contributing to lower overall intake. The spiciness didn’t affect water consumption during snacking, excluding it as a factor for reduced intake.
“Both studies demonstrate how eating behaviors and food characteristics significantly influence consumption levels, often without our awareness,” noted Professor Cunningham.
“We discovered that increased water consumption may raise food intake, while adding spice to snacks slows eating speed and encourages less consumption.”
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Paige M. Cunningham and John E. Hayes. 2026. Fluid intake, sip-to-sip switching, and drinking behavior are associated with food intake during meals of varying spiciness: a secondary analysis of two randomized crossover studies. Appetite 226: 108698; doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2026.108698
Paige M. Cunningham et al. 2026. Increasing the spiciness of snacks slows eating speed and reduces food and energy intake. Food Quality and Taste 143: 105951; doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2026.105951
Have you ever swum in the ocean and encountered seaweed? You’re likely familiar with Sargassum! This floating seaweed can lead to rapid population growth in coastal waters, adversely affecting water quality, ecosystems, fisheries, and tourism. However, scientists suggest that Sargassum has potential benefits. It may aid in the extraction of valuable metals known as rare earth elements (REEs).
Rare earth elements are classified by their average atomic mass and weight. Light rare earth elements include cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium, while middle rare earth elements consist of gadolinium, terbium, and dysprosium. Heavy rare earth elements include erbium, thulium, and ytterbium. These metals play crucial roles in magnets, electric motors, wind turbines, spacecraft, and more. Traditional extraction methods, such as open-pit mining and chemical processing, are harmful, leading to habitat loss and toxic waste. Additionally, sourcing REEs globally can be challenging due to access constraints. What if we could harness natural methods for extraction?
Research conducted by scientists from Woods Hole and the University of California, Los Angeles, highlights that Sargassum has the potential to accumulate REEs, forming sustainable solutions to these environmental challenges. They harvested Sargassum samples, storing them in sterile, filtered seawater and aerating them under a controlled 12-hour light/dark cycle to keep the seaweed alive. In addition, they dried another set of samples in the sun under controlled conditions for further experimentation.
Each experimental setup utilized 5 grams (approximately 0.2 ounces) of Sargassum mixed with a variety of nine rare earth elements (cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, erbium, thulium, and ytterbium) at varying total concentrations: 0.1 micromolar (μM), 11μM, 100–110μM, and 575-600μM. Each experiment was conducted four times, with two trials using fresh seaweed and two trials with rehydrated seaweed.
After one, three, and seven days, researchers extracted one gram (about 0.04 ounces) of seaweed from each solution and dissolved it in acid to release the absorbed rare earth elements. They employed two plasma-based methods to determine the concentrations of these elements in both the seaweed samples and the remaining solutions, allowing them to calculate the bioconcentration factor of Sargassum.
Findings indicated that the bioconcentration factor for raw seaweed exceeded 1,000 after 7 days at a lower REE concentration (0.1 μM). For higher REE concentrations (11μM), the bioconcentration factors ranged from approximately 400 to 700. However, elevated REE levels proved toxic, causing fresh Sargassum to deteriorate after two weeks. Critically high REE concentrations (100–600 μM) were toxic enough to kill the seaweed within a day.
Researchers discovered that once the seaweed perished, it could no longer actively absorb rare earth elements, meaning accumulation could only occur on its surface through a process known as adsorption. Think of it like a powdered donut—once the surface is coated with powdered sugar, no more will stick. This limitation resulted in bioconcentration factors for raw seaweed samples dropping below 250 at the highest REE concentrations. In contrast, hydrated Sargassum demonstrated lower consumption of rare earth elements at low concentrations without toxicity, and it continued to accumulate at higher concentrations.
Ultimately, the research team compared Sargassum to a common industrial method for accumulating REEs, activated carbon. REEs tend to bind easily to activated carbon due to its high surface area and porosity. Both Sargassum and activated carbon accumulated the same amount of REE in 0.1 μM solution, but at 575–600 μM REE concentration, Sargassum outperformed activated carbon, particularly in accumulating heavy rare earth elements.
The researchers concluded that Sargassum is a natural hyperaccumulator, effectively concentrating rare earth elements. However, they recommend future investigations to determine its effectiveness in natural environments. If validated, Sargassum could serve as a sustainable method to extract rare earth elements from wastewater sources such as mine drainage. This approach could expand global access to these metals while addressing the challenges posed by toxic blooms.
The narcissist in your life believes they deserve to be viewed as exceptional by everyone around them. This belief stems from deep-seated insecurity, prompting them to continually seek external validation.
Narcissists often lack empathy and prioritize their self-image over meaningful relationships, which is evident in how they treat you. Understanding these traits is crucial for navigating your relationship.
If you’re involved with a highly narcissistic individual, be mindful of their attempts to inflate their fragile ego. Here are three specific tactics to look out for:
Love Bombing and Idealization
During the initial phases of the relationship, prepare for an influx of affection and extravagant gifts from the narcissist, often at a pace that feels overwhelming. This behavior, known as “love bombing,” is intended to impress you (and potentially others).
You might receive grand gestures, such as a lavish bouquet of flowers delivered to your workplace just days into dating. This intense admiration can be enticing; however, it’s essential to recognize that it primarily serves to boost their ego by convincing themselves they have secured a remarkable partner.
In the early stages of the relationship, the narcissist may shower you with affection in a way that seems unusually intense – Credit: Getty
A series of studies from the University of Wollongong confirms that this initial ‘idealization’ often leads to a later stage of ‘devaluation.’
Gaslighting
The honeymoon phase may feel blissful and prolonged, but once you express criticism or dissent, your narcissistic partner may shift to more damaging tactics. This marks the beginning of the ‘devaluation’ stage.
Beware of gaslighting, a manipulative tactic that causes you to question your reality. For instance, if you’re unable to attend a date, they might insist they previously informed you of a change in their plans.
During the initial ‘love bombing,’ they weave a deceptive narrative that makes the subsequent gaslighting difficult to recognize.
Criticism and Sabotage
If your relationship has soured, you may notice a drop in affection, with your partner resorting to passive-aggressive behaviors.
A recent study highlighted that narcissistic individuals often resort to two primary tactics: “criticism provocation” and “sabotage.” These behaviors manifest as making you feel embarrassed or orchestrating situations that undermine your efforts.
These tactics serve the devaluation phase, where narcissists show little regard for the emotional toll they exert on you while in denial about their actions.
This article addresses the question posed by Olivia Taylor of Brighton: “What does a narcissistic invitation look like?”
If you have questions, please reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter,Instagram(include your name and location).
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Read more:
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How to avoid raising a narcissist, according to science.
