Exploring Carl Sagan’s “Demon-Haunted World”: A Timeless Perspective
Every few months, I encounter a powerful quote from Carl Sagan that resonates deeply. His phrase, “A world possessed by demons: science as a candle in the darkness”, has surged in popularity as it eerily captures our current struggles with misinformation and a decline in critical thinking. Sagan’s reflections on the America of the future were undeniably insightful, highlighting the dangers of a society increasingly consumed by misleading information.
Sagan wasn’t a prophet, yet he passionately advocated for the scientific method—evaluating claims based on evidence. To truly understand our future, it’s crucial to grasp the present and past, knowledge Sagan had in abundance. In A Demon-Haunted World, he elucidates the essence of the scientific method, emphasizing its application in everyday life, which is more vital now than ever as comprehension wanes in the face of overwhelming information.
While it was tempting to declare his magnum opus as Cosmos, an awe-inspiring tribute to the universe, A Demon-Haunted World stands as an essential read for aspiring critical thinkers. Sagan’s prose continues to inspire as readers often find themselves lost in his extraordinary articulation, questioning if they could ever create such remarkable work.
When astronaut John Glenn mistook a “firefly” for burning paint, Sagan insightfully noted, “The temptation of the wonderful dulls our vital faculties.” Even in this simple observation, he exhibits a profound sense of wonder!
Beneath Sagan’s elegant writing lies warmth and genuine admiration for the universe’s mysteries. Rather than debunking individuals, he scrutinizes ideas compassionately. In today’s highly polarized climate, it would be challenging for him to avoid turning A Demon-Haunted World into a manifesto. Yet, his humor and thoughtful approach offer a refreshing perspective. Regarding the pervasive issue of misinformation, Sagan expresses disappointment rather than anger, recognizing it as a systemic challenge that individuals can combat.
In an era where information is abundant, so too is misinformation. This reality underscores the relevance of Sagan’s work. While some of the scientific details may seem dated—having been published in 1995—the commitment to understanding the scientific process remains timeless. This book serves not merely as a catalog of scientific advancements but as a guide to critical thinking.
The scientific method transcends laboratory confines; it shapes how we assess the myriad ideas presented to us constantly. A Demon-Haunted World is a crucial reminder that diligent effort in seeking truth is invaluable. Sagan’s “baloney detection kit” presents practical tools for discerning fact from fallacy. While it doesn’t grant prophetic insight like Sagan’s, it certainly aids in understanding the complexities of our world.
Around 66 million years ago, a catastrophic asteroid impact led to the extinction of approximately 75% of Earth’s species, including all dinosaurs except for their avian descendants, the non-avian dinosaurs. An ongoing debate in paleontology revolves around whether dinosaurs were already on the decline prior to this devastating event. Many researchers suggest that about 5 to 10 million years before the extinction, there was a notable decrease in dinosaur biodiversity across the United States, making them more vulnerable to extinction.
To explore this theory, scientists recently re-evaluated fossils from rock layers dating to the end of the dinosaur era that had previously been misdated. Previous studies primarily analyzed fossils from the well-known Hell Creek Formation in Montana. In contrast, the recent research focused on the Nashoibito Formation, a rock formation exposed in New Mexico, composed of ancient river deposits and approximately 30 meters (about 100 feet) thick.
To accurately determine the formation age of the Nashoibito member, scientists utilized a process known as radiometric dating, measuring the decay of radioactive elements within its mineral grains. This technique allowed researchers to establish that these mineral grains must have crystallized prior to their incorporation into the Naashoibito Formation, thus indicating the maximum age of deposition.
The study involved the analysis of 1,046 feldspar crystals from the Naashoibito Formation, which is home to two dinosaur species. Findings revealed that the sandstone located within 5 meters (approximately 16 feet) of the Naashoibito Formation’s lower boundary is younger than 66.9 million years, while layers about 3.5 meters (11 feet) up indicate ages younger than 66.4 million years. This data implies that the sandstone contained dinosaur fossils that formed roughly 400,000 years before the extinction event.
Following this, researchers measured the orientation of magnetic minerals within the rock using a methodology called magnetostratigraphy. The magnetic orientation of these minerals reflects the state of Earth’s magnetic field at that period. Given the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed numerous times throughout history, these signals can help create a chronological framework of when the deposits were formed.
