If you’re dealing with a narcissistic boss, expect an insatiable need for praise, particularly in person. Recent research reveals that narcissistic managers tend to resist working from home.
Psychologists from the University of Pennsylvania have investigated the reasons why some leaders advocate for remote work while others categorically oppose it.
The study analyzed data from 259 high-profile leaders on the Fortune 500 CEO list, scrutinizing their public communications and company documents for signs of narcissism. This information was then contrasted with their views on remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In the next phase of the study, the University of Pennsylvania team surveyed an additional 100 leaders, bringing the total to 359 participants, to further explore their attitudes towards remote work.
The results were striking. The primary characteristic that predicted opposition to remote work was narcissism—marked by a self-centered and entitled demeanor. Leaders who were more vocal and power-hungry displayed a stronger preference for mandatory office attendance.
Insisting on in-person work can be more about satisfying your boss’s ego than enhancing productivity – Credit: Getty
The researchers suggest that remote work challenges a narcissistic boss’s need for affirmation. It diminishes the visibility of employees and hinders leaders’ ability to reinforce their influence, status, and control.
They emphasize that “Even if your employees use flattery to reassure you, it won’t have the same effect on platforms like Slack.”
Evidence also indicates that remote and hybrid work models can help organizations attract and retain top talent. The findings suggest that narcissistic leaders’ pursuit of power and prestige poses significant obstacles to embracing this new workplace paradigm. The quest for authority may hinder flexibility in the workplace.
“This study offers valuable insights,” states Dr. Claire Hart, an associate professor of personality psychology at the University of Southampton. “It elucidates why leaders with high narcissism scores tend to resist remote work, tying back to their core characteristic: the drive to fulfill needs related to status, power, and self-enhancement.”
Nevertheless, she acknowledges that some leaders favor in-office work for valid reasons, such as training, mentoring, fostering innovation, and team bonding.
A groundbreaking study reveals that Charon, Pluto’s largest moon, may continue to experience a loss of rotational energy even after years of tidal locking, offering scientists a unique insight into the hidden interior of this distant icy body.
This stunning image of Charon was captured on July 14, 2015. Unlike Pluto, Charon’s color palette is less varied, with its most notable feature being the reddish northern polar region, informally called Mordor Macra. Image credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.
Celestial objects in the solar system undergo a phenomenon known as despinning, where tidal forces gradually reduce rotation speeds while altering their shapes and temperatures.
This process has long been theorized for Charon, but previously lacked clear geological evidence.
Charon is an ideal candidate for such exploration due to its ancient surface, approximately 4 billion years old, with limited resurfacing compared to other icy moons.
“Charon displays a distinct topographical dichotomy, characterized by rugged northern highlands and smooth southern plains,” stated Dr. Hanjiang Chen, a researcher at the University of California, Los Angeles and ETH Zurich.
“Prior studies suggest that Charon underwent global expansion alongside cryovolcanic activity.”
This research examined the alterations in tectonic features within the mountain range named Oz Terra in Charon’s northern hemisphere.
These features span over 200 km and exhibit asymmetric slopes, indicating compression rather than extension.
Modeling indicates that an ice shell measuring at least 30-36 km thick existed during formation, pointing to an approximate 1% shortening of the equatorial crust and the absorption of this compression along pre-existing fault lines, resulting in the observed ridges.
The authors estimate that Charon’s original rotation period was about 14.3 hours, significantly faster than its current tidally locked state of approximately 153.3 hours.
This finding provides compelling evidence that Charon’s rotation has indeed slowed over time.
The study suggests that Charon may have developed under relatively cold conditions, forming a robust ice shell early in its history.
“Our research indicates that Charon’s surface reflects a history of planetary despinning, predating its proposed global expansion and cryovolcanic activity,” the researchers stated.
“The co-evolution of unspinning and global contraction supports the notion of Charon having a cold start, offering insights into the early thermal evolution of icy moons in the outer Solar System.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Nature Communications on July 14th.
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H. Chen et al. 2026. Early tidal despin history recorded in Charon, Oz Terra’s tectonics. Nat Commune 17, 5978; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-75069-7
A compelling new study from Columbia University reveals that adults reducing their sleep by approximately 80 minutes over the course of six weeks experienced an average weight gain of 1 pound (0.45 kg) and exhibited decreased daily activity levels.
Mild sleep deprivation, prevalent among nearly one-third of American adults, may secretly contribute to long-term weight gain through increased inactivity rather than overeating. Image credit: Sweet Briar College.
The connection between sleep deprivation and obesity is often based on brief studies focusing on severe sleep restriction, leading to potential misunderstandings about its effects on the average adult.
While severe sleep deprivation can alter appetite and encourage overeating, most people can’t withstand extreme sleep loss beyond a few days.
“Such studies reveal consequences under extreme conditions; they do not clarify how individuals who sleep only five to six hours nightly, much like many Americans, may gain weight,” commented Marie-Pierre St-Onge, a distinguished professor at Columbia University.
To examine the ramifications of chronic mild sleep deprivation, a common pattern seen in around 30% of adults, Professor St-Onge and her team recruited 95 participants who usually slept between seven and eight hours each night.
The participants were instructed to delay their typical bedtime by 90 minutes during one six-week phase, returning to their normal schedule during another.
Throughout each phase, researchers monitored sleep and activity levels with wrist devices, tracking changes in weight, waist circumference, body composition, and fasting levels of various appetite-related hormones.
“A 1-pound increase due to moderate sleep restriction is not unexpected, but it’s crucial to acknowledge this occurred in just six weeks,” remarked Dr. Faris Zuraikat, also from Columbia University.
“Our research aimed to replicate the chronic sleep patterns experienced by most adults.”
“Over the course of a year, one might anticipate that losing less than 1.5 hours of nightly sleep could result in significant weight gain.”
During the sleep restriction phase, sedentary time rose by an average of 17 minutes daily, with men and postmenopausal women experiencing nearly 30 minutes more inactivity on average.
“With shorter sleep duration, participants became more inactive, even with longer waking hours,” Dr. Zuraikat observed.
This finding is crucial, as sedentary lifestyles increase the risk for chronic diseases.
“Our study indicates that adequate sleep might play a role in mitigating the risk of weight gain and obesity-related illnesses, such as heart disease and diabetes,” asserted Professor St-Onge.
“Obesity remains a significant risk factor for heart disease as individuals gain weight into adulthood.”
“However, concentrating solely on healthier eating and increased physical activity to combat weight gain can be unrealistic and challenging to maintain.”
For further details, refer to the study published this month in the Annual Report of Internal Medicine.
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Faris M. Zuraikat, et al. Prolonged short sleep and its effects on body weight and composition: An integrated analysis of randomized trials. Annual Report of Internal Medicine published online on July 7, 2026. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-25-01660
Long before the formation of Earth, the universe was a vast expanse of liquid. Just one second after the Big Bang, it was filled with a sea of intense light and particles.
This primordial substance was a mix of quarks, the fundamental building blocks of matter, and gluons, massless particles that hold quarks together.
In the last two decades, scientists have successfully recreated this quark-gluon plasma and have been studying its remarkable properties.
Research indicates that the strong interactions between quarks and gluons cause this plasma to flow like water. This unique liquid, characterized by its low viscosity and minimal resistance to flow, diverges from any known substance in science.
As the universe continued to expand, this plasma cooled gradually, morphing into a hot, dense ionized gas that trapped and scattered light for the next 370,000 years.
Within this haze, the first elements began to form, primarily the lightest ones: hydrogen, helium, and lithium.
The primordial goo after the Big Bang was composed of quarks and gluons – Image credit: Science Photo Library
It would take another 10 billion years for what we recognize today as oceans to materialize. When Earth initially formed, its surface was too hot for liquid water to persist.
Scientists believe that between 4.4 and 3.8 billion years ago, water vapor in the atmosphere began to condense into rain.
Even at this early stage, surface temperatures remained well above the boiling point of water. However, high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) led to increasing atmospheric pressure, paving the way for the formation of Earth’s first oceans.
There is ongoing debate about the origins of Earth’s water.
One leading theory suggests that water was delivered to Earth by ice comets and asteroids, while other scientists propose that it evaporated from the rocks. It is likely that both mechanisms contributed to the emergence of Earth’s primordial oceans.
This article addresses the question posed by Roger Prasser via email: “What was the first ‘ocean’ actually like?”
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Tyrannosaurus Skeleton Sold for $50 Million – Most Expensive Fossil Ever
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The historic auction of a Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton has ignited debate over the ethics of privately selling dinosaur fossils, with many advocating for preservation in museums. NBC News’ Marquis Francis explores the issue. Published on July 14, 2026
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A newly discovered genus and species of lambeosaurid hadrosaurid dinosaur, Plesiolophus warnerensis, has been identified in southern Alberta, Canada, with origins dating back to the Campanian period of the Cretaceous, approximately 77 million years ago.
Reconstruction of the life of Plesiolophus warnerensis. Image credit: Connor Ashbridge / CC BY 4.0.
Hollow-crowned hadrosauroid dinosaurs, part of the Lambeosaurinae clade, were widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere toward the end of the Cretaceous, according to Carleton University paleontologist Bradley McPheeters in a recent study published in the Canadian Geoscience Journal.
“The Lambeosaurinae likely originated in Asia, where early diverging members were present during the early Santonian period (86 to 84 million years ago).”
“More derived lambeosaurinae appeared in western North America (Laramidia) by the Early Middle Campanian (84 to 78 million years ago), reaching peak diversity during the Late Campanian (up to 72 million years ago).”
The new species, Plesiolophus warnerensis, was identified from the roof and braincase of a fossilized skull discovered by fossil hunter Wendy Sloboda near the Milk River Ridge Reservoir in southern Alberta.
This significant fossil was excavated from the Oldman Formation, which surprisingly yields little diagnostic material from the region’s diverse duck-billed dinosaurs.
“Plesiolophus warnerensis represents the first diagnostic specimen of an adult lambeosaur from this formation,” the researchers noted in their paper.
Unlike later members, Plesiolophus warnerensis possesses some ancestral characteristics while also exhibiting features similar to those of Parasaurolophus, the clade that ultimately gave rise to iconic hadrosaurid dinosaurs.
To situate the new species within the evolutionary framework, researchers employed phylogenetic analysis, comparing it to 87 other dinosaur species.
The analysis consistently indicates that this species is one of the earliest members of the North American parasaurolophine lineage.
“Although Plesiolophus warnerensis is diagnosed by a unique combination of features, it lacks strong autapomorphies and cannot currently be excluded as a potential ancestor of Parasaurolophus, which occurs in the upper Dinosaur Park formation,” the scientists explained.
“In several respects, this new taxon’s morphology aligns with expectations for a representative of the stratigraphically lower parasaurolophines. Its close morphological resemblance to lambeosaurids signals its temporal proximity to the evolutionary divergence from that clade, while its similarities to immature examples of parasaurolophines suggest a heterochronic process that may have led to the exaggerated crest characteristic of this group.”
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Bradley D. McPheeters et al. A new species of parasaurolophine dinosaur (Hadrosauridae: Lambeosaurinae) discovered from the Oldman Formation in southern Alberta. Canadian Geoscience Journal, published online on July 13, 2026. doi: 10.1139/cjes-2026-0013
New images of the giant elliptical galaxy NGC 4696 captured by the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope unveil gas filaments delivering material to a rotating disk around a supermassive black hole with an impressive 800 light-year diameter. This discovery sheds light on a long-standing mystery of how these immense galaxies continue to evolve.
This Hubble image showcases the elliptical galaxy NGC 4696. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / A. Fabian.
At the core of nearly every large galaxy lies a supermassive black hole, often millions to billions of times more massive than the Sun.
When these black holes actively consume surrounding material, they ignite like cosmic engines, emitting powerful jets of energy. This activity can dismantle entire galaxies and hinder the formation of new stars, ultimately shaping the evolution of galaxies over time. These active black holes are referred to as active galactic nuclei (AGN).
If the AGN jet heats the nearby gas, it should theoretically limit the black hole’s access to food. This begs the question: how does it continue to grow?
A leading theory suggests that the heated gas cools and condenses into thin streamers known as filaments, which then move toward the galaxy’s center in a self-regulating manner.
“Webb’s observations have provided us with thousands of new facts and measurements, and there’s much to analyze,” stated Megan Donahue, a professor at Michigan State University.
“We are collaborating to unravel astrophysical mysteries about the fueling process of black holes and their interactions with host galaxies.”
Professor Donahue and her team directed the Webb telescope towards NGC 4696, a massive elliptical galaxy located approximately 116 million light-years away in the constellation Centaurus.