As we age, dementia significantly impacts many lives. Currently, over 55 million people globally are living with dementia, and nearly 10 million new cases are diagnosed each year. This number is expected to skyrocket as the population ages, with projections estimating that by 2050, the global population could reach 139 million suffering from this condition.
Dementia is no longer the enigma it once was. Annual investments in dementia research exceed $3.9 billion provided by the U.S. government alone. As a result, scientists are pioneering new methods to protect brain health, leading to growing evidence that suggests the risk of developing dementia may be declining with each successive generation.
Despite the advancements in scientific understanding, public perception of dementia has shifted slowly, leaving behind entrenched myths and misconceptions. Here are six common myths about dementia:
Myth 1: “Symptoms Begin Later in Life”
Many believe that dementia solely affects the elderly. However, certain forms of the disease can manifest decades earlier. For instance, frontotemporal dementia is usually diagnosed between ages 45 and 65, and early-onset Alzheimer’s may even begin before age 65.
Amyloid and tau proteins build up in the brain over time, disrupting normal cell functions and contributing to cognitive decline associated with dementia. This slow buildup can occur for years, often unnoticed even for decades.
Dementia is the seventh leading cause of death globally and ranks among the top causes of disability among older adults – Photo courtesy of Getty
Even if symptoms are present, they may not be striking. Early warning signs can include subtle changes in mood, energy levels, or behavior, often dismissed as stress or normal aging. Many families reflect on these changes long before a formal diagnosis is made.
Therefore, if any changes in cognition, mood, or behavior persist for months, consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation.
Myth 2: “Dementia is All About Memory”
When thinking of dementia, most envision memory loss, such as forgetting loved ones’ names or getting lost in familiar places. Yet, dementia encompasses much more than memory-related symptoms, varying by type.
Alzheimer’s disease, the most prevalent form, is often misconceived solely as a memory disorder. Many daily life aspects may be affected long before significant memory loss occurs, as Chadha notes, “Alzheimer’s disease is more than memory—what matters is how you function.”
Dementia affects more than just memory; it can alter thinking, movement, emotions, and behavior – Photo credit: Getty
Early indicators may include unusual movement patterns, repeated falls, or difficulty with routine tasks. For example, you might find yourself unable to prepare coffee the way you always have.
“It’s not just about getting lost because you don’t know the way,” Chadha emphasizes. “That comes much later.”
Symptoms also differ by type of dementia. Vascular dementia, the second most common type, primarily affects executive function in early stages, manifesting as difficulties with planning and concentration.
Read more:
Myth 3: “Dementia is Inevitable for Some People”
While genetics play a role, with certain genes like APOE4 increasing the risk of Alzheimer’s, lifestyle choices matter. Studies suggest that 45% of dementia cases are influenced by lifestyle, which can either mitigate or accelerate the condition’s onset.
To reduce risk, Chadha recommends regular exercise, nurturing social connections, monitoring vitamin D levels, ensuring adequate omega-3 intake, and prioritizing quality sleep.
Moreover, proper sleep hygiene involves consistent sleep schedules, promoting deep sleep, and maintaining a conducive sleep environment.
Chris Hemsworth discovered he has two mutations of the APOE4 gene during genetic testing for a documentary, a genetic makeup found in roughly 2-3% of the population – Photo courtesy of Getty
Keeping your brain active is equally crucial. “Continue to educate yourself, learn new skills, or play an instrument,” advises Chadha.
If you have concerns about dementia risks for yourself or loved ones, seek advice without delay. Early diagnosis can lead to interventions and lifestyle modifications to slow progression, whereas significant brain damage drastically limits treatment options.
Myth 4: “Symptoms are the Same for Men and Women”
Dementia symptoms can vary significantly between men and women. Researchers fear these differences may complicate detection, especially in women.
One recent study found that women with Alzheimer’s retain verbal memories longer than men, typically around 2.7 years longer. This leads to the perception that they are coping well until rapid decline occurs.
Women may experience symptoms akin to mental health conditions more than men, who often display behaviors like aggression and impulsivity.
Myth 5: “HRT Can Slow Cognitive Decline”
Due to higher rates of dementia in women, there’s interest in the relationship between hormonal changes during menopause and brain health. Estrogen seems to offer neuroprotective benefits, clearing amyloid, a protein linked to Alzheimer’s. However, during menopause, estrogen levels dip.
As a result, some wonder if hormone replacement therapy (HRT) can also help prevent dementia. Despite this logical assumption, Chadha asserts there is insufficient evidence to support that HRT slows cognitive decline or dementia.
Myth 6: “Brain and Heart Health are Completely Different”
Dementia, while primarily a brain disease, is interconnected with cardiovascular health. The brain depends on a robust circulatory system for oxygen and nutrients; heart or vascular issues can adversely affect brain function.
Strong social connections correlate with reduced risks for both dementia and heart disease, while chronic loneliness can worsen both conditions – Photo credit: Getty
Moreover, damaged blood vessels can increase the risk of strokes, which might block blood flow and damage brain tissue. Cardiovascular issues may impede the removal of waste from the brain, potentially intensifying the build-up of amyloid and tau proteins tied to Alzheimer’s.
Thus, protecting your brain health encompasses both mental and cardiovascular care. “For individuals at risk of heart conditions, I highly recommend getting brain scans like an MRI,” urges Chadha.
GPS technology is one of the most widely utilized systems worldwide. Whenever you use your smartphone for directions, share your location, track fitness activities, or order food, you’re harnessing GPS.
However, many people are unaware of how this vital system is funded—specifically, who is responsible for its financing. U.S. taxpayers contribute an estimated $2 billion annually to maintain a satellite network that delivers free navigation services globally.
So, why does the United States continue to fund it? The answer delves into Cold War missile programs, competing satellite networks from China and Russia, and emerging quantum technologies that may one day replace GPS.
How Does GPS Work?
Let’s begin with the basics.
The Global Positioning System consists of a constellation of at least 24 satellites managed by the U.S. Space Force. Each satellite orbits approximately 20,000 km (12,400 miles) above Earth and continuously transmits its location and the precise time the signal is sent.
Devices like cell phones, GPS navigation systems, and smartwatches receive these signals. By measuring the distances to several satellites simultaneously, a device can pinpoint its location through a process known as trilateration.
Currently, there are over 6 billion GPS-enabled devices in use worldwide, and this figure is projected to reach nearly 10 billion by the early 2030s—equating to nearly one device for every human on Earth. In the U.S., over 900 million receivers are utilized daily.
Did America Create GPS?
Absolutely. GPS was initially developed by the U.S. military during the Cold War.