Researchers aimed to ascertain whether the magnetic minerals were aligned as they are currently (normal polarity) or in an opposite orientation (reverse polarity). They identified one rock layer exhibiting positive polarity at the bottom of the Naashoibito Formation and another layer with reverse polarity at the top. The alignment of these magnetic fields corresponds with established polarity intervals consistent with the feldspar ages. Collectively, this data indicates that the Nashoibito member was formed at the conclusion of the dinosaur era, roughly contemporaneously with the Hell Creek Formation.
Next, the research team sought to determine whether non-avian dinosaurs retained their diversity across different areas of western North America during this era. By employing statistical grouping techniques, they analyzed fossil distributions in various locations throughout the continent to assess environmental similarities and differences. Their findings indicated that temperature, rather than geographical location alone, served as the primary predictor of diversity during extinction events.
The study concluded that a diverse assemblage of Nashoibito dinosaurs coexisted with dinosaurs from the Hell Creek Formation. Previous assumptions that dinosaurs had already begun to decline were based on studies focused on the colder northern regions exhibiting lower diversity. The new results imply that warmer southern climates still supported vibrant dinosaur populations. Altogether, this evidence suggests that dinosaurs remained diverse and thriving as recently as 66 million years ago, reinforcing the notion that their extinction was primarily due to the asteroid impact.
By Sarah O’Connor, published by Allen Lane (UK) and Godine (US, releasing August 11th)
Fans of translated films may have noticed a significant change in the quality of subtitles on streaming platforms. While they convey meaning, they often lack depth and richness.
“I grasp the meaning, but what about the nuance? The language feels flat,” Czech translator Petr Čermok shared with Sarah O’Connor. In We Are Not Machines, O’Connor discusses how artificial intelligence is reshaping our work environments.
This decline in linguistic richness typically stems from streaming services leveraging AI for script translations, which are subsequently refined by professional translators like Čermok. Unfortunately, agencies anticipate faster turnaround, often at the expense of translators’ compensation.
This evolving landscape complicates the job for translators, as they must simultaneously review both the original text and AI-generated translations, demanding greater effort, yet diminishing job satisfaction. “The work has become tedious, bland, and lifeless,” laments Čermok.
O’Connor, in her insightful book, reveals an emerging reality: we’re progressively adapting to an AI-centric future. The prevailing narrative suggests that AI will replace human translators, yet O’Connor argues, as highlighted by the Financial Times, that the lifeless translations represent our adaptations to an AI-driven era rather than a one-sided transformation.
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“I feel as though we’ve lost faith in ourselves,” O’Connor wrote. “
O’Connor’s key argument is not solely about the impending takeover of jobs by AI, but rather that we are already adjusting our behaviors to conform to AI standards. This ranges from accepting inferior products such as poorly translated scripts to striving to align our capabilities with workplace AI, all while often feeling inadequate. “It feels like we’ve somehow lost faith in ourselves,” writes O’Connor.
O’Connor’s book elucidates how this form of distortion impacts multiple industries, often to bewildering extents. There are stories of employers unable to recruit talented interns due to poor performance on AI-generated assessments or copywriters witnessing a drop in their articles’ search rankings because algorithms mistakenly categorize their work as AI-generated. In such scenarios, writers may need to employ a ‘humanizer’ tool to infuse their content with a more human touch, adding intentional grammatical and semantic errors. O’Connor questions if this is truly the future we aspire to—one that “damages and distorts the essence of our communication.”
Insights on AI’s implications are missing from tech executives; O’Connor specifically opts to center the narrative around employees outside Silicon Valley. She shares stories from individuals globally, from Swedish miners to operators of self-driving trucks in the United States.
O’Connor highlights a long-standing trend where employers desire mechanistic behaviors from employees. In 1911, management consultant Frederick Winslow Taylor implemented a system that stripped factory workers of autonomy by dictating how and when tasks should be completed.
However, AI has accelerated this shift. The book features a case study of Maria, a teleworker in Costa Rica, tasked with identifying missed items in Amazon recording videos. Over a nine-hour shift, she views around 1,200 ten-second clips, where her boss demands 99.9% accuracy with a limit of three mistakes across 8,000 videos. “They expect machine-like precision, which is simply unachievable,” Maria states.