With a diameter of about 30,000 light-years, it stands as the largest galaxy in the Centauri cluster, which comprises hundreds of galaxies.
Utilizing nearly eight hours of observation with Webb’s NIRSpec instrument, astronomers crafted a detailed map of gas movements within the black hole’s gravitational influence. The resolution was sharp enough to reveal features spanning approximately 30 light-years within a galaxy that stretches for hundreds of thousands of light-years.
These observations indicated that the previously identified S-shaped vortex is actually a rotating disk of gas encircling a supermassive black hole, with material swirling at speeds of up to 600 kilometers per second.
Crucially, the disk appears to be physically connected to one of the large filament streams extending outward into the galaxy.
These observations confirmed that gas flows along the filament into a disk that sustains the supermassive black hole.
This groundbreaking research will also enhance scientists’ understanding of the complete feeding cycle of supermassive black holes.
Jets emitted by the black hole inject energy into the surrounding gas. Over time, this gas cools and becomes unstable, collapsing into long filaments that can be several hundred light-years wide or extend thousands of light-years in length.
Magnetic forces decelerate the gas’s rotation as it descends, guiding it inward to accumulate in a rotating disk around the black hole. This disk feeds the black hole, which in turn shoots jets, initiating the cycle anew.
To validate this model, researchers conducted advanced computer simulations of the system.
The simulated gas behavior closely matched observations collected by Webb, providing robust independent validation of the proposed framework.
“Our calculations suggest that magnetic fields assist in channeling cold gas to feed the universe’s largest black holes, and observing this in Webb’s images was unexpected,” remarked Dr. Mark Voight from Michigan State University.
Julie Hlavacek-Lalonde et al. 2026. JWST reveals how black holes are fed: kiloparsec-scale multiphase filaments sustain a subkiloparsec perinuclear disk. APJL in press. arXiv: 2606.06620
Revolutionary 3D Printed Diving Suit for Cyborg Cockroaches
Researchers from Singapore’s Nanyang Technological University have pioneered a groundbreaking 3D printed flexible diving suit specifically designed for cockroaches, enabling them to act as backpack-wearing cyborgs.
This innovative suit empowers cyborg cockroaches to engage in critical underwater search and rescue operations and pipeline inspections. Already utilized on land, Madagascar’s hissing cockroaches are adept at navigating challenging environments and confined spaces, enhanced by electronic components like cameras to relay their findings.
For over a decade, scientists have been at the forefront of remote control insect technology. The advantage of cyborg insects lies in their reliance on their own muscular power, requiring significantly less computational resources compared to traditional robots.
The newly developed diving suit allows cockroaches to adeptly maneuver in aquatic settings. As they dive, chemical generators within their flexible exoskeletons produce oxygen that circulates through their respiration tubes.
In experiments, these cyborg cockroaches have demonstrated the ability to swim and sustain breathing for up to three hours underwater.
According to the researchers, “By equipping a terrestrial species of cockroach with this diving suit, we enabled the cockroach to survive and operate in an oxygen-deficient environment.” This innovation effectively transforms the insect into an amphibious cyborg robot capable of thriving both on land and in water. Read more here.
To engineer the oxygen supply, scientists utilized a sponge coated with manganese dioxide, a compound that efficiently decomposes to generate oxygen upon contact with hydrogen peroxide.
The released oxygen is channeled through four silicone tubes connected to the cockroach’s spiracles, allowing enhanced respiration underwater.
Utilizing near-ultraviolet spectroscopy from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope’s Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), astronomers have uncovered four white dwarf stars orbiting a nearby red dwarf star. These fascinating binary systems are located within 20 parsecs (65 light years) of the Sun, with one of the white dwarfs ranking as the ninth closest to our solar system.
An artist’s impression of a red dwarf and white dwarf binary companion peeking out from behind. Image credit: Mark A. Garlick / University of Warwick.
Astronomers have dedicated decades to studying star neighborhoods, yet white dwarfs remain notoriously elusive.
The newly identified systems—G 203-47, GJ 207.1, LHS 1817, and Wolf 1130—exhibit significant radial wobbles, indicating they are orbited by a massive companion.
Mairi O’Brien, an astronomer at the University of Warwick, stated, “Isolated white dwarfs are typically easy to spot nearby, but these four stars were obscured by their red dwarf companions, which overwhelmed their light.”
“This discovery emphasizes that even within our local universe, hidden surprises await those who investigate at the right wavelengths.”
Astronomers leveraged Hubble/STIS data to achieve comprehensive insights from these four systems.
While white dwarfs are generally prominent in ultraviolet observations, red dwarfs’ intense flares can mimic white dwarf signals, complicating the search.
The team implemented a custom calibration technique to confirm the presence of the four white dwarfs formally.
Among these, G 203-47 stands out as particularly enigmatic. Despite being just 25 light-years away, it took 27 years from initial radial wobble observations to identify its companion white dwarf. This system is now officially recognized as the ninth closest white dwarf to the Sun.
G 203-47 is unique; typical red dwarfs rotate every 100 days, whereas white dwarfs in this system orbit every 14.9 days.
Normally, gravitational tidal forces cause body synchronization, ensuring that the same faces always meet, akin to the Moon and Earth. However, the red dwarf’s slow rotation precludes this.
“Interestingly, if G 203-47 formed like similar star systems, its slow rotation is unexpected,” said Dr. David Wilson, an astronomer at the University of Colorado Boulder.
“This suggests that these binary systems have vastly different evolutionary paths.”
“Some underwent violent interactions early in their existence, while others, like G 203-47, had gentler encounters, creating an unusual configuration.”
These four new white dwarfs have enabled researchers to refine their census of white dwarf populations within 65 light-years.
Significantly, population models had predicted the existence of around four to five closely orbiting white and red dwarf pairs, and the scientists discovered exactly four, aligning with theoretical projections.
Professor Pier Emmanuel Tremblay from the University of Warwick noted, “About 30% of red dwarfs within 20 parsecs have been systematically studied for hidden white dwarf companions.”
“We hypothesize that there could be nine to ten additional binary systems in our local stellar vicinity waiting to be discovered.”
“With more focused observations of red dwarfs, we are likely to uncover more intriguing findings.” The team’s paper is published today in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Mairi W. O’Brien and others. 2026. Direct detection of white dwarfs in four WD+dM post-common envelope binaries within 20. MNRAS 550 (2): stag1195; doi: 10.1093/mnras/stag1195
For decades, students have been misled into believing that the ability to perform the seemingly arbitrary party trick of tongue rolling is determined by a single gene.
This misconception originated from geneticist Alfred Sturtevant’s studies in the 1940s and has persisted in biology classes for many years.
However, with the rise of the Internet, the truth has come to light.
In fact, Sturtevant’s theory was debunked as early as the 1950s through research on monozygotic twins. Recent studies suggest that anyone can learn to roll their tongue with dedicated practice.
The underlying issue may simply be that most individuals don’t bother to give it a try.
This article (by Ruby Pearce of York) addresses the question: “Is tongue rolling actually genetic?”
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Why Do Insects Fly Into the Light? This common phenomenon has intrigued many, leading to various explanations ranging from navigation using the moon to instinctively flying towards light sources to evade potential danger.
Nocturnal insects, like moths, have developed a unique ability to orient themselves by aligning their backs towards the moon, the brightest celestial body in the night sky. However, with the invention of streetlights, these creatures have not adapted their behaviors, leading to their tendency to spiral around artificial lights.
This behavior often results in dramatic banking maneuvers, causing many moths to stall or collide. Imagine a moth as an old-school fighter taking one risky stunt too far!
This article addresses the question, “Why do insects fly into the light?” as answered by Muhammad Khan.
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Uruguayan paleontologists have discovered a new species of eorosaur, a titanosaur, from two well-preserved coccyx bones found near the Uruguay River in the 1980s.
Mesetasaurus protector roamed what is now Uruguay between 86 million and 72 million years ago during the late Cretaceous period.
This new species is part of a group of sauropod dinosaurs known as titanosaurs. The Aeolosaurini lineage thrived across South America during the Cretaceous period’s final stage.
“Titanosaurs were the most diverse and abundant sauropod clade of the Late Cretaceous, with numerous genera identified, particularly in South America,” commented Dr. Matias Soto Nuñez from the University of Lepsidade de la Repubblica and collaborators.
“They existed by the Valanginian (137-132 million years ago), achieved enormous sizes in the Albian-Cenomanian (113-94 million years ago), and uniquely survived until the end of the Cretaceous (67 million years ago).”
“Multiple lineages, including Aeolosaurini, flourished in South America, encompassing Andesauridae, Diamantinasauridae, Saltasauridae, Rogoncosauridae, and Rhynchosauridae,” added the researcher.
“Among these, the latter clade represents a distinctive component of the latest Cretaceous fauna in South America.”
“The unique morphology of the caudal vertebrae allows for easy identification, making them viable indicators for biostratigraphy.”
The two caudal vertebrae of Mesetasaurus protector were collected in the 1980s from the Meseta de Artigas site in the Guichon Formation, located in Paysandu Department, northern Uruguay.
The specimen was found embedded in a reddish sandstone outcrop, indicating it belonged to a single individual.
“This specimen, cataloged as FC-DPV 3740A and FC-DPV 3740B, represents one of the best-preserved sauropod vertebrae discovered in Uruguay,” stated the paleontologists.
To position Mesetasaurus protector within the dinosaur family tree, researchers utilized a comprehensive phylogenetic dataset, comparing it with numerous other titanosaurs.
Their findings place this dinosaur deep within the Aeolosaurini family, alongside its relatives Aeolosaurus lionegrinus and Ardatitan Maximus from Argentina and Brazil.
This discovery suggests several lineages of giant herbivorous dinosaurs thrived in present-day Uruguay during the Late Cretaceous, rather than a single isolated population.
“Mesetasaurus protector is the second sauropod from Uruguay, belonging to a distinct lineage of titanosaurs, unlike the saltasauroids. The first is Uderartitan Celeste,” the researchers noted.
This is also the second record of an aeolosaurid in Uruguay, in addition to the latest Cretaceous Asensio Formation, featuring caudal vertebrae of Aeolosaurus.
A research paper detailing the discovery of Mesetasaurus protector was published online on July 8, 2026, in the Ameginiana journal.
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Matias Soto Nuñez and others. A new aeolosaurid (sauropod, titanosaur) discovered from the Late Cretaceous of Uruguay. Ameginiana published online on July 8, 2026. doi: 10.5710/amgh.19.06.2026.3689
The kidneys serve as efficient filters. Blood circulates through them, where excess water, salts, and waste products are extracted. The end product is urine, which primarily consists of water.
This urine is stored in the bladder until it is ready to be expelled. In some instances, health conditions can hinder the kidneys from filtering effectively.
For instance, diabetes results in elevated blood sugar levels that are filtered into the urine, which can aid in diagnosing the disease.
Essentially, urination is the body’s mechanism for maintaining homeostasis, eliminating unnecessary substances, and providing insights into the functioning of our internal systems.
This article addresses the question posed by Hazel Owens from Canterbury: “What is pee, actually?”
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Astronomers have made a groundbreaking discovery of erythroulose, a tetracarbon sugar primarily found in raspberries and sunscreen cosmetics, in the molecular cloud G+0.693-0.027 using the Ieves 40-meter and IRAM 30-meter radio telescopes.
This composite image showcases the central region of the Milky Way and the location of molecular cloud G+0.693-0.027. Image credit: Ashley Barnes / Izaskun Jiménez-Serra / Juan García de la Concepción.
Sugars play a vital role in life, forming the backbone of DNA and RNA while also serving as metabolic fuel. However, scientists have long debated how sugars could have formed in significant quantities on early Earth.
Laboratories that simulate prebiotic conditions typically yield only minimal amounts of sugar.
The detection of ribose and glucose in samples from meteorites and the asteroid Bennu has led to speculation that some of Earth’s sugars may have extraterrestrial origins.
Prior to this finding, actual sugars had never been identified in the interstellar medium.
“Sugars are critical biomolecules that act as metabolic fuels, components of nucleic acids, and structural or energy storage polymers,” stated Izaskun Jiménez-Serra, PhD, from CSIC-INTA and colleagues.
“A key question in the study of the origin of life is how monosaccharides formed on early Earth, as experiments under prebiotic conditions have produced insufficient concentrations.”
Astronomers utilized the Ieves 40-meter and the IRAM 30-meter radio telescopes to investigate the molecular cloud G+0.693−0.027, a chemically rich region located approximately 8,200 parsecs (26,745 light-years) from Earth.
They detected 12 sets of radio emission lines corresponding to the predicted spectral fingerprint of erythroulose, with the chemical formula C4H8O4.