The U.S. aimed to establish a navigation system that could accurately determine the locations of its troops, aircraft, and naval vessels. Additionally, it was crucial for tracking the launch points of submarine-launched nuclear missiles, as precise targeting requires exact launch location data.
The outcome was GPS, offering the U.S. military an unparalleled ability to lead operations and coordinate forces globally, thereby gaining a significant strategic advantage.
But how secure are these signals from adversaries?
GPS signals are broadcast openly, accessible by anyone with a receiver. However, the U.S. has cleverly provided two distinct signal types. The accurate signal is encoded, allowing only the U.S. military and its allies to fully interpret it.
Civilians receive a second signal that is intentionally degraded, a feature known as “selective availability,” which typically shifted civilian positions by around 100 meters (330 feet).
Satellites in space orbit the Earth for GPS communications. – Credit: Getty
In May 2000, President Bill Clinton ordered the discontinuation of selective availability, instantly increasing the accuracy of civilian receivers by tenfold. This change became permanent, with newer satellites built without degrading capabilities.
Nonetheless, the military retained its edge. Rather than obscuring global signals, GPS can now be denied in specific conflict zones, allowing areas outside of conflict to operate unaffected.
Is GPS Funding Secure?
As of today, the U.S. government continues to invest in GPS because it remains crucial for military, national security, and aviation systems.
Despite the previous administration’s hesitation to fund international services, GPS appears to be a staple. It’s believed to have contributed over $1.4 trillion in economic growth since 1983, impacting various sectors such as agriculture, mining, and shipping.
Notably, approximately 90% of this value has emerged since 2010, propelled by the smartphone revolution and location-based services like navigation and food delivery that rely on free GPS signals.
In-car navigation transformed GPS from a military tool to an everyday necessity – Credit: Getty
Interestingly, GPS’s most significant contribution may not be location but precise timing. Each satellite is equipped with an atomic clock, providing ultra-accurate timing signals crucial for synchronizing mobile networks, timestamping financial transactions, and maintaining balanced power grids.
Consequently, losing GPS could be devastating. Research by the RTI International indicates that a GPS outage could cost the U.S. $1 billion daily. In a severe scenario, a 30-day service disruption during critical farming seasons could lead to agricultural losses up to $15 billion.
Although the risk of prolonged outages is low, those economic implications far exceed the expense of establishing a backup GPS system.
Ride-hailing apps are one of many applications that rely on GPS technology – Credit: Getty
In this context, it’s understandable why the U.S. has heavily invested over $8 billion upgrading its satellite system.
Patricia Kraus, a political science professor at the University of New Haven, posits that the U.S.’s commitment to funding GPS comes from a practical perspective.
She notes, “Even with Mr. Musk’s Starlink potentially replacing GPS, compelling users to turn to private satellites at their expense is unrealistic.
“While we fund GPS through our taxes, the impact is more indirect. Attempting to withdraw that funding would create significant chaos. Moreover, contrary to some Americans’ beliefs, we do not own the skies.”
Are There Alternative Technologies to GPS?
It’s essential to understand that GPS is not the sole global positioning system. Europe operates the Galileo system, and both China and Russia have their alternatives, although less common, they present significant advantages for their respective nations.
China’s counterpart to GPS is the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, which achieved full global functionality in 2020. It offers worldwide coverage and is particularly effective in Asia, sometimes rivaling and surpassing GPS in accuracy.
Since 2000, around 60 BeiDou satellites have been launched. Two of them were launched into orbit on September 19, 2024 – Credit: Getty
One unique feature of BeiDou is its ability to send short text messages via satellite, facilitating communication in remote areas devoid of cell service.
Nonetheless, BeiDou has its limitations: while it performs excellently in Asia, its accuracy diminishes in other regions. Accessing advanced features may also necessitate specialized hardware.
The geopolitical significance of China’s navigation systems became evident in 2025 when Iran reportedly began shifting from GPS to Chinese systems amid its conflict with Israel.
For countries hesitant to rely on U.S.-controlled navigation, options like BeiDou offer practical benefits alongside enhanced technological and military independence.
Russia offers its alternative called the GLONASS. Initially developed during the Soviet era and modernized in following decades, it aims to provide Moscow with strategic autonomy similar to what BeiDou offers China.
President Vladimir Putin reviews GLONASS (Russia’s alternative to GPS) at a Security Council meeting near Moscow, December 29, 2007 – Credit: Getty
GLONASS excels in providing coverage at high latitudes, making it particularly useful in northern regions and the Arctic Circle, where conventional GPS signals might falter.
However, in many other areas—especially near the equator—GLONASS generally provides less accuracy compared to modern GPS or BeiDou. Furthermore, Russia has historically encountered challenges with high costs and delays in manufacturing replacement satellites.
Countries like China and Russia are reducing their dependence on GPS due to their independent navigation systems. Nevertheless, even those with access to GPS are exploring multiple systems.
“Products are now being upgraded to also incorporate European and Russian systems to provide redundancy, especially as jamming incidents rise,” noted Andy Proctor, VP at the Royal Institute of Navigation and a researcher at Imperial College London.
What Are the Future Prospects for GPS in America?
Not all developments have unfolded smoothly for the U.S. as it aims to keep its GPS supremacy.
This year, the U.S. Space Force quietly discontinued an initiative designed to introduce smaller, cost-effective navigation satellites to enhance GPS reliability—a project highlighted as a priority.
Additionally, upgrading and modernizing the terrestrial components of the GPS system has proven to be quite challenging.
“Managing the spacecraft on the ground isn’t straightforward,” Proctor stated. “The U.S. is currently modernizing its ground systems, some of which date back to the early 1990s, to align better with the newest space technology and bolster resilience against cyber threats.”
Despite having invested $8 billion, ongoing work persists as the Pentagon shifts responsibilities to Lockheed Martin to hasten progress.
Submarines cannot access GPS while submerged; they rely on tracking their movements until surfacing. – Credit: Getty
Meanwhile, researchers are pioneering technologies that may ultimately reduce our reliance on GPS.
One promising avenue is quantum navigation. Unlike GPS, which depends on satellite signals, quantum systems continually monitor their own motion.
By observing any acceleration or change in direction through ultra-sensitive sensors, these systems can determine location without satellite communication.
This could effectively address a major vulnerability of GPS: its operational limitation to areas with available signals. Beyond Earth’s orbit, GPS signals weaken significantly, and submarines submerged underwater cannot access them. Furthermore, in military contexts, adversaries can jam or spoof GPS signals.
The U.S. military is already conducting classified tests on quantum navigation technologies in orbital environments.
Mr. Proctor operates a company that advises on quantum technology’s applications in global positioning systems and believes significant breakthroughs in this domain are “just around the corner.”