Nonetheless, not everything revolves around downside; O’Connor recounts her visit to a Swedish mine where self-driving trucks have enhanced miners’ productivity and safety. Here, the presence of a robust trade union ensured that workers had a say in how AI would be integrated into their roles. Staff opposed real-time tracking of their movements, leading to anonymization for privacy.
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“It’s not all bad – a visit to a Swedish mine revealed that autonomous trucks are making mining safer.” “
Yet the struggle for justice remains complex. The book’s subtitle, “The Fight for the Future of Work,” often reads like intriguing feature stories rather than offering clear solutions. Perhaps, O’Connor suggests, the key lies in nurturing fundamental human values. “The real peril,” she asserts, “isn’t about creating machines in our image but subtly reshaping ourselves in theirs.”
O’Connor provides actionable recommendations for engaging in this struggle. Workers should get involved in how AI is implemented in their fields at the onset. For instance, Hollywood writers proactively discussed AI’s role in their work while still holding clout, contrasting with translators who were slower to resist. Collective efforts, such as joining unions, are also emphasized.
For a less serious reflection on AI, check out Joanna Stern’s book, I Am Not a Robot . Stern, a former technology columnist for the Wall Street Journal, narrates her year-long encounter with AI across various tasks, from dental care to cooking. While an insightful introduction to AI, it sometimes strays off course with humor that can undermine the seriousness of its themes, like AI’s environmental impact.
Interestingly, even after a year of AI incorporation into her life, Stern echoes O’Connor’s conclusion: we must collaborate with AI rather than fall under its authority. “The moment we let AI dominate our thoughts, we start to lose control and stagnate,” Stern warns. As we navigate this AI evolution, such insights remain critical.
Tom Knowles is a technology and business journalist based in London.
The AI editors of the Financial Times delve into AI’s impact on sectors like policing, welfare, justice, and health, revealing life-altering consequences often resulting from systems we barely comprehend.
This engaging narrative tracks OpenAI’s shift from a principled nonprofit to a commercially driven powerhouse, emphasizing its competitive impact in the AI arena and the concerning trajectory it reveals.
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The HPV vaccine has revolutionized cervical cancer prevention since its launch in 2006
Subhash Shrestha/Nuru Photography via Getty Images
Between 2020 and 2024, there have been no cervical cancer deaths among women aged 20 to 24 in the UK. This unprecedented milestone is attributed to the effective rollout of HPV vaccines.
“The results are remarkable,” says Peter Sasieni from Queen Mary University of London. “It’s tragic when young women succumb to cervical cancer. The rapid deployment of the vaccine is a monumental triumph for vaccination, science, and public health.”
Various types of HPV are sexually transmitted and can lead to cellular changes that increase cancer risk. HPV-related cervical cancer can develop in women as young as their 20s, and globally, many still die from this disease.
The initial HPV vaccine was launched in 2006, and girls aged 12-13 in the UK have been vaccinated since 2008. In 2019, vaccination programs for boys were initiated to help prevent other HPV-related cancers, such as mouth, anal, throat, and penile cancers, while also reducing the spread of the virus.
This study serves as the first robust evidence that the HPV vaccine significantly lowers the rates of HPV infection and cervical cancer mortality. Research on cervical cancer incidence supports this assertion. Although it may seem straightforward to prevent deaths, Sasieni emphasizes that women less likely to get vaccinated also tend to miss screenings. This raised concerns that vaccines primarily protect those cancers detectable through early screening, rather than the more aggressive cancers that screening might miss.
Fortunately, this is not the case. Sasieni and his colleague Milena Falcaro have been tracking cervical cancer statistics in the UK and found no deaths among women aged 20 to 24 from 2020 to 2024, based on the latest data. Historically, about 23 deaths were expected. “I’ve never seen a year with zero deaths,” Sasieni remarked, “so five consecutive years without any is truly remarkable.”