“Erythroulose, consisting of 14 atoms, is the largest acyclic molecule ever found in the interstellar medium and the first identified molecule containing four oxygen atoms,” the researchers noted.
This detection marks the first sugar discovery and the second chiral molecule observed in the interstellar medium.
“Its presence not only provides direct evidence that complex chiral species can form under interstellar conditions, but also elevates the level of interstellar chemical complexity, suggesting that other prebiotic and potentially chiral molecules could form and endure in the harsh conditions of the interstellar medium.”
Researchers found that erythroulose was at least eight times more abundant than tricarbon sugars like glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone, which were not detected in the same clouds, despite the survey’s sensitivity.
This discovery indicates that erythroulose might be synthesized from simpler molecules on cosmic dust grains, subsequently integrating into more complex chemical systems.
“This unexpected discovery challenges the prevailing view in astrochemistry that interstellar molecules grow by the sequential addition of carbon atoms,” Jiménez-Serra emphasized.
Dr. Carlos Briones, also from CSIC-INTA, added, “The detection of erythroulose opens new avenues for discovering other sugars in space, such as ribose, a component of RNA, and other crucial compounds for the origin of life.”
This groundbreaking finding is detailed in the following article: paper published in today’s issue of Nature Astronomy.
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I. Jimenez-Serra et al. Tetracarbon sugar detected in interstellar space. Nat Astron, published online on July 13, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02905-7
Readers of Homer’s Odyssey have long imagined Odysseus’s hometown of Ithaca as a separate island. However, two scholars suggest this conventional belief is incorrect, positing that Ithaca is actually a peninsula on the Greek island of Kefalonia.
Professor James Diggle from the University of Cambridge and Professor John Underhill of the University of Aberdeen argue that Homer never depicted Ithaca as an island.
Instead, the epic poet consistently employed Greek terminology meaning “land,” “homeland,” or “territory” to describe Ithaca, even in contexts that have historically been interpreted as indicating it was surrounded by water.
“While Homer frequently mentions Ithaca, he never designates it as an island,” states Professor Diggle.
“Rather than using the term ‘island’ (νῆσος/nisos), Homer and his characters opt for terms like ‘land’ (γαῖα/gaia), ‘homeland’ (πατρίς/patris, πατρὶςαἶα/γαῖα/patrisgaia), and ‘region’ (δῆμος/dimos). Even the word νῆσος could easily fit within the poem’s structure.”
Homer introduced the notion of Ithaca’s δῆμος, a term that recurs in his poetry, notably when Odysseus returns to his homeland after a ten-year journey.
At that moment, a sailing vessel neared the land.
Forcis Bay is located in Ithaca.
Old man of the sea: it has two capes…
“Though this translation suggests that Ithaca might be an island, Homer’s original wording indicates:Ithaca’s δῆμος is home to Forchis Bay,” implying that Ithaca is indeed part of the land the ship approaches.
The scholars claim that the larger island referred to is Kefalonia, particularly its western peninsula, Paliki, identified as the realm ruled by Odysseus as the leader of the Cephalenians.
The idea was first put forth by researcher Robert Bittlestone in his 2005 book Odysseus Unbound, asserting that Paliki aligns perfectly with Homer’s depiction of low-lying terrain adjacent to three other named islands, a description that does not apply to the contemporary mountainous island now referred to as Itaki.
The challenge was that Paliki had to function as an independent island, once separated from the rest of Kefalonia by a channel that was subsequently filled by ancient earthquakes and landslides around 1200 BC.
Professor Underhill dedicated two decades to investigating this theory through geological surveys, ultimately concluding that the waterway no longer exists.
Two reinforcing lines of evidence emerged: geological findings and linguistic analysis.
Recent excavations at Paliki, including a site named Livadi Swamp, posited as Odysseus’s port, have yielded substantial evidence that it was a significant Bronze Age locale.
“We confidently integrate geoscience, Homeric texts, and writings from Strabo to provide a coherent explanation aligning with Robert Bittlestone’s foundational concept that Paliki is indeed the location of Homer’s Ithaca,” asserted the researchers.
For more detailed insights, refer to their published paper in the online journal Antigone.
As NASA gears up for its next expedition to the Moon, it has unveiled PROMISE, a groundbreaking rover set to explore a new lunar base.
The Polar Observing, Mapping, and Field Exploration Vehicle (PROMISE) serves as the twin to the Mars rover, Patience, which successfully landed on Mars in February 2021. Since then, it has been conducting extensive research and collecting samples for NASA’s ongoing Mars missions.
PROMISE was initially built as an engineering model, allowing the mission team to troubleshoot and test procedures before applying them to the actual Mars rover.
Previously known as OPTIMISM (Operational Sustainability Twin for Integration of Mechanisms and Instruments Sent to Mars), the rover has been rebranded to align with its new lunar mission.
NAVIGATING the Moon is the next step; NASA plans to send PROMISE to the lunar south pole for detailed surface and subsurface analysis, helping to identify vital resources. Engineers are optimistic that with some modifications, the Mars rover can be adapted for lunar exploration.
Accompanying this announcement, NASA has awarded contracts to three aerospace companies to develop four lunar landers, expected to launch by the end of 2028.
In total, NASA aims to deploy 17 lunar landers over the coming years as part of its ambitious lunar base program.
This initiative is a stepping stone toward the Artemis mission, which seeks to bring humans back to the Moon, with plans for a lunar base by 2030.
This base will facilitate long-term lunar exploration and support sustainable human activities on the Moon’s surface.
Three upcoming lunar landers from private spaceflight companies Astrobotic, Intuitive Machines, and Firefly – Credit: Astrobotic/Intuitive Machines/Firefly
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In slow-motion video, the buff-tailed bumblebee (Western bumblebee) exhibits unique, context-sensitive behaviors in response to sweet and bitter tastes, mirroring mammalian reactions of pleasure and aversion. This discovery adds new insights into the ongoing debate surrounding insect consciousness.
Zhou et al. demonstrate that the buff-tailed bumblebee (Western bumblebee) exhibits orofacial responses that reflect emotional evaluations rather than mere feeding reflexes. Image credit: Ralphs Fotos.
Professor Andrew Barron from Macquarie University stated, “This groundbreaking discovery alters the scientific understanding of the inner lives of insects.”
“Facial expressions serve as a crucial window into an animal’s internal state,” he added.
“There’s always been a tension between viewing insects as sentient beings and perceiving them as mere mini-robots.”
“This study is a vital step toward confirming that bees possess an inner life.”
For this research, Professor Barron and his team studied 18 colonies of buff-tailed bumblebees.
The researchers isolated individual bees in observation tubes and trained them to find tiny droplets of 20% sugar water positioned just beyond the reach of their antennae.
The bees quickly adapted, extending their mouthparts (proboscis) to access the droplets.
The team recorded the movements of the bees’ facial and mouthparts after ingesting various test droplets containing different concentrations of sugar water, plain water, salt water, or the bitter compound quinine.
The results revealed distinctly different orofacial behaviors after consuming sweet liquids compared to bitter and salty liquids.
The protrusion of the glossa (tongue) after tasting sugar solutions was analogous to “lip licking,” occurring immediately following sweet consumption.
This reaction paralleled human behaviors, such as shaking one’s head in disgust or wiping the mouth, after tasting salty or bitter substances.
“Many people comfortably assert that insects can sense, learn, and make decisions, but they are even more confident in stating that insects can evaluate experiences as pleasurable or unpleasant,” noted Professor Fei Peng, a researcher at Southern Medical University.
“Our findings validate that intuition.”
“While we are still uncertain about the actual experiences of bees, we can observe behaviors that closely resemble emotions,” Professor Barron explained.
“Importantly, we now have actionable insights into their inner lives that can be further explored.”
“The implications extend beyond bees to all insects,” he added.
“There are no significant differences between the brain structures of bees and flies, suggesting that ethical considerations in how we treat insects need to be revisited.”
“By human standards, the honey bee’s brain is small—less than a milligram—but our evidence indicates that this impressive brain can support a form of inner life in bees.”
“This study represents a significant step in understanding how brain activity correlates with subjective experience.”
“We hope that future research will illuminate how the mental lives of bees arise from neural mechanisms, helping to bridge the gap between mind and body.”
For more details, refer to the study published on July 6th in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Zhou Yonghe et al. 2026. Bumblebee orofacial responses to taste provide evidence for emotional appraisal. PNAS 123 (28): e2529114123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2529114123
A comprehensive analysis of the Reign study in Western Australia highlights how two vegetable groups—legumes and cruciferous vegetables—could significantly protect young individuals from early cardiometabolic risks. Interestingly, the benefits of these vegetables vary notably between men and women.
Image Credit: Silvia Rita – Research indicates that higher intakes of legumes and cruciferous vegetables correlate with a lower risk of cardiometabolic issues in young adults, showcasing significant gender disparities.
Research underscores that not all vegetables equally contribute to cardiometabolic health.
Specific vegetable groups exhibit markedly stronger connections to enhanced cardiometabolic health outcomes among adults.
However, there is a lack of studies focusing on these relationships in younger populations.
“What you eat now is crucial, and incorporating these vegetables into your daily diet can significantly impact your longevity and life quality,” states Dr. Lauren Breckenhorst from Edith Cowan University.
In this study, Dr. Breckenhorst and colleagues evaluated data from 638 participants in the Longitudinal Reign Study, which has tracked an Australian cohort from prenatal stages.
At age 22, participants filled out a detailed dietary questionnaire and underwent lab tests to check blood pressure, waist circumference, cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood sugar levels. These metrics serve as indicators of metabolic syndrome risk, a cluster of conditions that heighten the likelihood of heart disease and diabetes.
Approximately 20% of participants fell into the high-risk category, indicating the presence of two or more concerning health markers.
According to Dr. Therese O’Sullivan, also from Edith Cowan University, “These risk factors are appearing earlier than anticipated by many.”
Analysis of vegetable intake by type (including allium, cruciferous, green and yellow vegetables, legumes, etc.) revealed distinct patterns linked to gender.
Men in the low-risk category consumed significantly more legumes—like peas, beans, and lentils—compared to their high-risk counterparts.
After adjusting for factors such as income, education, smoking, alcohol consumption, and other dietary habits, men who increased their legume intake by one additional serving (approximately 75 grams) daily were about 72% less likely to be categorized as high-risk.
For women, cruciferous vegetables including broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts demonstrated the strongest association with lower cardiometabolic risk.
Women with low cardiometabolic risk consumed more of these vegetables, and each extra serving daily reduced their odds of being at high risk by approximately 85% after adjustments.
While women in the low-risk group also consumed more green and yellow vegetables, this relationship didn’t remain significant after considering other variables.
“It’s not just about increasing vegetable consumption indiscriminately,” explains Dr. Neil McNamara, also from Edith Cowan University.
“The gender-specific trends are evident, with men benefiting more from beans and women from broccoli.”
Dr. O’Sullivan added, “Our findings suggest that men and women might metabolize certain nutrients and plant compounds differently.”
For instance, natural compounds in legumes may have a more pronounced impact on testosterone levels, while those in cruciferous vegetables may influence female hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
These findings will be published in the August 2026 issue of the journal Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Disease.
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Neil McNamara et al. 2026. Higher intake of legumes and cruciferous vegetables is associated with lower cardiometabolic risk in young adults: a cross-sectional study. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Disease 36 (8): 104709; doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2026.104709
Nitrogen plays a crucial role in forming proteins, amino acids, and DNA, making it essential for cellular function and reproduction. Although nitrogen is prevalent in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, plants and animals cannot directly utilize it. Instead, we depend on bioavailable forms like: ammonia and nitrate .
Specialized microorganisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia through a process known as biological nitrogen fixation . This transformation is facilitated by nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria through a unique protein complex called the nitrogenase complex , which is activated by a specific group of genes known as the nif gene .
Leguminous plants such as peanuts, peas, and beans host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root zones, known as the rhizosphere . This forms a symbiotic relationship , where legumes receive essential nitrogen while providing organic acids for energy to the bacteria, thus supplying most of the bioavailable nitrogen necessary for life on Earth.
Bacteria attached to plant roots “feed” nitrogen to the plant through the soil and receive organic acids for energy from the photosynthetic plant. Source: Wikimedia Commons
An intriguing aspect of the nitrogen cycle lies in the impact of soil viruses on nitrogen transformations. Nitrogen cycle refers to the processes by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms. Viruses, which are microscopic entities made up of genetic material and proteins, cannot replicate independently and require a host cell for reproduction. Their classification teeters between living and nonliving entities.