If he is correct, the future technology that may replace GPS could already be in development.
Recent analysis of nickel isotopes found in 66-million-year-old debris from the Chicxulub impact has led researchers to believe that the asteroid responsible for Earth’s last mass extinction likely originated from a rare category of protometeorite known as the Ornan type carbonaceous chondrite (CO chondrite).
The painting illustrates an asteroid impacting the shallow tropical waters of the sulfur-rich Yucatan Peninsula, now southeastern Mexico. This event, occurring around 65 million years ago, is believed to have triggered the extinction of the dinosaurs and many other Earth species. The painting features a pterodactyl, a giant flying reptile with a wingspan of up to 50 feet, gliding above the lush tropical clouds. Image credit: Donald E. Davis / NASA.
Carbonaceous chondrites constitute a mere 5% of all meteorites gathered on Earth, and CO chondrites represent a small subset of this collection.
These chondrites are some of the most ancient and pristine materials in our solar system.
“CO chondrites significantly differ from the typical meteorites curated in museums,” noted Professor Philip Crais from Free University and the University of British Columbia.
“CO chondrites contain much lower levels of volatile elements such as carbon, zinc, water, and particularly sulfur compared to any other meteorite types discovered on Earth.”
“While our hypothesis regarding the extinction event remains intact, it suggests that sulfur from the impact was less crucial than previously thought.”
“The primary factor for extinction was the fine microscopic debris ejected into the atmosphere.”
In their investigations, Professor Claeys and his team performed high-precision nickel isotope measurements on samples collected from thin clay layers deposited worldwide, resulting from the Chicxulub impact.
“This research is complex. The entire meteorite was vaporized during the impact, leaving only a small portion preserved in the planet’s KT clay layer,” explained Professor Craze.
Many questions about the origin of the Chicxulub impactor linger.
Potential sources for this asteroid include remote debris-rich areas of the outer solar system and regions of the asteroid belt near Jupiter.
“The Chicxulub impactor was approximately 10 to 15 kilometers in diameter,” said Professor Claes, “striking at an estimated speed of 64,000 km/h, creating a massive crater.”
“The impact site is buried beneath Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula.”
“This rare event from such a distant projectile underscores the unfortunate fate of the dinosaurs.”
Read the study published in today’s edition of Scientific Progress.
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Georgy V. Mahatadze et al. 2026 The origins of the Cretaceous-Paleogene impactor revealed through nickel isotopes. Scientific Progress 12(29); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aef4858
Chinese paleontologists have unearthed what they claim is the oldest amber ever discovered—a fossilized resin approximately 385 million years old (Middle Devonian), surpassing the previous record holders by about 65 million years. This groundbreaking find indicates that resin production in plants evolved long before the advent of seed plants.
Image of Fusielsite amber from the Middle Devonian period. Scale bar – 0.2 mm (AD) and 0.1 mm (EG). Image credit: Lu et al., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aeh1266.
“Fossilized amber, specifically resin, is believed to be one of the exudates from ancient seed plants,” stated Dr. Cihang Luo, a researcher at the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, along with the Senckenberg Institute and Museum of Natural History.
“Seed plants typically produce resin through specialized secretory tissues located on the plant’s surface or through wider endocrine systems linked to bark and wood.”
“These resins consist of intricate mixtures of primarily terpenoid and phenolic compounds, aiding plants in recovering from a range of biotic and abiotic damage, including threats from pests, microbial infections, and wildfires.”
“The resin hardens and transforms into amber during diagenetic and degenerative processes under high temperatures and pressures.”
“The sticky resin can encase organisms, preserving them in amber as fossils, which provide critical insights into the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems.”
In their study, Dr. Luo and his collaborators analyzed around 10 kg of coal sourced from the Hujasite seam near Hokstulgay, in China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.
The team employed ultraviolet light to reveal tiny amber fragments embedded within the coal, ultimately extracting 241 minute pieces, most measuring just 0.1 to 0.5 mm in diameter, using a microscope.
Most ambers range from translucent to opaque and vary in color from pale yellow to deep brown.
Some fragments include air bubbles, and the fossils emit a bright blue fluorescence under ultraviolet illumination.
The amber-bearing layers of the Fusielsite Formation are dated to the Middle Devonian, approximately 385 million years ago.
Previously, the oldest amber confidently recognized dated from the late Carboniferous period around 320 million years ago.
“Amber serves as a unique repository of environmental, diagenetic, and biological data; however, its availability is not constant throughout Earth’s history,” the researchers noted.
“Before the Permian era, only two clear records of amber exist, both from the Carboniferous period—one from the Late Carboniferous (320 million years ago) in the United States, likely produced by Cordaitales, an extinct seed plant group related to conifers, and one from the latest Carboniferous (300 million years ago) in Canada from fern seeds.”
Utilizing Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy along with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, scientists discovered that the chemical makeup of Fusielsite amber closely resembles resins generated by modern and fossilized conifers, rather than flowering plants.
This finding is significant, as seed plants had not yet evolved when this resin was formed.
The authors hypothesize that the resin was likely produced by pregymnosperms, an extinct group of seedless plants that eventually led to seed plants, or by ancient woody lycopsids, a lineage of vascular plants.
Fossils from both plant groups have been identified in the Hoosier site formation. While amber does not preserve plant tissue, its precise origin remains unknown.
This discovery suggests that the biochemical mechanisms necessary to create complex terpenoid-based resins—previously thought to be exclusive to seed plants—had already emerged in certain non-seed plants by the mid-Devonian.
The researchers propose that early resins likely functioned to seal wounds and prevent fungal infections, rather than deterring insect feeding, as substantial evidence of insect damage on plant tissues only appears in the fossil record starting in the Carboniferous.
They also highlight that ancient wildfires, common during this period, may have driven the development of wound-sealing resins.
“Our chemically verified Fusielsite amber is the oldest amber ever identified,” they stated.
“It shares a comparable chemical composition with conifer amber and offers insights into the early evolution of terpenoid resin biosynthesis in vascular plants.”
“Given its mid-Devonian age, Fusielsite amber most likely originates from non-seed plants.”
“Previously, all known fossil resins derived from seed plants (spermatophytes), a lineage that encompasses pterophytes (seed ferns), gymnosperms, and angiosperms.”
“Seed plants first appeared and proliferated during the Late Devonian (Famennian, 372 to 359 million years ago), which is later than the period of the Fusielsite amber.”
“Thus, while the chemistry of Hoosiersite amber and gymnosperm resins is similar, it is improbable that seed plants are the source of this amber.”
“If this reasoning holds, then Husielsite amber would represent the oldest recorded fossil resin produced by a non-seed plant.”