This significant reduction is likely due to the HPV vaccination, with around 90% of women aged 20-24 in the UK having been vaccinated at age 12 or 13. “This promising information reveals that the HPV vaccine saves lives, allowing us to confidently tell this generation that cervical cancer and other cancers related to HPV are not a threat,” says Caroline Temmink, Director of Vaccination at NHS UK.
While this study primarily focused on cervical cancer, the HPV vaccine also targets other HPV-related cancers, benefiting both men and women by preventing genital warts.
Sasieni and Falcaro did note deaths among women aged 25 to 29, but these were significantly lower than anticipated. In total, they estimate that approximately 200 lives have already been saved, which is only the beginning. “The 200 lives estimated is only the surface, as it appears to provide long-term protection,” Sasieni stated. “In the future, we may project around 18,000 deaths that could be prevented due to the vaccine.”
However, the global coverage of the HPV vaccine remains low, and cervical cancer rates are still rising. There are concerns that death rates could increase as fewer teenagers receive vaccinations in the UK. “The concerning fact is that vaccine uptake has significantly dropped since COVID-19,” Sasieni warned.
“HPV vaccination remains crucial to the NHS’s goal of eradicating cervical cancer by 2040,” notes Temmink. “This safe and effective vaccine should be embraced by everyone eligible when offered.”
Reenactment of Summer Solstice Celebrations at Bulford
Credit: Marijane Porter, Wessex Archaeology
In an astonishing discovery, archaeologists reveal that Stone Age inhabitants in Britain constructed wooden monuments to celebrate the summer solstice approximately 500 years prior to the iconic stone circles at Stonehenge.
Interestingly, the positioning of Stonehenge also aligns with the summer solstice, suggesting that these wooden structures may have served as early prototypes for the stone edifice. This represents one of the earliest known instances of monuments dedicated to astronomical events in Britain.
Phil Harding of Wessex Archaeology, which spearheaded the excavation, remarked at a press conference, “This discovery provides actual evidence of how these ancient people documented the movement of the sun.”
Stonehenge, constructed during the Neolithic period at the conclusion of the Stone Age, is situated on Salisbury Plain, England. This site features an outer circle of vertical sarsen stones topped with horizontal lintels, accompanied by a smaller inner ring of vertical bluestones. These structures are encompassed by earthen embankments and ditches; the earliest parts were erected around 3100 BC, with subsequent modifications continuing until 1600 BC.
Notably, some of the standing stones are meticulously oriented to face the sunrise on the summer solstice and the sunset on the winter solstice. Associated stones began to be erected around 2500 BC.
During the excavation, Harding and his team discovered the remnants of a 500-year-old monument close to the village of Bulford, located approximately five kilometers northeast of Stonehenge. Before the British Ministry of Defense began plans to establish housing for about 5,000 soldiers, Wessex Archaeology conducted excavations at Bulford between 2015 and 2017.
Researchers uncovered a series of pits containing fluted pottery linked to late Neolithic cultures, with radiocarbon dating indicating the pottery dates back to around 2950 BC. The findings included 40 closely clustered date estimates. “This site appears to have been occupied for a short duration,” Harding stated. “The occupation likely spanned around 10 years.”
Susan Greaney, an expert from the University of Exeter, UK, remarked, “This is a significant Middle Neolithic settlement,” although she was not directly involved in the research.
Pottery Discovered at Bulford, England
Credit: Wessex Archaeology
Two of the pits at Bulford exhibited unique characteristics distinct from the others. Their tapered sides extend from 1.2 meters wide down to 0.5 meters at the base and contained no pottery, only chalk rubble. Researchers determined these to be postholes that once supported tall timbers, likely several meters high, stabilized by the surrounding rubble. One of the postholes even contained rowan charcoal.
These two postholes are located approximately 120 meters apart, and Harding noted that a line drawn through them pointed to an angle of roughly 48.1 degrees northeast, aligning with the midsummer sunrise. “I was extremely excited,” Harding expressed.
Wessex Archaeology collaborated with Fabio Silva, a skyscape archaeologist from Stone x Sky, to further investigate the posthole alignment. Utilizing a 3D landscape reconstruction that excluded modern buildings and incorporated data on the sun’s trajectory, Silva confirmed that the postholes were effectively aligned with the historical summer solstice sunrises.