To reproduce, a virus locates and infects a host cell, introducing its genetic material, which commandeers the host’s cellular machinery to produce new virus particles. During this process, viruses can incorporate genetic material from their host cells, resulting in a transfer of auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs). This means that viruses have a mobile genetic potential that can influence ecological fitness.
Researchers from China, Spain, and the Czech Republic have concluded that viruses associated with legume roots can enhance local soil nitrogen fixation by expressing niff AMGs or transferring niff genes to nearby bacteria. Their study, which analyzed approximately 8.6 million viral genomes from diverse locations, revealed that only 0.003% of these viruses carried nitrogen-fixing genes while clustering with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
The team identified three predominant virus families associated with nitrogen-fixing genes: Cyanoviridae, Nudiviridae, and Bronfenbrennerviridae. Notably, Cyanoviridae viruses contain the niff gene, which was validated as a functional genetic element using a computational tool called DRAM-v.
Soil samples taken from a cowpea field in Nanjing, China, were analyzed for nitrogen-fixing genes to ascertain whether cowpea roots had an influence on virus populations. The study compared soil from the cowpea’s rhizosphere with non-crop soil. Using a method known as metatranscriptomics , the researchers identified active viral and bacterial RNA, which indicated that viral niff genes were expressed more vigorously in the cowpea rhizosphere than in soil from non-cropped areas. Among these, approximately 96% of the niff gene expression was attributed to bacteria, while viruses accounted for about 4%.
Subsequently, the researchers examined whether rhizosphere viruses influenced nitrogen fixation. They established small sealed containers with sterile soil supplemented with either bacteria alone or a combination of bacteria and viruses from the cowpea rhizosphere. The nitrogen content in soil containing viruses was significantly higher (36 mg/kg) compared to that without viruses (17 mg/kg).
Finally, each container’s atmosphere was adjusted to feature different forms of nitrogen gas, with lighter nitrogen-14 and heavier nitrogen-15 isotopes. By exposing nitrogen fixers to nitrogen-15, researchers could identify which organisms contributed to nitrogen fixation through a process known as nitrogen-15 stable isotope exploration . Over time, nitrogen fixers incorporate heavier nitrogen-15 into their biomass, allowing for tracking and analysis of nitrogen-fixation activity.
After cultivating the bacteria and viruses in nitrogen-15 for 35 days, stable isotope probes facilitated the isolation of nitrogen fixers, detecting the virus with niff in the heavier biomass, which confirmed that rhizosphere viruses are capable of fixing nitrogen.
The researchers believe that rhizosphere viruses and viruses harboring niff AMGs could enhance nitrogen fixation in cowpea soil. Their findings indicate that while nitrogen-fixing viruses are rare, they might significantly influence soil nitrogen cycling and recommend further research to elucidate the role of these viruses in nitrogen fixation through controlled infection experiments.
Recent research reveals that interbreeding was not the primary cause of Neanderthal extinction in Western Europe. For detailed insights, check out the study published in Nature.
Previously, it was believed that Neanderthals faced extinction due to genetic deterioration from interbreeding among closely related groups. However, new findings indicate that other early interbreeding groups exhibited low genetic diversity, akin to some of today’s endangered species, but this did not apply universally.
The researchers analyzed DNA from 27 individuals who lived in the Meuse Basin, a region spanning Belgium and France, between 40,000 and 49,000 years ago—prior to the total extinction of Neanderthals.
The study revealed minimal interbreeding among distant relatives, showing little genetic exchange even down to the third degree (such as cousins sharing about 12.5% of their DNA).
According to the authors, “This population in Belgium and France does not appear likely to face extinction, despite our knowledge that they will eventually become extinct,” stated Dr. Benjamin Peter, a computational geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany.
Scientists analyzed DNA from a Neanderthal man who lived up to 49,000 years ago – Credit: Getty
Professor Omer Gokmen, an expert in evolutionary anthropology at the University at Buffalo, who was not involved in the study, stated in BBC Science Focus: “Neanderthal data is so lacking that the new genome is a revelation.”
“This contradicts the previously held belief that Neanderthals were a terminally frail population due to inbreeding-induced demographic collapse. It raises the question of why their population declined and was eventually absorbed by modern humans.”
Neanderthals thrived in Europe and the Middle East for hundreds of thousands of years, withstanding significant climatic changes and the arrival of modern humans before their extinction about 40,000 years ago.
Factors such as climate change, competition for resources, and interbreeding with modern humans have all been proposed as contributing elements to their decline.
Gokmen noted that the new findings suggest that the fate of Neanderthal populations may have varied by region, implying multiple contributing factors rather than a single cause.
Professor Chris Stringer, an emeritus professor at University College London and research scientist at the Natural History Museum, stated that the study indicates “other factors need to be considered” beyond interbreeding in their extinction.
He added, “This unidirectional pattern of gene flow into modern human populations supports my hypothesis that late Neanderthals were losing reproductive individuals due to genetic influences from Homo sapiens, which may have contributed to their eventual demise.”
This suggests that fertile Neanderthals may have gradually integrated into Homo sapiens populations through interbreeding, while the Neanderthal demographic could not sustain these losses.
Today, lepidosaurs, which include lizards, snakes, and the New Zealand tuatara, stand as some of the most diverse vertebrates on Earth. However, their early evolutionary history remains a mystery. A newly discovered jaw fossil in southern Brazil is aiding paleontologists in unraveling the history of human anatomy and evolution. This fossil belongs to Karguninia Enigmatica, a small lepidosaur relative that roamed the Earth during the late Triassic period alongside some of the earliest dinosaurs.
Late Triassic landscape of southern Brazil, featuring Karguninia Enigmatica and sauropod dinosaurs Macrocollum itaquii. Image credit: Marcio L. Castro.
Living approximately 225 million years ago during the early Norian period of the late Triassic, Karguninia Enigmatica inhabited a world shared with early dinosaurs, mammal relatives, primitive crocodilians, and early tuatara relatives.
Discovered in 2010, Karguninia Enigmatica was initially identified from a single lower jaw fragment. It belongs to a lineage called Lepidosauromorpha, which eventually led to modern lepidosaurids.
However, paleontologists have long debated where exactly Karguninia Enigmatica fits into the lepidosaur family tree.
“Lepidosauria is now richly diverse, represented by squamates and rhinocephalans,” noted Dr. Lissy Vitoria Soares Damke from the Federal University of Santa Maria and colleagues. “Its origins trace back to the end of the Permian, when the stem lineages Lepidosauromorpha and Arcosauromorpha diverged.”
“Several species within the lepidosauromorph stem lineage have uncertain phylogenetic placements,” they added. “Karguninia Enigmatica is a rare taxon from Brazilian strata, known from a single specimen, specifically a fragmentary left dentary tooth.”
Initially interpreted as a non-rhinocephalic lepidosaur based on its teeth, approximately 0.4-0.5 mm wide, researchers noted similar dental features to Calgunia and Ikarosaurus, a cueneosaur from the Late Triassic of the United States. However, they contended that this evidence alone doesn’t sufficiently categorize this taxon within Ikarosaurus or its close relatives.
A new specimen of Karguninia Enigmatica was uncovered at the Linha San Luis site in Facinal do Soturno, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This fossil, though incomplete, includes a left lower jaw fragment less than 9 mm long with 12 preserved teeth, suggesting the animal may have had up to 18 teeth.
Paleontologists employed micro-CT scans to analyze the internal structures of the specimen, allowing them to trace the trigeminal nerve responsible for facial and jaw sensation and motor control. It was found that the neural branching patterns of Karguninia Enigmatica closely resemble those of modern lepidosaurs.
Researchers concluded that Karguninia Enigmatica likely perceived its environment similarly to its living relatives concerning trigeminal sensory input.
Computational phylogenetic analysis consistently positioned Karguninia Enigmatica as a non-lepidosaur lepidosaur, reinforcing the idea that it is an early branch that diverged before true lepidosaurs emerged.
“This is the first time its phylogenetic position has been computationally investigated, confirming previous assumptions,” the authors stated.
The findings will be published in an upcoming issue of Anatomical Records.
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Lissie Vitoria Soares Damke et al. New fossil reveals unusual lepidosaur tooth anatomy of Karguninia Enigmatica from the late Triassic period in southern Brazil. Anatomical Records published online on July 4, 2026. doi: 10.1002/ar.70268
How Much Does Genetics Influence Our Lifespan? Answer: More than half, according to research published in 2026. That’s a significant 55%, indicating a strong genetic component to longevity.
Previous studies have offered a range of estimates, but if this finding holds true, it suggests that the heritability of human lifespan is considerably higher than earlier believed.
The key difference in this study conducted by researchers at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel is their control over external factors, such as accidents, infections, and living conditions, which can lead to premature death.
They suggest these external elements may be “pushing down” previous estimates of genetic contributions, making them seem less significant than they actually are.
This important discovery could have implications for longevity researchers and individuals seeking to maximize their time on Earth.
In the field of longevity, it is believed there are potentially hundreds, if not thousands, of genes affecting lifespan. Surprisingly, very few of these have been confirmed by robust, replicated studies.
For instance, the APOE gene is known to impact cardiovascular health and the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.
Another significant gene, FOXO3, plays vital roles in energy metabolism, cellular health, immunity, and inflammation. Variants of this gene are frequently found in individuals who live to age 95 or beyond.
Emerging hypotheses in the genetics of longevity suggest that genes like FOXO3 may be among the most influential.
While these are not strictly “longevity” genes, they are integral to the fundamental systems and pathways that contribute to long-term health.
The true role of genetics in determining lifespan remains unclear – Image credit: Getty Images
Of course, while genetics are crucial, lifespan isn’t solely determined by our DNA; lifestyle choices also significantly impact longevity.
This is evident from a 2023 study in the UK, which found that switching to a healthier diet could extend a person’s lifespan by up to 10 years.
Conversely, smoking can reduce lifespan by approximately 10 years; a 2024 study estimates that each cigarette could cost 20 minutes of life.
Common factors influencing longevity include physical activity, sleep quality, socioeconomic status, mental health, stress management, and even social connections.
Another crucial area of exploration is epigenetics, which examines how lifestyle and environmental factors affect gene expression.
Recent groundbreaking research in 2023 demonstrated that manipulating the epigenome in mice could influence aging, raising intriguing questions about the possibility of reversing aging markers in humans.
It’s clear why there is substantial interest in longevity research among billionaires and health enthusiasts alike.
This article, by Morgan Cook, explores the question, “How much of our longevity is due to good genetics?”
If you have questions, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
Spriggina flounder is an ancient marine species that thrived during the Ediacaran period, around 550 million years ago. This organism stands as one of the earliest bilaterally symmetrical animals documented on Earth. Recent studies analyzing over 100 newly discovered fossils in South Australia indicate that left-right behavioral preferences appeared much earlier in evolutionary history than previously believed.
Fossil of Spriggina flounder from South Australia. White arrows indicate raised regions, and white triangles show bending angles of adjacent modules. Scale bar – 10 cm. Image credit: Evans et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-53857-x.
The Ediacaran period (635 to 538 million years ago) represents a pivotal era in Earth’s evolutionary history.
During this transformative time, life transitioned from microscopic organisms to multicellular forms visible to the naked eye, exhibiting complex behaviors, including locomotion.
The Flinders Ranges in South Australia preserve an exceptional fossil record from this era, particularly at the Nilpena-Ediacaran National Park, where layers of Ediacaran communities were buried during storms, providing a glimpse into the ancient ocean floor.
Among the fossils uncovered is Spriggina flounder, initially described in 1958 based on three specimens. This species is significant as one of the earliest known entities to display bilateral symmetry—a body structure featuring distinct left, right, top, and bottom sides.
This fundamental design is shared by humans and most contemporary animals.
As Dr. Scott Evans, a paleontologist from the American Museum of Natural History and Florida State University, notes, “Discussions about being right-handed or left-handed usually relate to tasks like writing or kicking a ball. Our research indicates that even ancient animals, like those from over 500 million years ago, may have exhibited their own version of handedness.”
To explore lateral preferences in Spriggina flounder, researchers analyzed the shapes of over 100 well-preserved fossils from the Nilpena Fossil Bed and collections at the South Australian Museum in Adelaide.
They made a groundbreaking observation: approximately twice as many fossils exhibited leftward bends compared to those bent right.
These fossils retain a mirror image of the original organisms, suggesting that the leftward bends indicate creatures that bent right while alive.
This consistency implies that Spriggina flounder tended to favor a rightward orientation, marking it as the oldest known animal to exhibit “handedness.”
Dr. Mary Droser, a paleontologist at the University of California, Riverside, affirms, “This finding highlights that several traits we consider modern have deep evolutionary roots.”
The insights gained also hint at how Spriggina flounder interacted with its environment.