For further details, refer to the research paper published in a scientific journal on July 15th in Scientific Progress.
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Jihan Lu et al. 2026. The oldest amber from the Middle Devonian period in China. Scientific Progress 12(29); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aeh1266
In this photograph, Mahina swims alongside her protective mother. At just two years old, Mahina—which translates to “moon” in Tongan—is incredibly unique, as only one in 40,000 humpback whales is born with such a rare lack of coloration.
Scientists are still debating the cause of Mahina’s ethereal appearance, which could stem from either albinism or leucism.
Albinism is a genetic mutation that inhibits the production of melanin, leading to a complete lack of pigmentation in skin, hair, and eyes. However, Mahina’s black eyes—which are atypical for albino animals—raise the possibility of leucism, a condition characterized by a partial lack of pigmentation.
Another well-known white humpback whale, Migaloo, provides further intrigue. Discovered in Byron Bay, Australia, in 1991, Migaloo was long presumed to be leucistic due to his black eyes. Yet, an analysis of his skin samples in 2011 revealed that he is, in fact, an albino.
Regardless of Mahina’s true condition, photographer Jono Allen emphasizes the significance of her sighting: “Observing such rare individuals reignites hope for the potential of conservation efforts and the prosperity of wildlife.”
Check out more winning images from the contest below.
Namaqua chameleon thrives in the harsh Namib Desert – Image courtesy of Dewald Tromp/WNPAA bull moose curiously inspects camera gear in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, USA – Image courtesy of Deena Sveinsson/WNPAGhost goby fish expertly camouflaged against coral – Image courtesy of Simon Biddie/WNPAAn owl stealthily approaches prey in a field – Image courtesy of Vince Burton/WNPAA brown bear dives into a stream in Alaska’s Katmai National Park to catch salmon – Image courtesy of Charlie Wemyss Dunn/WNPA
Lithium is an essential modern mineral that plays a pivotal role in the production of rechargeable batteries. As tech companies increasingly rely on this critical resource, the demand for lithium has soared to unprecedented levels.
Currently, the United States imports over 50% of its lithium needs. However, new research from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) indicates that this trend may soon shift.
A team of USGS geologists has identified approximately 2.3 million tons of economically viable undiscovered lithium oxide in the Appalachian region of Eastern America. This significant find could replace U.S. lithium imports for up to 328 years at last year’s consumption levels.
Of this lithium, 1.43 million tons are located in the Southern Appalachians, primarily in the Carolinas, while the Northern Appalachians, especially in Maine and New Hampshire, may hold another 900,000 tons.
Lithium occurs in pegmatites, which are coarse-grained rocks similar to granite. As one of the world’s most vital minerals, it powers lithium-ion batteries found in computers, electric vehicles, military equipment, and energy grid storage. The USGS forecasts that global lithium production capacity will double by 2029 due to the surging demand.
However, lithium production requires numerous raw materials, and currently, the only U.S. producer operates a commercial mine in Nevada. Last year, imports accounted for over half of the country’s lithium consumption. This statistic was highlighted in the USGS’s 2025 Important Minerals List.
Once mined, the ore is crushed, roasted, and treated with acid to extract lithium – Credit: Getty
Australia currently leads as the world’s largest lithium producer, with China following closely behind.
The USGS study suggests that the lithium oxide found in the Appalachian region could potentially produce enough lithium for 1.6 million grid-scale batteries, 130 million electric vehicles, 180 billion laptops, or 500 billion smartphones.
At present demand levels, this discovery translates to enough lithium for 1,000 years of laptops and 60 smartphones for every person on the planet.
“This study shows that the Appalachian Mountains have sufficient lithium to meet our nation’s increasing demand,” stated USGS Director Ned Mamula.
The research commenced with USGS geologists integrating various datasets to estimate the amount and distribution of undiscovered lithium deposits in both the northern and southern Appalachians.
Colin Williams, USGS Mineral Resources Program Coordinator, mentioned to BBC Science Focus: “What ends up being produced is determined by other countries based on our science, and what it means for other countries depends on that production.”
Interestingly, the lithium-rich pegmatites of the region were formed over 250 million years ago when the continents of Africa, Europe, and North America merged to create the supercontinent Pangea, leading to the formation of lithium-bearing magma.
Comparable pegmatites are also located in Ireland and Portugal, which were once adjacent to the Appalachian range.
Astronomers have utilized spectral data from the Magellan-Cray telescope at Las Campanas Observatory to identify helium leakage from LHS 1140b, a rocky exoplanet situated in the habitable zone of the nearby low-mass star LHS 1140.
Artist’s concept of the rocky planets LHS 1140b and LHS 1140c. Image credit: Melissa Weiss / Harvard University and Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
LHS 1140 is a dormant M-dwarf star aged approximately 3 billion years, located around 39 light-years away in the constellation Cetus.
Cataloged as Gliese 3053 or GJ 3053, it is orbited by three planets: LHS 1140b, 1140c, and 1140d.
Discovered in 2017, LHS 1140b features a mass 5.6 times that of Earth and a radius 1.73 times that of our planet.
With an orbital period of 24.7 days, it receives 42% of the stellar radiation that Earth does, yielding an equilibrium temperature of 226 K (-47 degrees Celsius or -53 degrees Fahrenheit).
“Twenty years ago, we wondered if other terrestrial planets existed,” said Robin Wordsworth, a Harvard University professor.
“We now know they are common, with several residing in the habitable zone. The next challenge was to determine whether any could sustain an atmosphere. Today, we confirm at least one does.”
Astronomers studied LHS 1140b in 2024 with the advanced Warm Infrared Echelle Spectrometer for Extreme Dispersion (WINERED) on the Magellan-Clay Telescope, revealing evidence of helium escaping from its atmosphere.
“After thorough analysis of the spectra, we found helium being released from LHS 1140b’s atmosphere in 2024, attributed to heating from the star’s X-rays and extreme ultraviolet light,” explained Dr. Shreyas Visapragada, an astronomer at Carnegie Scientific Observatory.
“However, observations in 2025 indicated no helium leaks, suggesting that atmospheric leaks are variable.”
“Observing atmospheric changes in exoplanets over such short human timescales is a unique opportunity.”
By combining these findings with prior observations and advanced exoplanet evolution models, researchers suggest the presence of a multi-layered atmosphere on LHS 1140b.
They hypothesize that the planet features an upper atmosphere rich in helium and low in hydrogen, with other components such as water potentially trapped at lower altitudes near the surface.
No atmosphere was detected on planet LHS 1140c, possibly indicating that these two worlds exist on opposite sides of the so-called cosmic coastline.