While the alignment was slightly off by about a degree, Silva mentioned that considering the potential width of the wooden pillars (up to 50 centimeters), this misalignment is acceptable. “The probability of this alignment being coincidental is less than 0.5 percent,” he stated.
A. Cesar González Garcia from Spain’s National Research Council in Santiago de Compostela, who did not participate in the study, noted, “A rough orientation is probably sufficient for the rituals intended at these sites.” He emphasized that there appears to be a broad understanding and interest in astronomical phenomena among ancient cultures.
Previous ruins in the vicinity also exhibit evidence of solar tracking, albeit with less precision. “From the very beginning of Neolithic habitation in this landscape, celestial observations were integrated into their ceremonial architecture,” remarked Matt Leivers, also from Wessex Archaeology.
Greaney added, “Many wooden monuments were arranged in this manner, and the Bulford site could represent an earlier stage in the development of monument construction.” For instance, the nearby Larkhill has a Neolithic enclosure dating back to around 3700 BC and boasts an entrance that aligns northeast. If one stands at this entrance on a midsummer morning, the sun will brilliantly rise above Sidbury Hill, the highest point on the horizon.
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Meet Holly: A dedicated staff writer for BBC Science Focus, Holly curates the engaging Q&A section that captivates readers. She possesses an MSc with a Special Award in Earth Sciences (Space and Climate Physics) from University College London (UCL), emphasizing her specialization in Astronomy and Earth Sciences.
With prior experience as a geo-environmental consultant and engineer, Holly combines her professional insights with a passion for astronomy by searching for exoplanets in her spare time. Her extensive expertise also encompasses ground risk assessment and remediation projects in Northern England.
Holly’s content development prowess extends beyond science; she served as a regional editor for a prominent theater website for nine years, effectively curating digital content. An accomplished artist and illustrator, she frequently contributes to the craft website Gathered.
Discover the incredible birds that evolved from dinosaurs—prepare to be amazed by their fascinating lineage!
AI in American Healthcare: Approval and Denial
Explore how AI is shaping medical decisions in the U.S. and its impact on healthcare providers and patients.
The Future of Food Innovations
Learn how major food companies are adapting to the surge in weight loss medications and their implications for nutrition.
Can We Trust Our Memories?
Find out how the judicial system can enhance confidence in eyewitness accounts and the challenges involved.
Plus
Reviving Pluto as a Planet: NASA is advocating for Pluto’s reinstatement, sparking debate among scientists. What would it mean for our solar system?
Introducing Ferrari Luce: “When the invitation to the new electric Ferrari launch arrived, it felt significant. Luce’s importance was truly underestimated.” – Daniel Bennett shares insights in issue 434.
Expert Q&A: This month’s experts tackle intriguing questions: What’s the best pre-bedtime snack? Is outdoor defecation harmful to the environment? Is tongue rolling genetic? How can we address space debris? Does music taste correlate with intelligence? Can thyroid issues lead to narcissism? And much more…
Issue No. 434 Launch Date: Thursday, June 18, 2026
Remember, BBC Science Focus is also available across all major digital platforms! You can find our magazine on Android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-readers, and our iOS app for iPads and iPhones.
Astronomers at the University of California, Los Angeles, utilizing NASA’s Goldstone Solar System Radar and NSF’s Green Bank Telescope, have discovered that the icy surface of Jupiter’s moon Europa scatters radio energy in a remarkably strong and intricate manner, unlike any rocky planet observed to date.
Artist’s impression illustrating radar waves from NASA’s Goldstone Solar System Radar reaching Europa, penetrating its icy surface, and being collected by the NSF’s Green Bank Telescope on Earth. Image credit: NSF/AUI/NSF’s NRAO/P.Vosteen.
Jupiter’s Galilean moons—Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are of significant scientific interest due to their icy surfaces and the likelihood of subsurface oceans.
However, radar measurements of ice satellites have not been made since 1987 to 1991.
Radar observations are a powerful tool, as radio waves can penetrate pure ice to considerable depths, unveiling critical insights into the subsurface properties of these celestial bodies and their evolution.
“Radio waves penetrate the ice, providing vital information about its internal structure and purity, allowing radar to investigate deeper than what is visible on the surface,” said Tung-Hui (Tina) Shi, a graduate student at UCLA.