“Living creatures with this type of handedness—like insects, octopuses, birds, and mammals—possess advanced sensory abilities,” Dr. Evans adds. “This suggests that the nervous system of Spriggina flounder was relatively intricate and resembled that of modern animals.”
Economies in countries with a high agriculture workforce will be severely impacted.
Imago/Alamy
Research indicates that heat and drought driven by global warming are currently costing corn, wheat, and soybean yields approximately $20 billion annually. This figure could potentially escalate to over $160 billion by 2100 unless significant emissions reductions are achieved.
Large agricultural countries like the United States will experience the greatest economic losses, but the most pronounced effects will be felt in low-income nations. Countries with a significant portion of the population in agriculture can expect profound impacts, warns Fan Yilin from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Austria. “The repercussions are even more acute in the least developed countries in Africa,” she cautions, with possible consequences including social unrest and increased migration.
Forecasting such economic impacts involves considerable uncertainty as it largely depends on how farmers will adapt to ongoing climate changes, whether through crop diversification or enhanced irrigation methods. The intention of this study is to raise awareness and promote adaptability, aiming to ensure that these predictions are overly cautious. As Kai Kornhuber at IIASA notes, “Our goal as climate scientists is to advocate for timely action; ideally, we want our predictions to appear overly pessimistic.”
The research team began by gathering data on the specific yields of maize, wheat, and soybeans from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). They assessed drought conditions using a standard methodology that analyses historical climate data along with estimating soil moisture levels based on rainfall and evaporation.
By comparing historical incidents of extreme heat and drought to agricultural yields from 1974 to 2004, the team estimated the impact of these factors on yields. Statistical correlations were subsequently used to assess crop losses from 2007 to 2019, revealing that extreme heat and drought have reduced yields by 3.5% in comparison to the 1974-2004 baseline. “While a 3% reduction may seem minor, it has a significant impact,” Kornhuber noted, warning that “the global food market is at risk of triggering severe regional crises.”
The team then calculated economic losses based on FAO data outlining farmers’ production costs at that time. They utilized the same approach to project future losses across several different emissions scenarios, accounting for some expected adaptation efforts.
In a high-emissions scenario (SSP3-7.0), global agricultural yields are projected to decline by nearly 35% by 2100, resulting in annual losses exceeding $161 billion. “Production losses driven by heat and drought are estimated at approximately 855 million tonnes per year,” reports Fung, who shared his findings at the European Geosciences Union conference in Vienna in May. “This equates to the annual consumption of around 2 billion individuals.”
However, this analysis may not fully capture the extent of climate change’s impact, particularly as it only considers three crops and excludes damage from flooding, storms, and rainfall. Crop shortages could further result in substantial price hikes, as has been observed with coffee and cocoa prices.
Jonas Jagermeyer of Columbia University warns that the study’s reliance on statistical relationships may inaccurately overestimate impacts by 2100. “Statistical yield models are effective for current and near-past events but lose reliability when applied to significantly different future conditions,” he explains. He emphasizes that computer models predicting the effects of rising CO2 and temperatures on plants offer valuable insights into future agricultural scenarios.
Karine Chenu, a professor at the University of Queensland in Australia, echoes this sentiment. “While the model has limitations, it provides a solid basis for extrapolating future trends.” However, her research team recently published a study revealing that common wheat models exhibit significant inaccuracies, particularly regarding the simultaneous impacts of heatwaves and drought.
Despite the criticisms, Kornhuber stands by the team’s statistical methodology. “While the model serves as a valuable tool, some validation studies suggest reduced sensitivity to extreme conditions,” he asserts. “In our research, the focus was primarily on extreme phenomena, leading us to directly establish these correlations through statistical means.”
The United Nations’ comprehensive list of all space objects, established during the Cold War to prevent paranoia and conflict, has been offline for months due to unexplained IT issues.
“This situation is unacceptable,” states Jonathan McDowell from Durham University, UK. “This is particularly concerning given the escalating tensions in space and reciprocal accusations of misconduct among space-faring nations.”
The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) manages the UN Commission on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), enabling 104 countries—many with strained relations—to discuss vital technical and safety issues related to space endeavors.
UNOOSA’s responsibility includes maintaining a transparent public record of all satellite launches globally. This concept was first raised at the UN in 1961 and later expanded by the 1974 Treaty on the Registration of Objects Launched into Space to foster openness during the space race, wherein nations created surveillance and military spacecraft. Consequently, countries are mandated to report the name, launch date and location, orbital details, and intended functions of each object.
However, the online registry of launched objects has been inaccessible for several months, citing “mandatory changes to the UNOOSA website’s IT infrastructure.” UNOOSA has not responded to inquiries regarding the specific issues or an estimated resolution timeline.
According to McDowell, the database has been down for at least a few months. The last website update occurred on February 23rd.
“This transparency regime has successfully operated for nearly 50 years, but it loses its significance when the records are inaccessible,” says McDowell. “Currently, we lack knowledge about Russian and US satellites, including their designations. This obscurity poses a serious challenge.”
While previously listed secret military and reconnaissance satellites bore vague descriptions, such as “conducting Department of Defense functions,” their mere listing promoted some degree of transparency.
“Having an official reference is crucial,” he asserts. “It allows for accountability; if America claims Russia did something, at least the information is documented. This system has served us well, and we need to restore it,” McDowell emphasizes.
Ram Jakhu, a researcher at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, notes that this outage poses risks to international peace and security, impeding the effective implementation of the UN Convention on Outer Space—especially in cases of accidents caused by space debris.
This database, though simple, highlights that sharing information publicly can lead to a more predictable and secure international environment, as indicated by Thomas Cheney from Northumbria University, UK.
“The international space laws are quite permissive, allowing for a wide range of activities,” he states. “Transparency is key; nations should willingly disclose their actions. This is fundamentally a symbolic gesture,” Cheney adds.
He further asserts that this issue reflects a broader challenge associated with the UN’s financial crisis, exacerbated by the withdrawal of US funding. This financial strain also impacted UNOOSA, notably leading to the COPUOS conference in Vienna being shortened this year by two days to cut costs, which may jeopardize international relations.
“The Chinese-American dialogues held in Vienna are significant precisely because they occur under the auspices of the UN. If they were more formalized discussions between countries, the complexity and scale would be greatly increased,” he explains.
Astronomers have utilized the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) and the 500-meter Spherical Radio Telescope (FAST) to produce the most detailed radio map of neutral hydrogen surrounding the Orion Nebula. This groundbreaking research reveals vast expanding shells, enigmatic cavities, and elongated filaments, indicating that the renowned stellar nursery was shaped by multiple generations of massive stars rather than a single expanding bubble.
The detailed Orion Nebula shell depicted in HI radiation from VLA and FAST observations (shown in red), Hα radiation from the European Southern Observatory’s Digitized Sky Survey (shown in green), and 3.4 μm radiation captured by the WISE satellite (shown in blue). Image credit: Juan D. Soler, University of Vienna / NRAO / VLA / NASA / WISE.
The Orion Nebula, located 1,350 light-years away in the constellation Orion, is a diffuse nebula known for its astronomical significance.
Also referred to as NGC 1976, Messier 42, M42, LBN 974, and Sharpless 281, the Nebula spans approximately 24 light-years in length.
Visible to the naked eye, it appears as a hazy spot near the star Theta Orionis, below Orion’s belt.
At an age of just 2 million years, the Orion Nebula serves as an exceptional laboratory for investigating young and forming stars.
This cosmic region offers insights into the conditions surrounding the birth of the Sun, which occurred 4.6 billion years ago.
“Hydrogen, being the most abundant element in the universe, emits weak radio waves at a wavelength of 21 centimeters when in its neutral atomic form, enabling astronomers to track unseen gas between stars,” explained Dr. Juan Diego Soler from the University of Vienna and his team.
To achieve such detailed imaging, astronomers integrated data from the VLA and FAST observatories.
“Earlier studies indicated that the shell enveloping Orion possesses approximately 1,000 solar masses,” the researchers noted.
“New observations reveal that its mass is almost 10 times lower.”
The updated radio map also reveals a secondary expanding cavity within the main shell and a narrow “protrusion” of atomic gas extending about four light-years from the bubble.
These findings suggest that the formation of the Orion Nebula resulted from several instances of stellar feedback rather than one expansive event.
“These complexities challenge our existing understanding of star formation,” stated Dr. Daniel Seifried, an astronomer at the University of Cologne.
“Such unexpected observations are pivotal for modern astrophysical simulations that explore the evolution of gas and stars in the Milky Way.”
“These fascinating images question the theoretical models and numerical simulations we depend on to explain how massive stars interact with their environments,” Dr. Claire Murray from the Space Telescope Science Institute remarked.
“Orion is merely the beginning,” Dr. Soler emphasized.
“Our innovative method will enable future interferometers to unveil the hidden structures and dynamics of the interstellar medium, even in regions previously thought to be well understood.”
For further details, refer to the results published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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JD Soler et al. 2026. Neutral Atomic Hydrogen Near the Sun (NeAtHood) Project. I. Ghost in the Shell: Neutral atomic hydrogen in the expanded Orion Nebula. A&A 711, A85; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202659272
Pierre de Fermat was a 17th-century mathematician.
LeBrecht Music & Art, YAY Media AS/Alamy
In a bustling central London hotel lobby, tourists gear up for a day of sightseeing under sweltering heat. Meanwhile, hotel staff reset the dining area post-breakfast as scholars convene in a windowless conference room, questioning humanity’s role in mathematics as Artificial Intelligence (AI) achieves unprecedented theorem-proving capabilities.
This gathering is infused with a mix of confusion over recent advancements in computer intelligence, excitement about untapped possibilities, and a tinge of anxiety for the future. Scholars are eager to delve into Fermat’s Last Theorem, utilizing state-of-the-art AI models for the task.
Fermat’s Last Theorem, a puzzle for mathematicians over centuries, was conclusively proved by Andrew Wiles in 1993. The theorem declares that there are no integer solutions for a, b, and c in the equation aⁿ + bⁿ = cⁿ for any integer n greater than 2. While simple to articulate, its proof is notoriously complex.
Currently, Kevin Buzzard, a professor at Imperial College London, leads an ambitious five-year initiative to convert Wiles’ extensive proof into a machine-readable format using a coding language called “Lean.” This conversion aims to verify correctness and serve as a foundation for ongoing research.
Formalizing mathematical theorems transforms them from traditional pen-and-paper contexts, organizing these ideas for computational analysis and systematically examining their logic to unveil any inaccuracies. Mathlib, a central repository, houses over two million lines of formalized mathematics.
This workshop unites mathematicians, computer scientists, and AI specialists eager to contribute to Buzzard’s project, aiming to incorporate Fermat’s Last Theorem into Mathlib by leveraging advanced AI tools for efficiency.
The atmosphere is vibrant as participants crowd around laptops featuring diverse interfaces for leading AI models. While an alternative quiet room awaits for those seeking solitude, it remains unoccupied.
Tasks are dissected and tackled collaboratively, with human prompts guiding the AI. Remarkably, the project’s codebase surged from 20,000 to 40,000 lines on the first day alone, showcasing the rapid integration of AI capabilities.
The Fermat formalization project, initiated in 2024, began with slow progress as Buzzard meticulously coded. However, since December, the pace has accelerated significantly with the advancements in AI’s mathematical prowess. A noteworthy incident in May saw a machine solve an 80-year-old problem, redefining expectations in the field. Consequently, Buzzard felt compelled to reassess the project’s aspirations.
“I was always secretly confident we would succeed. But with AI’s rapid advancements, my instinct is prompting me to reconsider our approach,” Buzzard reflects.
Wiles’ intricate proof not only spans around 100 pages but is also grounded in approximately 2,000 pages of earlier mathematics from the mid-20th century. Initially, Buzzard aimed to formalize only Wiles’ pivotal paper, trusting the underlying mathematics as accurate.
However, Buzzard now envisions a comprehensive approach, tackling the entire theorem’s structure. Despite his confidence in achieving the project’s objectives within five years, the evolving landscape of AI and workshop outcomes will dictate future progress.
Among the researchers is Han Lu Su, who self-taught Lean through ChatGPT just six months prior. Now, she is deeply involved in this cutting-edge domain.
Many of her colleagues still lean on traditional methods, making the AI innovations showcased here a glimpse into the discipline’s potential future. “The industrialization of intellectual processes is unfolding,” Su asserts. “AI tools perform so efficiently that it prompts us to consider our role further,” she adds, referencing how the AI model Claude simplifies complex tasks.