On one side, planets retain atmospheres for billions of years; on the other side, planets lose them rapidly to space.
“Atmospheres are crucial for supporting life as we know it,” states Dr. Colin Cherubim from Harvard University.
“This marks the first discovery of an atmosphere around a rocky planet situated in the habitable zone of another star.”
“With helium present and escaping, we must ask: Is LHS 1140b merely a barren rock intermittently releasing gas or does it maintain a stable atmosphere similar to Earth?” questions Dr. Jason Dittman, an astronomer at the University of Florida.
“The upcoming four to five years of Webb data will search for water. If water is found in the atmosphere, it likely indicates a stable atmospheric condition.”
The findings were published in a research paper in today’s edition of Science.
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Colin Cherubim et al.. Helium released from the atmosphere of a nearby rocky exoplanet in its habitable zone. Science published online on July 16, 2026. doi: 10.1126/science.aea9708
A recent analysis reveals that four exoplanets orbiting Barnard’s Star, the closest single star to our Sun, are likely rich in the mineral periclase, which contributes to their hostile environments, making them incapable of supporting life.
Artist’s impression of an exoplanet orbiting Barnard’s Star. Image credit: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / P. Marenfeld.
Barnard’s Star, a 10 billion-year-old red dwarf, is located just 6 light-years from Earth in the constellation Ophiuchus.
Also known as Gliese 699 or GJ 699, it ranks as the second closest star to the Sun, following the Alpha Centauri triple star system.
In 2025, astronomers discovered four rocky planets orbiting this star, each smaller than Earth and Venus but larger than Mars.
Through a detailed analysis of Barnard’s Star’s chemical composition, astronomer Xander Byrne and his team at the University of Cambridge found that the planets are abundant in a rare mineral called periclase, typically found a few hundred kilometers beneath Earth’s surface.
“Barnard’s Star has elevated magnesium levels compared to other stars, suggesting that its planets also contain significant magnesium,” Byrne noted.
“On Earth, magnesium contributes to the formation of olivine, a crucial mineral for water storage underground.”
However, the high magnesium content leads to the formation of periclase, which retains little to no water.
Compounding the issue, the planets around Barnard’s Star are unlikely to have atmospheres.
“These planets face hostile conditions due to their proximity to the star,” Dr. Byrne explained.
“Even the furthest planets orbit ten times closer than Mercury orbits the Sun.”
“At such close range and with low gravity, any atmosphere is easily stripped away.”
These exoplanets may have preserved an atmosphere for a maximum of 2 billion years, a brief duration compared to the system’s estimated 10 billion-year age.
The proximity to Barnard’s Star also imposes unique effects on the planets. Researchers found that all four are tidally locked, similar to how the Moon presents only one face to Earth.
This results in one hemisphere of each planet being perpetually bathed in sunlight while the other remains in darkness.
Compact planetary systems like Barnard’s Star are often unstable, with gravitational interactions potentially leading to collisions, falls into the star, or ejections from the system.
However, phenomena like orbital resonance appear to stabilize the planets around Barnard’s Star.
The orbital durations of the three inner planets are in a 9:12:16 ratio, reminiscent of two consecutive perfect fourths in music.
This harmonic relationship may help stabilize their orbits, shielding the Barnard system from disruptive gravitational forces.
Future missions, such as ESA’s Plato mission, aim to uncover more small planets similar to those surrounding Barnard’s Star.
“Larger planets are easier to detect than smaller ones, which leaves a gap in our knowledge about such exoplanets,” Dr. Byrne remarked.
“The enhanced sensitivity of these new missions will help address this bias, enabling us to discover more small, rocky planets akin to Earth.”
The team’s paper was published in the June 24th issue of Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Xander Byrne et al. 2026. Barnard’s Planetary System: Stability, Composition, and Evolution of Four Exoplanets. MNRAS 550 (2): stag1207; doi: 10.1093/mnras/stag1207
Researchers have officially identified a new species of African monkey, the colobus. This remarkable monkey, residing in the secluded interior of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, marks only the fifth new monkey species discovered on the continent in the last 75 years.
Colobus congoensis. Image credit: Frankfurt Zoological Society, Daniel Rosengren.
This newly identified species features a small size, black fur, and distinctive orange-cream spots around its mouth and nose, complemented by a black mask-like face and a prominent white patch near its tail.
Known scientifically as Colobus congoensis, this primate inhabits the eastern basin of the Lomami River and the nearby upper basin of the Congo (Lualaba) River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
“This discovery is tremendously exciting and personal to me, showcasing the incredible biodiversity of my homeland and the vast amount still undocumented,” remarked Dr. Junior Amboko, a student at Florida Atlantic University.
“Naming Colobus congoensis honors the remarkable natural heritage of the Congo Basin and signifies both its global importance and our local pride.”
The monkey was first captured on camera during research in the Lomami Basin in 2008, though its significance went unrecognized at that time.
It wasn’t until 2018 that park rangers photographed the animal again, ensuring that its unusual markings were noted, leading scientists to further investigate.
Over several months, park rangers documented the monkeys throughout the region, and Amboko and his team ultimately matched the recent sightings with the photos taken a decade prior.
Despite proximity to several villages, the local community had little knowledge of the monkey. Among 52 villages surveyed near its habitat, only eight accurately described its characteristics, in contrast to the residents’ well-documented knowledge of other local primates.
The discovery of Colobus congoensis is transforming our understanding of African monkey evolution, added Kate Detwiler of Florida Atlantic University.
Genetic and skeletal analyses show that Colobus congoensis is closely related to the black colobus (Colobus satana), a monkey found on Bioko Island, over 1,200 kilometers away.
Mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that these two lineages diverged approximately 4 to 5 million years ago, representing one of the most significant divergences within the Colobus genus.
Researchers noted that while the new species’ vocalizations share structural similarities with those of its distant relatives, they possess distinct differences in pitch and pattern.
“We compared skull structures and fur characteristics. The results indicate that Colobus congoensis is akin to other African colobines, yet highlights its unique qualities,” explained Julia Arenson, a researcher at Yale University.
“At the same time, we found it shares dental, cranial, and facial features with other species, despite its relatively smaller body size compared to other African colobines.”
“To classify a new species, comprehensive proof is essential,” stated Christopher Gilbert, a professor at the City University of New York.
“We utilized extensive museum collections, including specimens at the Yale Peabody Museum and the American Museum of Natural History, alongside comparative datasets to analyze skulls and fur against known African colobus monkeys.”
“Thanks to this extensive data, we confirmed Colobus congoensis as a distinct species quickly and decisively.”