The event features various tools, from open-source options to the latest elite models from American startups. Although participants refrain from disclosing specific token expenditures—costs associated with AI access—most agree they likely exceed thousands of pounds daily. “I’m burning tokens like there’s no tomorrow,” Su admits.
To tackle intricate mathematical challenges, groups must prioritize quality alongside quantity. On the workshop’s first day, Su and a colleague attempted to formalize the same mathematical concept; she crafted an 800-word solution while her colleague achieved a 400-word version. Both solutions could equally substantiate the theorem, but the brevity and efficiency of concise proofs enhance AI’s capability for future processing and human comprehension.
However, AI-generated code can often become cumbersome and slow, Buzzard warns. Utilizing non-standard functions within Lean risks compilability issues with future updates.
Due to potential inefficiencies, the stewards of the Mathlib library remain cautious about integrating extensive AI-generated Lean code, even if it successfully proves theorems. Currently, the library’s code is meticulously crafted by mathematicians to ensure efficiency, clarity, and readability. The workshop’s output may deviate from those standards.
“We’re layering additional complexity on top—let’s call it ‘slop’—and now we face the question: can we build upon this foundation effectively?” Buzzard queries.
These advancements also spark philosophical and existential inquiries for mathematicians. While research tools evolve, the very nature of their work is shifting. In a more optimistic scenario, AI could redefine and expand the realms of mathematics, potentially surpassing human intuitions.
“We engage in this work because we cherish it and recognize its significance. Yet, with AI’s emergence, we must ask ourselves, what does this signify for us? If a machine proves a theorem beyond human comprehension, what have we truly achieved?” Buzzard ponders.
Such inquiries grow increasingly pressing as the mathematics becomes highly abstract, encompassing concepts like 38-dimensional spheres. “Does this abstract realm even exist if humans aren’t there to acknowledge it?” Buzzard muses.
“You don’t get Homer, Homer gets you,” reflects Adam Nicholson in The Mighty Dead: Why Homer Matters, his homage to two of the most significant ancient epic poems: the Iliad and the Odyssey. With Christopher Nolan’s upcoming film adaptation, Nicholson’s work has become essential for anyone intrigued by the broader significance of these timeless tales.
Nicholson’s exploration unfolds in three distinct sections. The first part philosophically examines what Homer—often referred to in singular terms—communicated about life’s essence and the clash between civilization and chaos. He also investigates the profound admiration that literary figures like John Keats held for Homer’s work, particularly for Endymion. The title is attributed to Alexander Pope, whose translation, while impactful, does not capture the full depth of the original.
The subsequent sections ground his exploration in tangible analysis. Nicholson scrutinizes the texts of the Iliad and Odyssey, tracing variations in Ancient Greek and connecting linguistic structures to the Mycenaean period, Linear B, and earlier forms. He argues that poetry’s origins are far older than previously understood. He posits that the written Homer we recognize stems from a profound oral tradition that dates as far back as 2000 to 1800 B.C.
The Mighty Dead: Why Homer Matters by Adam Nicholson
Further, Nicholson uncovers traces of Homeric writing in archaeological discoveries across the ancient Mediterranean. This includes papyri unearthed at the Hawara site in Egypt and pottery fragments from Ischia, which represent some of the earliest known examples of written Greek. The papyrus is dated around 150 AD, while pottery finds date back to the 8th century BC. Significant attention is also devoted to Mycenaean shaft tombs and what they reveal about the era preceding the Bronze Age collapse.
Nicholson’s fascination lies not in the historical accuracy of Homer’s tales but rather in the mythology of poetry itself. He presents a vivid portrait of a multifaceted ancient society and the individuals for whom these narratives provided a connection to a nomadic, warrior-based heritage.
Rereading The Mighty Dead prompted personal reflections; it conjured memories of my honeymoon in Crete, where my husband and I visited the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion. We marveled at a displayed boar’s tusk helmet, reminiscent of the gear described in the 10th volume of the Iliad, worn by Odysseus himself. This serves as a poignant reminder that, as Nicholson asserts, the world of Homer endures if only we learn to recognize its echoes.
Mycenaean and Peloponnesian Archeology: Discoveries in Greece
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A mathematician opens her office door to find a small fire starting. Instead of panicking, she spots a fire extinguisher and exclaims, “Oh, I have a solution!” before closing the door and resuming her tasks. This comedic anecdote illustrates a clever aspect of modern mathematics: the concept of unconstructive proofs.
Consider this non-mathematical example: Imagine there are 367 people in a room. What is the likelihood that at least two of them share the same birthday? The answer is 100%. With only 366 possible birthdays (accounting for leap years) and 367 birthdays to fill, at least two individuals must share a birthday. This illustrates the “pigeonhole principle,” a classic method in non-constructive proofs, showing that even without identifying specific individuals, a birthday match is guaranteed.
Traditionally, proofs involved displaying a tangible mathematical object for verification. This approach shifted significantly in the 19th century when mathematicians began to embrace nonconstructive proofs as powerful tools. Leading this transformation was David Hilbert, a prominent figure in mathematics known for his controversial ideas.
Hilbert investigated complex problems regarding algebraic objects, aiming to uncover the essential invariants. For example, when considering a square, rotating it by 90 degrees results in the same shape. This phenomenon is termed “rotational symmetry,” conveying that a square remains unchanged despite rotation.
Hilbert sought to understand how many invariants were necessary to construct algebraic objects, building upon the foundation laid by mathematician Paul Gordan. Gordan identified finite generating sets for certain objects, but his proofs were often complicated. In 1888, Hilbert surprisingly proved this for a wider class of algebraic objects without detailing the composition of the generating set. By assuming the existence of invariants not produced by the generating set, he demonstrated a contradiction, ultimately concluding that a generating set must exist.
Initially, Gordan reacted negatively to this unconstructive evidence, labeling it as “theology” rather than mathematics. However, he later acknowledged Hilbert’s valid perspective, recognizing the potential advantages of such an approach.
The conflict over formalism and intuitionism further complicated Hilbert’s endeavors. While Hilbert championed formalism, viewing mathematics as symbol manipulation, intuitionist L.E.J. Brouwer critiqued this stance, arguing that mathematics is a product of human thought and should involve tangible construction of objects.
This clash of philosophies engaged the law of excluded middle—asserting that every proposition must be either true or false. For instance, if it’s stated that “Hilbert is a cat,” the proposition is either true or false (in this case, false).
Human Mathematician David Hilbert
From Ulstein Newspaper, Getty Images
Hilbert’s 1888 proof claimed, “not all invariants can be generated by a finite generating set,” which he refuted by demonstrating a contradiction, affirming that every invariant must indeed be generated by a finite set. However, Brouwer contested the application of the law of excluded middle in infinite sets, acknowledging its validity for finite ones since all elements can be checked for specific properties.
Hilbert mocked this viewpoint, equating the constraints of the law to “banning a boxer from using his fists.” In stark contrast, Brouwer labeled Hilbert as “my enemy.” Compounding their rivalry was their involvement in Mathematics Annalen, a leading mathematical journal. Hilbert’s influence led to Brouwer’s expulsion from the editorial board in 1928, prompting Albert Einstein’s resignation, who questioned the absurdity of their conflict.
From a pragmatic standpoint, Einstein’s perspective held weight. Today, many mathematicians utilize non-constructive proofs as valuable methodologies, suggesting Hilbert’s theory prevailed. Conversely, Brouwer’s relevance waned as he became increasingly isolated after leaving his editorial role in Mathematics Annalen. Nonetheless, Hilbert’s formalism faced a severe setback from Kurt Gödel, whose incompleteness theorem revealed that symbol manipulation games lack complete consistency. Notably, Gödel’s work, while not aligned with Brouwer’s intuitionism, drew inspiration from it in his challenge against Hilbert’s views.
The lasting influence of Brouwer and Gödel has permeated contemporary computer science, impacting figures like Alan Turing and addressing the computability of problems. As mathematicians increasingly explore AI and formal proof verification, the dialogue around unconstructive proofs remains relevant. Machines may generate proofs in ways that transcend human understanding, possibly leading to scenarios where Brouwer may ultimately find vindication.
In 2015, a controversial event unfolded when an American trophy hunter killed Cecil, Africa’s most renowned lion. The backlash from this tragic incident sparked vital discussions about wildlife conservation. This meticulously crafted documentary delves into themes of ecological balance and humanity’s intricate relationship with these majestic creatures.
As artificial intelligence rapidly evolves, understanding its mechanics is crucial for everyone. In this enlightening three-episode series, mathematician Hannah Fry simplifies complex AI concepts, using relatable examples and her signature warmth. Join her on a journey through the intersections of AI and society, making cutting-edge technology accessible to all.
As we anticipate Artemis III in 2027, take a moment to reflect on the historic Artemis II mission, which marked humanity’s return to the Moon after 50 years. This compelling short film chronicles the diligent engineers and visionary designers who contributed to a mission that propelled four astronauts farther from Earth than ever before.
Celebrating David Attenborough’s 100th birthday, this exceptional documentary explores the making of the iconic series Life on Earth. It highlights the evolution of natural history filmmaking, offering fascinating behind-the-scenes stories, including near misses and humorous discoveries along the way. This film serves as a testament to how a single series transformed our understanding of nature.
In the wake of a 2011 disaster that resulted in the deaths of 20,000 individuals and a catastrophic nuclear meltdown, this gripping documentary narrates the true story behind the Fukushima nuclear incident. Through powerful footage and eyewitness accounts, it unravels the sequence of events that turned a natural disaster into a nuclear crisis. Highlighting the bravery of first responders known as the “Fukushima 50,” the film reveals how their actions prevented further catastrophe, underscoring their heroism amid turmoil.
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How You Can Support Scientists During This Year’s Solar Eclipse
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The total solar eclipse on August 12 will be a phenomenon observed by scientists worldwide, who will direct their instruments towards the sun. However, anyone can contribute to vital research efforts both during and after the eclipse.
A total solar eclipse occurs when the moon obscures the entire sun as viewed from Earth. This unique alignment provides a rare opportunity for scientific observation.
On August 12, parts of Europe, the Arctic Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean will experience a total solar eclipse, while a partial eclipse will be visible over much of Europe, Canada, northwestern Africa, and parts of the United States. Solar eclipses like this one occur roughly every 18 months, prompting scientists to gather as much data as possible. Here’s how you can assist in this exciting research.
1. Document Shadow Bands During Totality. Just before and after a total solar eclipse, shadow bands can appear on the ground, caused by the atmosphere and the hidden sun. If you’re within the path of totality, use a white sheet or cardboard perpendicular to the sun’s light to catch these phenomena. Participate in this citizen science project to help quantify variations in shadow bands based on altitude and distance.
2. Photograph the Sun Using Your Smartphone. The sun isn’t perfectly spherical; capturing multiple images from diverse locations helps scientists understand its shape better. Use the Sun Sketcher app to take timed photos of the eclipse, documenting Bailey’s Beads—the points of light visible around the moon during totality. These photographs, when combined with lunar topographical maps, provide significant insights into the sun’s appearance.
3. Measure Sky Darkness During the Eclipse. If you’re witnessing a partial solar eclipse, you can still contribute valuable data. The Gaia4Sustainability initiative involves setting up a device with sensors to measure sky brightness and weather variables, helping researchers study light pollution. During a solar eclipse, this project also tracks atmospheric changes due to solar obscuration, enriching our understanding of eclipse dynamics.
4. Search for Comets Near the Sun. Not everyone can observe all aspects of the August total solar eclipse, but you can still engage in solar science. The Sungrazer Project allows you to examine satellite images of the sun for moving objects—like comets—that pass close to it. Many known comets were discovered through this initiative. All you need is a computer, an internet connection, and some free time!
5. Join the Dynamic Eclipse Broadcast (DEB) Initiative. If you’re interested in a more involved volunteer opportunity, consider the DEB Initiative. This initiative trains teams with basic equipment to observe total solar eclipses, gathering extensive data for studying the sun’s corona. While it may be too late for this year’s eclipse, sign up to participate in the 2027 solar eclipse in Northern Africa.
Important: Always use solar filters or eclipse glasses when observing the sun to protect your eyes.
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As a father who gazes at my weary reflection each morning before the school rush, I can confidently assert that our children indeed age us. However, research reveals a more intricate relationship between parenthood and aging.
Becoming a parent induces substantial physiological changes, known as maternal matrescence and paternal patrescence.
These terms encompass the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social transformations that come with parenting, many of which are understood.
Major hormonal shifts, including decreased testosterone and increased oxytocin during and after birth, are thought to be biological adaptations that foster parental attentiveness and facilitate bonding with children.
Similar adjustments occur in our brains, which may slightly shrink and restructure.
However, research indicates that these changes can elevate some parents’ risks for stress and postpartum mental health issues.
Telomere length, the protective caps on your DNA, is a key indicator of health – Image courtesy of Getty Images
In the early parenting years, biological aging pathways are significantly affected. Stressors such as sleep deprivation and financial strain may lead to shorter telomeres, the protective caps at the ends of our DNA.
Shorter telomeres are associated with increased risks of cardiovascular diseases, dementia, and premature mortality. Thanks for the added stress, kids!
Chronic stress can elevate inflammation and hormones like cortisol, resulting in long-term health complications.
Yet, as any fatigued parent would note, it’s just a phase. Research suggests that, over time, parents may actually enjoy a slightly longer life expectancy compared to non-parents.
Data from Sweden indicates that this advantage may emerge post-60, with fathers enjoying a two-year lead and mothers experiencing a marginally decreased advantage.
What accounts for this phenomenon? Researchers believe the social and emotional support received from adult children plays a significant role.
Other powerful factors also influence longevity, such as income level. Parents in low-income households typically experience higher stress, leading to life expectancies that are 10 years shorter in comparisons between income groups.
Additionally, factors such as the number of children and the timing of their births can impact outcomes. A recent study from the University of Helsinki found that giving birth between the ages of 24 and 38 is linked to more favorable aging and longevity.
The study also indicated that women with two to three children tend to have longer lifespans, while those with four or more children may face accelerated biological aging and shorter lifespans.
This could reflect the biological demands of pregnancy and the challenges of managing multiple young children.
Conversely, previous research suggests a slight positive correlation between longevity and the number of children for men. But honestly, two is enough for me—thank you very much.
This article addresses the question posed by Amir Ali from Colchester: “Are my children aging me?”
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Exploring the health benefits of hot drinks is a complex task, so brew yourself a cup while we delve into the science. Many studies have examined the health impacts of various hot beverages, but their findings can be difficult to compare due to the diversity of drinks and their effects.
Fortunately, some hot drinks are consistently linked to positive health outcomes, especially when consumed regularly.
Let’s kick things off with coffee. It ranks just behind water as one of the most popular beverages globally. Research shows that individuals who enjoy one or two cups of coffee daily may experience longer lifespans.
Furthermore, studies on Asian populations indicate that those consuming five cups of coffee a day have a 28% lower risk of all-cause mortality. The polyphenols in coffee are believed to contribute significantly to these health benefits.
These antioxidant-rich compounds combat inflammation and oxidative stress, which are linked to various diseases, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative issues. While caffeine may have similar effects, individual responses can vary greatly.
Green tea provides numerous health benefits – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Next up is green tea, renowned for its health advantages. Research confirms that regular consumption can lower the risks of cancer, heart disease, and all-cause mortality.
The health-promoting properties are largely attributed to polyphenols, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). A 2025 meta-analysis revealed that regular intake of EGCG may aid in cancer prevention.
If you’re a fan of black tea, you’re not alone; it’s prevalent in many Western cultures. While it may be less potent than coffee or green tea, black tea still offers notable health benefits.
Research indicates that black tea can help reduce blood pressure and LDL cholesterol, with regular consumption linked to slower cognitive decline in later life. A study utilizing UK Biobank data found that drinking two or more cups daily can decrease all-cause mortality risk by 9 to 13% here.
Importantly, the myth that adding milk to tea negates its health benefits has largely been debunked.
Let’s not forget about herbal teas, which often boast powerful polyphenols. Some have been shown to positively impact health as well.
As for the traditional hot toddy, science has yet to thoroughly investigate its effectiveness against cold symptoms. Hot liquids can assist in clearing nasal passages, while honey may help suppress coughs, and the vitamin C from lemons may offer some benefits, making this drink feel “subjectively medicinal.”
This article addresses the question posed by Jodi Whitehead from Warmington: “What is the best hot drink for health?”
For any inquiries, feel free to reach out:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram (don’t forget to include your name and location).
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Meet Stubby, a remarkable stray Boston Terrier crossbreed who became a hero during World War I. Serving in the U.S. Army, Stubby bravely warned soldiers of gas attacks and helped locate the wounded.
Stubby served for 18 months and participated in 17 battles, making him one of the most decorated dogs in military history. He was awarded a gold medal, two Purple Hearts, and even received a promotion to sergeant.
While history is filled with stories of canine heroes, one must wonder: where are the feline counterparts?
The answer? They’re likely lounging comfortably on the radiator.
Cats have a reputation for being aloof and self-centered. To investigate their tendencies to help humans, researchers at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, Hungary conducted an intriguing experiment. In this study, they observed interactions between a cat, a dog, and a 2-year-old child.
The experiment was conducted in a home setting where unsuspecting participants watched human scientists hide various items. These included uninteresting dish scrubbers and engaging toys or food.
After hiding the objects, the scientist observed how the “witnesses” reacted—whether the child’s parents or the pet owners would seek assistance.
In a performance worthy of an Oscar, the caregiver expressed frustration, repeatedly saying, “Oh, I can’t find it! What should I do?” But would the witnesses lend a hand?
Regardless of the item, over 75% of dogs and toddlers pointed towards or fetched the hidden objects without any special training. They simply seemed eager to help.
Need a reliable helper? A dog is your best bet! – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Cats, however, rarely “help” unless their owners are directly involved. The only time a cat may show interest is when a treat or toy is missing, and even then, only 40% of them approach the hidden object.
This leads to an interesting question: Do cats not understand the problem, or do they simply choose not to care? If it’s the former, they may be unaware; if it’s the latter, they might be seen as selfish.
Personally, I lean towards the latter conclusion since my cat seems to know everything but chooses not to assist. Nonetheless, this behavior may not even be entirely her fault.
Unlike dogs, whose ancestors, the gray wolf, were inherently sociable, domestic cats evolved from solitary wild ancestors. Human intervention led to selective breeding for both physical and behavioral traits.
While we have successfully bred selflessness into dogs, a naturally social species, we have not replicated this trait in cats.
The takeaway? If you misplace your keys, don’t expect your cat to be your helper—ask your dog instead.
This article addresses the question: “How selfish are cats?” (submitted by Thomas King of Leicester).
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Paleontologists in northeastern Thailand have discovered a new species of mamenchisaurid sauropod dinosaur, revealing that this group of colossal dinosaurs, once believed to be primarily located in East Asia, also inhabited mainland Southeast Asia.
Reconstruction of a herd of Uragasaurus carasinensis in the Late Jurassic forests of Thailand, featuring rhymphorhynchoid pterosaurs and metricanthosaurid theropods. Image credit: Pakorn Chotchaiyaporn.
This newly identified dinosaur species, dubbed Uragasaurus carasinensis, thrived in what is now Thailand during the Late Jurassic period, approximately 150 to 145 million years ago.
Uragasaurus is part of the Mamenchisauridae family, renowned for their exceptionally long necks.
While Mamenchisauridae were common in China during the Middle to Late Jurassic, their presence in areas outside of China remains scarce.
“Mamenchisauridae represents a significant clade of non-neosauropod eusauropods from the Middle to Late Jurassic of East Asia,” said Dr. Apirut Nirupanapan of Mahasarakham University and his colleagues.
“Members of this clade are characterized by elongated cervical vertebrae with advanced pneumatic features, distinguishing them from other eusauropods, particularly in derived taxa.”
“Despite these traits evolving in various Cretaceous neosauropod lineages, including eupods and titanosaurs, they make interpreting the relationships within mamenchisaurids intricate, adding to the ongoing uncertainty regarding their phylogenetic placement among sauropods.”
The fossil record for mamenchisaurs is predominantly found in China, especially in the Sichuan Basin, where the Shaximi Formation provides an abundance of well-preserved Jurassic vertebrate fossils.
Uragasaurus carasinensis is primarily known from a single, remarkably preserved anterior dorsal vertebra, located just behind the dinosaur’s neck.
This specimen was unearthed from the Phu Noi Fossil Site within the Phu Kradung Formation, which is notable for yielding a rich diversity of Jurassic vertebrate fossils in Southeast Asia.
This vertebra, cataloged as PRC 460, was excavated alongside various other sauropod bone fragments, although these were not conclusively linked to the same individual.
Phylogenetic analysis places Uragasaurus carasinensis near the basal node of the mamenchisaurid family tree, indicating it may be one of the early diverging members of this group.
This discovery enriches the limited list of mamenchisaurids found outside of China, suggesting a broader geographic range and a more intricate evolutionary narrative than previously recognized.
The identification of Uragasaurus carasinensis marks “the first formally named mamenchisaurid from Thailand,” according to the paleontologists involved.
“This also extends the geographic reach of Mamenchisauridae into mainland Southeast Asia, further affirming that this clade was widespread across East Asia during the Late Jurassic,” they concluded.
“The presence of closely related taxa in China implies possible faunal connections throughout the East Asian continent during this era.”
“Comparative studies with more distantly located taxa highlight the complex paleobiogeographic dynamics of sauropods during the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition, but the limited fossil record complicates detailed reconstructions of dispersal pathways.”
“The phylogenetic positioning of Uragasaurus carasinensis at the base of Mamenchisauridae accentuates the morphological diversity present among the clade’s early divergent members.”
“Ongoing discoveries from the Phu Kradung Formation and other Jurassic sites in Southeast Asia could unveil critical insights into the initial evolutionary history and biogeographical dispersal of mamenchisaurid sauropods.”
The discovery of Uragasaurus carasinensis is detailed in a study published in the journal Scientific Reports.
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A. Nirupanapan et al. 2026. A new mamenchisaurid sauropod from the lower Phu Kradung Formation in the Upper Jurassic of northeastern Thailand. Scientific Reports 16, 21205; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-49822-3
Preserving Retinal Function Outside the Body: A Breakthrough for Transplantation
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Recent studies show that human eyes can function outside the body for up to 10 hours after death, doubling previous records. By supplying blood and oxygen to donor eyes, researchers have ensured that the eyes can still respond to light, maintaining structural integrity and health.
“This study marks a significant advance toward the potential for whole-eye transplantation,” states Thomas Johnson of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, who was not involved in the research. “Achieving a mild response outside the body is a remarkable milestone.”
Progress has been made in transplantation techniques. Corneal transplants enhance vision for patients with damaged corneas; however, treating the retina remains challenging due to its connection to the central nervous system.
In 2023, a partial face transplant and a full eye transplant were performed, but vision restoration was not achieved—a significant hurdle. The retina is vulnerable to degeneration due to oxygen deprivation, known as ischemia. Johnson explains, “Even brief periods of ischemia may cause permanent damage to light-sensitive neurons and circuits.”
Eimear Byrne from Barcelona University of Science and Technology led researchers who aimed to mitigate this damage by replicating the conditions donor eyes encounter in the body.
They developed a system that channels blood through a flexible tube into the ophthalmic artery, nourishing the eye and surrounding tissues. The Eyes-in-Care-Box utilizes sensors to deliver oxygenated solution, ensuring optimal pressure and flow.
The researchers tested their technique on six donors, where one eye was perfused, while the other was not. Results indicated that the perfused eyes maintained retinal structure and cellular health for up to 24 hours, contrasted with rapid deterioration in the non-perfused eyes.
After perfusing 36 additional eyes, they found that 15 exhibited electrical light responses akin to those in living humans—lasting up to 10 hours post-mortem, double the previous average of five hours. Although other scientists made similar discoveries in 2022, the reasons for the limited response in 21 eyes remain unclear.
A significant challenge persists: regenerating the severed fibers of the optic nerve to connect with the brain’s visual center. Johnson highlights, “Without this regeneration, the donor eye cannot relay vision to the recipient’s brain.”
While this new research does not resolve that issue, maintaining healthy eye metabolism after death may facilitate future strategies for vision restoration and enhance donor eyes’ resilience to ischemic damage.
Many organizations are investigating potential interventions to promote optic nerve regrowth. “Now is the perfect time to integrate these promising strategies for whole-eye transplantation,” Johnson expresses.
Byrne’s team suggests the Eyes-in-Care box could also allow for testing vision-related treatments on human eyes instead of alternative animal models. “This technology has significant potential for advancing the understanding of biology and pathology, as well as developing new in vitro models for testing drugs and other treatments,” Johnson asserts. “These results will be directly applicable to human diseases and biology.”
In some heavy atoms like bismuth (crystalline form), electrons move at relativistic speeds
Image Credit: savva_25/Shutterstock
Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity has reshaped our understanding of chemical bonds within molecules, a phenomenon now observed for the first time by researchers.
Special relativity elucidates how moving at near-light speeds affects the experience of space and time, extending even to electrons within certain heavy atoms. These high-speed electrons behave similarly to those found in particle accelerators and spacecraft.