Field surveys conducted between 2018 and 2022 recorded 114 sightings, revealing an estimated range of only 1,700 km2, surprisingly small compared to other colobus species whose ranges often exceed 60,000 km2.
Observations typically noted these monkeys in small groups averaging about six individuals, often cohabitating with other monkey species within the tree canopy.
Scientists have proposed a provisional classification for the IUCN Red List, categorizing Colobus congoensis as an endangered species due to its limited range and population size.
“We are continually reminded that the Congo Basin is one of the world’s last great frontiers for mammal discoveries,” remarked Dr. John Hart, a conservation scientist at the Lukuru Wildlife Research Foundation.
“Even areas previously studied continue to reveal entirely new species.”
“This finding underscores the untold biodiversity present in the Central Congo Basin and how it contributes to our understanding of primate evolution and conservation efforts.”
This groundbreaking discovery is detailed in the following article: PLoS ONE.
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JA Hart et al. 2026. Likweli: A remarkable new species of Colobus monkeys in Lomami National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS ONE 21(7): e0349857; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0349857
Despite humans making up only about 0.01% of Earth’s history, our impact on natural landscapes and long-standing processes has been profound and rapid. A recent study by researchers from the University of Glasgow examines the transformation of Britain’s sandy beaches, shedding light on these swift changes.
From 1856 until the 1980s, industrial steel and iron furnaces operated widely in Britain, resulting in the disposal of approximately 335 million cubic meters (90 billion gallons) of molten furnace waste. Slag waste has accumulated nationwide, with about 27 million cubic meters (6 million gallons) forming a towering 30-meter (100-foot) cliff at Derwent Howe.
The research focused on understanding how these hillside formations are created, particularly the influence of artificial materials on rock formation. Rocks undergo a natural transformation process over millions of years through lithification in the rock cycle. The discovery of a soda can tab from 1989 within the hardened grain of slag led the team to conclude that the beach had solidified in the last 35 years, prompting them to introduce a new term for rocks formed from human deposits: the human crushing cycle.
The researchers collected 1,300 sediment grains from 13 sites and discovered that a remarkable 83% comprised slag. In contrast, natural beach materials like silica sand constituted only 17% of the samples. Waves and winds eroded the cliffs, releasing chunks of slag, which were then carried to the beach.
Moreover, they noted the slag’s penetration into the wet sediments where it met the shoreline. The formed rocks bore resemblance to peperite, typically produced when lava overlays wet sediment. This unique interaction resulted in a rock appearance resembling a chunk of slag encased in sandstone.
Utilizing sedimentary analysis, the researchers studied how slag particle arrangements within the solidified rock reflected tidal water speeds at various historical intervals. These arrangements, known as sediment structures, indicate the methods of rock formation. For example, water flowing over sand may create rippled patterns that become preserved when the sand hardens into rock.
As water speeds increase, ripple formations disappear, giving way to horizontal sediment layers, known as flat layers. The researchers identified both trough cross-bedding and planar bedding within the Slugby Beach rocks, indicating that Derwent Howe’s beach transitioned from loose sediment to solid rock in just one generation.
To uncover the reason behind this rapid solidification, the research team employed a scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-rays (EDX). By analyzing the rocky surface with electron beams and X-rays, they identified key binder minerals—calcium- and iron-rich compounds such as calcite, goethite, and brucite. These minerals serve as cement to bind sediment particles together.
The researchers anticipated that the slag would lead to these cement compositions due to the high solubility of calcium, magnesium, manganese, and iron from metal ore extraction. As water flowing between the slag particles becomes saturated with dissolved elements, this leads to the rapid formation of solid mineral cement in environments where high concentrations exist.
The implications of their findings suggest that the anthropogenic rock cycles observed at Derwent Howe may not be unique. Given that slag contains elements necessary for rock formation, similar deposits around the world could significantly affect local environments. Consequently, the research team recommends updating geological models to better reflect human influences on natural rock cycles.
Discover thousands of bone fossils uncovered from a Cretaceous bone bed in Wyoming, USA. The tyrannosaurus rex likely fed on the remains of a platypus dinosaur species known as Edmontosaurus anectens.
Reconstruction of the life of Edmontosaurus anectens. Image credit: Dani Navarro.
“Identifying the origin of perforating lesions on fossil bones can be challenging. Many are mistakenly attributed to tooth marks without considering other potential explanations,” said Bethania Siviero, a paleontologist at Loma Linda University.
“This confusion often arises from unclear tooth mark criteria, especially when the context of the lesions is overlooked.”
“Misidentification of these marks leads to misleading interpretations about the behavior of prehistoric animals.”
“Our study critically reassesses the criteria used for identifying tooth marks in fossil bones.”
In this research, Siviero and colleagues analyzed 3,013 bones excavated from a paleontological site near Hanson Ranch Station in northeastern Wyoming, part of the Lance Formation.
The majority of these bones belonged to a single species: the large herbivorous hadrosaur, Edmontosaurus anectens.
Among the 3,013 bones, only 13 exhibited traits that resembled tooth marks.
Through meticulous analysis, including CT scans, researchers determined that one of the marks was not a bite but rather a natural anatomical feature.
Confrontation between Late Cretaceous Nanotyrannus lansensis (left) and juvenile tyrannosaurus rex individuals. Image credit: Jorge Gonzalez.
Out of the 12 bones found with authentic tooth marks, including ribs, vertebrae, radius, and ulna, the analysis revealed four unique patterns linked to two endemic species: Cuneticnus pararealm and linicnus sawtooth.
By comparing the spacing of these marks with the dental structures of known predators from the same ecosystem, researchers identified the tyrannosaurus rex as the most likely perpetrator of the bite marks.
Notably, most of the chewed bones showed no signs of healing, indicating that the animals were likely bitten before, during, or after death, pointing towards scavenging rather than active predation.
Scientists utilized the Wyoming bone bed to establish more precise scientific criteria for identifying tooth marks on fossilized bones.
“Not all features on these bones are tooth marks, making accurate identification of depressions and holes crucial,” the researchers stated.
Their findings have been published in the online journal PLoS ONE today.
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BCT Cibiero et al. 2026. Identification of Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) tooth marks on Edmontosaurus anectens bone bed from the Lance Formation, Wyoming, USA. PLoS One 21 (7): e0351939; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0351939
Using NSF’s Very Large Array (VLA), astronomers achieved a groundbreaking wireless detection of polarization and Faraday rotation in the afterglow of a gamma-ray burst, unveiling unprecedented insights into the magnetic fields surrounding one of the universe’s most powerful explosions.