Wang Laisheng and colleagues at Brown University in Rhode Island undertook a groundbreaking study that challenges conventional views on chemical bonding in charged molecules composed of bismuth and carbon.
In the studied molecule, bismuth and carbon are interconnected via three bonds. Researchers anticipated one bond would be of the “sigma” type while the other two would be “pi” bonds. The distinction between these bond types is rooted in the quantum nature of electrons, which are not solid masses but are instead “smeared” over a space, determining bond formation based on their spatial overlap.
During experiments, Wang and his team mapped electron distributions across the molecule, analyzing its bonding configuration. Contrary to expectations, they found the electron distributions indicative of two unique combinations of sigma and pi bonding shapes. “These bonds exhibit characteristics inconsistent with traditional definitions,” Wang notes. “They defy conventional Sigma and Pi classifications.”
His collaborator, Kirk Peterson, from Washington State University, calculated that this unusual mix arises from strong electromagnetic interactions, where electrons near the bismuth nucleus exhibit relativistic speeds—a phenomenon never before captured experimentally.
“Studying heavy elements presents unique challenges; quality experimental data is scarce,” Peterson mentions. “It’s a rare opportunity to compare advanced theoretical models with empirical data in such a fascinating way.”
Wang emphasized that key to their success was cooling the molecules before observation, significantly reducing noise and excitation, leading to more accurate results.
“The methodology employed is the pinnacle of both experimental and theoretical research,” states Pekka Pyykkö from the University of Helsinki, Finland.
This relativistic restructuring of bismuth-carbon bonding could revolutionize how organobismuth compounds are utilized in chemical reactions. Indeed, recent studies from the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research in Germany demonstrate that relativistic effects enhance the catalytic properties of this heavy metal in chemical processes.
Professor Wang and his team aim to replicate this experiment using a similar element from the periodic table to investigate when special relativity disrupts traditional chemical bond structures.
Using the advanced GRAVITY+ instrument at ESO’s Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), astronomers have measured the carbon isotope ratio in the atmosphere of the young exoplanet Beta Pictoris b, offering groundbreaking insights into the formation of giant planets.
Artist’s impression of a gas giant exoplanet within the disk of Pictoris Beta. Image credit: L. Calçada / ESO.
Beta Pictoris b, discovered in November 2008 via ESO’s Very Large Telescope, is a gas giant resembling Jupiter but with a mass between 9 and 13 times greater.
This exoplanet orbits its host star Pictoris Beta at a distance eight times greater than that between the Earth and the Sun.
The host star is also accompanied by at least two planets and a circumstellar disk filled with gas and dust, which could ultimately evolve into an icy body torus similar to the Kuiper belt in our solar system.
In this recent research, Antonia von Stauffenberg, a Ph.D. student at the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, and her team sought to explore the origins and possible atmospheric variability of Beta Pictoris b.
They employed the cutting-edge GRAVITY+ instrument for their observations.
“We utilized a method developed years ago to determine the planetary formation location within its disk,” the researchers detailed.
“By analyzing the relative abundance of two carbon isotopes (C) trapped in carbon monoxide (CO) gas of Beta Pictoris b’s atmosphere, we can deduce whether the planet formed inside or outside the disk’s icy regions.”
“As radiation from the host star heats the disk from its center, it directly correlates to how far from the star the planet formed.”
The temperature boundary at which gas condenses into ice is commonly referred to as the snow line.
“Isotopes contain the same number of positively charged protons but differ in neutrons, such as carbon-12 (12C) and carbon-13 (13C).
“Despite their differing masses, their chemical properties are similar.”
“In cosmic contexts, carbon often exists in combinations with oxygen, appearing as 12CO and 13CO molecules.”
“Interestingly, past assessments of the 12CO/13CO diagnostic yield were conducted using the original GRAVITY setup, resulting in relatively low ratios.”
“We suspected that the original GRAVITY instrumentation was insufficient for resolving key signals in this dataset and advised caution in interpreting the results.”
“Following the rationale above, preliminary findings suggest Beta Pictoris b likely formed in the outer disk, beyond the snowline, by accumulating CO ice instead of gaseous CO.”
“Yet, positioned approximately 10 astronomical units from its star, Beta Pictoris b orbits within the disk’s transition zone between the host star and the snowline, where gas predominately comprises CO.”
“If these results hold true, they imply that Beta Pictoris b may have migrated across the disk during its formation.”
Astronomers also detected subtle variations in magnetic flux from the planet over time.
“While statistically insignificant, the primary variation closely corresponds to the planet’s rotation period of approximately 8.7 hours,” the researchers noted.
“If confirmed, this could indicate the presence of clouds or chemical processes in Beta Pictoris b’s atmosphere, but further sensitive observations are essential.”
“The proposed restoration plan for the gas giant’s birthplace necessitates new, precise measurements of the 12CO/13CO abundance, clearly indicating a position in the warmer inner zones of its natal planet-forming disk.”
“Moreover, this ratio aligns well with values typically found in the interstellar medium extending across our solar system and the Milky Way.”
“The majority of the 12 young gas giant planets assessed for CO ratios displayed comparable values.”
“This consistency may actually signal challenges, as carbon isotope abundances appear to provide minimal diagnostic value when determining a planet’s location relative to its host star.”
“The probable explanation is that fluctuations during planet formation are too subtle to be captured effectively by our proposed methodology.”
“This suggests that 12CO/13CO ratios may not provide specific insights into individual planet-forming environments.”
“Consequently, we are likely overlooking essential physical factors influencing the chemistry of CO ice in planet-forming disks.”
“Hence, the 12CO/13CO ratio may not shed substantial light on the distinction between gaseous environments and regions abundant in CO ice.”
“At this moment, this wide-orbiting gas giant remains reluctant to disclose its origins.”
“We require innovative tools capable of differentiating between planet formation scenarios, and GRAVITY+ could significantly contribute to identifying and evaluating these scenarios.”
The findings are published in today’s issue of Astronomy and Astrophysics.
_____
A. von Stauffenberg et al. 2026. 13CO and potential variations in β Pictoris b using GRAVITY+. A&A 711, L2; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202660275
Examining thermodynamics through the lens of marbles and shadows offers fresh insights into this established theory.
Priscila Zambotto/Getty Images
The theory of thermodynamics has significantly advanced our understanding of various devices, particularly engines, for over two centuries. However, its mathematical framework has often been criticized for lacking precision. Currently, researchers are reinforcing the foundation of this seminal theory, incorporating modern mathematical approaches to describe quantum fields more effectively.
Thermodynamics remains one of the most pertinent branches of physics in daily life. Its evolution was propelled by engineers aiming to enhance the performance of heat engines—basic devices exemplified by ubiquitous technologies such as car engines and refrigerators.
Despite its success, thermodynamics has historically struggled with mathematical rigor. Brian Roberts from the London School of Economics has embarked on a mission to reconstruct thermodynamic principles using innovative mathematical concepts rooted in geometry and quantum field theory—an approach that deviates significantly from traditional teachings.
The cornerstone of Roberts’ new methodology is “gauge theory,” which addresses characteristics of entities that are typically unobservable or unmanageable.
A straightforward example featuring a marble rolling on a surface serves to clarify this theory. Although each marble appears identical, their centers conceal different colors.
Gauge theory delineates a mathematical terrain defined by the numbers governing the marbles’ movements—referred to as “observable” space—and an alternative domain, known as “bundle” space, which contains hidden information about the internal colors of each marble.
These two mathematical realms are profoundly interconnected; the observable space serves as a projection of the unobservable bundle space. According to Roberts, this concept parallels the phenomenon of illuminating an object: even if the object itself remains concealed, its properties can still be inferred by observing its projection—its shadow.
Roberts proposes that this framework may be instrumental in examining thermodynamics since the discipline also encompasses both visible and hidden quantities.
“Thermodynamics has two levels,” he explains. “Some levels are more accessible, allowing for work extraction—akin to movable pistons in an engine. Others are less overt, like the heat generated or lost within a system, which cannot be manipulated directly.” He identifies this as a concealed contribution to energy.
This distinction is not emphasized in conventional thermodynamics where “work” and “heat” are treated equivalently, aiding in the total energy calculations of an object. However, for Roberts, recognizing the concealed aspects of thermodynamic energy permits aligning thermodynamics with gauge theory structures inside bundle space.
This innovative perspective offers a pathway to harness foundational principles established in other physics domains relating to gauge theory, ultimately leading to a comprehensive grasp of thermodynamics.
For instance, crucial thermodynamic concepts such as temperature and entropy can be articulated through specific projections from bundle space to observable space. Roberts contends that this geometric definition of entropy is more intuitive, facilitating its application across diverse systems, from engines to black holes.
Furthermore, gauge structures have connections to experiments in the quantum theory of electromagnetic fields. Roberts anticipates that a similar interplay may emerge within thermodynamics. Preliminary investigations involving specific molecular junctions hint at a thermodynamic version of the Aharonov-Bohm effect—an iconic experiment in which charged particles seem to encounter a hidden magnetic field.
Roberts presented this work at the Basics of Physics conference held on June 16 in Irvine, California.
Lucas Cerelli, a professor at the Federal University of Goiás in Brazil, expressed admiration for Roberts’ concept, emphasizing its compatibility with evolving efforts to decode thermodynamics in the quantum framework as a gauge theory.
With the application of gauge theory to quantum phenomena, thermodynamics presents even greater complexities. Cerelli cautions, “I have reservations about quantum thermodynamics, given the multitude of definitions regarding heat and work. Establishing a rigorous mathematical framework could yield a consistent and unique understanding.”
Cerelli and his team have been pursuing this by leveraging gauge theory, reportedly achieving success in reconciling some outcomes of standard quantum thermodynamics.
A significant challenge ahead for both quantum and classical thermodynamics will be integrating these with Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. Fortunately, Cerelli asserts, gauge mathematics may offer advantages over traditional methodologies.
In March 2021, the remains of over 260 marine animals from 81 distinct species were found washed ashore in South Africa. Scientists are investigating whether this alarming occurrence was linked to substantial temperature drops caused by a process known as coastal upwelling, where deep, cold water rises to the surface, leading to rapid cooling.
While climate change is warming ocean temperatures, it is also intensifying coastal upwelling, potentially disrupting marine megafauna. Researchers focused on two rapidly warming boundary currents—the Agulhas Current in southern Africa and the East Australian Current in eastern Australia—to evaluate how these changes in upwelling zones could lead to more frequent and severe cold shock events affecting species like sharks.
To understand the events that occurred in March 2021, the scientists analyzed satellite data on sea surface temperatures and collected hourly temperature records from loggers to track subsurface temperature variations. They discovered that coastal sea temperatures plummeted by up to 7°C (12°F), dropping from 24°C (75°F) to below 17°C (63°F) within a mere 48 hours. Simultaneously, subsurface temperatures decreased more than 9°C (16°F) over 24 hours.
Bull sharks, which experience physiological stress at temperatures below 19°C (66°F), were likely pushed beyond their thermal tolerance limit during this cold shock event, potentially by over 5°C (10°F).
The research team equipped 66 bull sharks—41 in the Agulhas Current and 25 in the East Australian Current—with acoustic and satellite transmitters to monitor their responses in relation to lower thermal limits. Acoustic tags track shark movements via underwater receivers, while satellite tags log temperature and depth data for extended periods.
Data analysis revealed significant findings: prolonged low temperatures hindered sharks’ physiological recovery, resulting in some migrating to shallower depths in search of warmth, though cooling can occur too swiftly for them to adapt.
Wind records from the South African Weather Service indicated that strong easterly winds, which triggered upwelling, preceded the 2021 event. The correlation of cooling temperatures, fierce winds, and marine animal deaths suggests that coastal upwelling was a critical factor in this die-off.
Examining 41 years of sea surface temperature data, researchers employed mathematical models to assess the frequency and intensity of these rapid cooling incidents. Their results demonstrated that such events can persist longer than the usual one to three days, with the March 2021 incident lasting a full seven days.
The frequency and intensity of these cold shock events have notably escalated in recent decades, leading to more extreme temperature reductions than typically seen in just 24 hours. Their conclusions indicate that the 2021 marine die-off is indicative of a broader trend where warm ocean conditions allow species migration, yet intensified upwelling can suddenly expose marine life to life-threatening cold events, a phenomenon termed climate bait and switch.
The researchers concluded that climate change is likely reinforcing coastal upwelling processes, pushing marine megafauna beyond their thermal limits, despite initial warming benefits. These findings shed light on a crucial aspect of climate change, emphasizing how temperature fluctuations and upwelling can directly affect species survival. The implications of this research could prove vital for predicting future responses of marine ecosystems to changing ocean conditions.
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