This figure illustrates Faraday rotation in the afterglow of a gamma-ray burst. The powerful jet (top left) emits polarized radio waves through the thin walls of the surrounding magnetized gas bubble, known as the HII region. As light traverses this material, its polarization angle is affected by the magnetic field. Longer wavelengths experience a more pronounced effect, causing red and blue waves to oscillate in different directions. This information allows astronomers to map the magnetic landscape surrounding GRB 260310A for the first time. Image credit: NSF / AUI / NRAO / M. Weiss
Gamma-ray bursts are among the most powerful explosions in the universe, releasing as much energy in mere seconds as the sun does over its entire lifespan.
These extraordinary events are believed to propel thin jets of particles that accelerate to nearly the speed of light, producing radio afterglows that can persist for months.
Despite extensive research, accurately measuring the magnetic fields associated with these jets and their environments remains a significant challenge.
The gamma-ray burst under investigation, GRB 260310A, is relatively close to Earth by cosmic standards and features one of the brightest radio afterglows detected in decades, providing astronomers with an exceptional opportunity.
By targeting the fading explosion with the VLA, astronomer Tanmoy Laskar and his team at the University of Utah observed polarized radio waves, indicating that light waves are oscillating in a preferred direction, akin to how polarized sunglasses filter sunlight.
Additionally, they identified a variation in the polarized signal with wavelength, a phenomenon termed Faraday rotation.
This groundbreaking detection, previously unrecorded in gamma-ray bursts, functions like a magnetic fingerprint, revealing critical data about the strength and structure of the magnetic field that the light traverses.
Much like a prism bends different colors of visible light variably, a magnetized plasma can alter the polarization angle of radio waves.
The rate of change in polarization with wavelength indicates the strength of the magnetic field encountered by the light.
“Gamma-ray bursts represent the universe’s most powerful explosions, and magnetic fields are believed to play a crucial role in fueling them, yet studying these fields has proven to be complex,” Laskar explained.
“The detection of polarized radio emissions now enables us to measure the magnetic environment surrounding one of the most violent phenomena in the cosmos.”
“With our new gamma-ray burst observations, we can utilize space as a laboratory to validate our understanding of physics in extreme conditions.”
The VLA data indicated that the magnetic field along the light’s trajectory is thousands of times stronger than that observed in our Milky Way galaxy and intergalactic space.
Instead, this data reveals a denser, magnetized cloud of gas enveloping the star that erupted to create GRB 260310A.
This cloud, identified as the HII region, is an ionized hydrogen gas bubble sculpted by the intense ultraviolet radiation and stellar winds from massive young stars.
The proximity of GRB 260310A to such a region aligns with theories suggesting that gamma-ray bursts originate from the most massive stars, enhancing our comprehension of the star types and environments that trigger these extreme events.
“Previous efforts to detect polarization in gamma-ray bursts employed facilities like the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA), focusing on shorter wavelengths at earlier stages before the afterglow faded,” noted Colin Christie, a graduate student at the University of Arizona.
“Using the VLA, we’ve shifted into the centimeter band to achieve the first-ever measurement of Faraday rotation in a gamma-ray burst.”
“Each new observation uncovers another layer of the magnetic narrative these explosions convey.”
“In the future, continuous monitoring of gamma-ray burst afterglows with the VLA and other radio telescopes will enable scientists to track the evolution of the magnetic field structure in real time,” remarked Kate Denham Alexander from the University of Arizona.
“This capability could revolutionize our understanding of how relativistic jets form, are powered, and how their magnetic energy is released in the universe’s most extreme environments.”
The newly identified exoplanet, Beta Pictoris d, is significantly fainter than its predecessor Beta Pictoris b, being 100 times dimmer. This makes it one of the lightest exoplanets ever successfully imaged from the ground.
An artistic representation of the Beta Pictoris system showcasing the newly discovered giant exoplanet Beta Pictoris d. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/STScI/Ralf Crawford, STScI.
Situated about 63 light-years away in the constellation Pictor, Beta Pictoris is a stellar body with a mass approximately 1.8 times that of our Sun and an age of merely 20 million years.
It hosts a known circumstellar disk composed of gas, dust, and numerous comet-like objects, along with two previously identified giant planets, Beta Pictoris b and Beta Pictoris c.
Beta Pictoris b, with a mass ranging from 9 to 13 times that of Jupiter, completes an orbit around its star every 22 years, situated 9.8 AU (astronomical units) away.
On the other hand, Beta Pictoris c holds a mass about 8.2 times greater than Jupiter and orbits much closer at 2.7 AU, with an orbital period of approximately 1,200 days.
The recent discovery of Beta Pictoris d marks it as the second known planetary system to host at least three imaged planets.
“This was a serendipitous discovery,” noted Dr. Ben Sutlief, an astronomer at the University of Edinburgh. “We initially aimed to focus on Beta Pictoris b to analyze changes over time.”
An image captured by ESO’s Very Large Telescope highlights the newly discovered Beta Pictoris d, which is silently orbiting its parent star. Image credit: ESO / Sutlief et al.
To validate their findings, Dr. Sutlief and his team referenced the ESO Archive, revealing images of Beta Pictoris d made over a decade, with some barely discernible amidst the brilliance of Beta Pictoris b.
Dr. Jane Birkby from the University of Oxford remarked, “Beta Pictoris d has been eluding us for over ten years, but we can finally confirm its presence!”
Similar to Jupiter and Saturn, Beta Pictoris d is a gas giant, yet it possesses a significantly broader orbit than its neighboring planets.
It has a mass of only 2.4 times that of Jupiter, classifying it as one of the lightest imaged exoplanets. Due to its cooler temperature, it appears very faint relative to its host star.
“Beta Pictoris d is 100 times dimmer than the renowned Beta Pictoris b, marking it as the faintest exoplanet ever directly captured from Earth,” stated ESO astronomer Dr. Markus Bonse.
Beta Pictoris d showcased in reconstructed images from the Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSpec) of the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STScI and contributors.
This groundbreaking observation of Beta Pictoris d was conducted using the ERIS instrument on ESO’s Very Large Telescope.
Moreover, an independent team led by Aidan Gibbs from the University of California, San Diego, also captured images of the same planet utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.
“This discovery enriches the narrative of an already captivating planetary system,” commented Dr. Gibbs.
“Beta Pictoris has long been a key focus for understanding planetary system formation and evolution. This new addition enhances that exploration.”
Both discoveries are documented in two papers published in the latest issue of the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Ben J. Sutlief et al. 2026. Discovery of direct images of the giant exoplanet Beta Pictoris d: A 10-year game of hide-and-seek. APJL 1006, L10; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae80a0
Aidan Gibbs et al. 2026. Discovery of a third giant planet orbiting Beta Pictoris. APJL 1006, L11; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae801b
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