To bridge a longstanding research gap in radar studies, Xie and Professor Jean-Luc Margot conducted observations of Europa from 2011 to 2024 using both the Goldstone Solar System Radar and the Green Bank Telescope.
These groundbreaking observations revealed that Europa’s radar albedo (a measure of its brightness in radar terms) is significantly higher than that of typical planetary bodies and asteroids.
The returning radar signal exhibits the same circular polarization as the transmitted beam, indicating multiple scattering events within clean, porous ice.
These findings lend support to the coherent backscattering opposition effect, which intensifies radio wave echoes as they bounce around within the ice before returning to the telescope.
In a bistatic configuration, where the Goldstone radar transmits and both Goldstone and Green Bank telescopes receive, the researchers were able to investigate how the coherent backscatter effect changes with varying angles between the transmitter, moon, and receiver.
Notably, they discovered that Europa’s radar brightness remained nearly constant as the angle increased, suggesting that the vibrant backscatter “peak” extends beyond the sampled angle range, revealing a limit to how deep radio waves can diffuse before being absorbed.
This depth constraint enhances our understanding of Europa’s ice transparency, aiding scientists in interpreting future ice-penetrating radar data from spacecraft designed to explore the moon in greater detail.
“Future planetary science missions, such as NASA’s Europa Clipper, stand to gain immensely from this radar research,” said Dr. Will Armentrout, a research scientist at the NSF National Radio Astronomy Observatory supporting the radar initiative.
“As the radar technology at the Green Bank Telescope advances, we eagerly anticipate providing even greater radar capabilities to the scientific community.”
Xie Tunhui and Jean-Luc Margot. 2026. European radar observations from 2011 to 2024: new insights into radar scattering characteristics. AAS248 Abstract #481
The dusty starburst galaxy JCMT0402-0424, situated roughly 11 billion light-years away, is identified as a potential source of the high-energy neutrino event IC 210922A by a team led by renowned astronomer Yuji Urata from MITOS Science Co.
Despite extensive investigations, the origin of high-energy astrophysical neutrinos remains unresolved, with reliable electromagnetic counterparts being rare. The compact-core dusty star-forming galaxy JCMT0402-0424, located in the IceCube event localization area, represents a significant finding. This quadruple-lensed galaxy, with a redshift of z = 2.988, falls within the 90% containment region of IceCube event IC 210922A. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / ALMA / ESO / NAOJ / NRAO / University of Alaska Anchorage, TA Chancellor, and NSF’s NOIRLab / D. de Martin and M. Zamani, NSF’s NOIRLab / Yuji Urata, Mythos Science, Inc.
In 2021, the NSF’s IceCube Neutrino Observatory in Antarctica detected a high-energy neutrino event known as IC 210922A from the constellation Eridanus.
This alert prompted rapid follow-up observations across the electromagnetic spectrum to pinpoint the neutrino’s source.
Multiple research teams utilized various telescopes to investigate, but failed to find conclusive gamma-ray emissions.
Days following the initial alert, Dr. Urata and team employed the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) and the Submillimeter Array (SMA) to identify the star-forming galaxy JCMT0402-0424, which appeared promising due to its brightness.
Subsequent observations with the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) revealed that this galaxy, dubbed Shadow Blaster, is positioned behind a powerful gravitational lens.
This lensing effect provides an opportunity to analyze the internal structure of distant galaxies, which are otherwise too faint and distant for detailed observation.
To comprehend the lens’s role in amplifying the neutrino signal, researchers first needed to ascertain the distance, nature, and mass distribution of the foreground galaxy.
The Gemini North telescope’s Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (GMOS) and Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrometer (GNIRS) were employed to refine these details.
“By combining GMOS and GNIRS data, we successfully measured the distance to the lens galaxy, identifying it as a giant elliptical galaxy,” stated Dr. Urata.
“This data was essential for estimating the mass distribution of the lens and comprehending the gravitational lensing model.”
Approximately 10 billion years ago, galaxies similar to JCMT0402-0424 were actively forming stars and generating significant cosmic rays, which can lead to neutrino production.
However, due to their vast distances and dust-enshrouded nature, obtaining observational evidence linking individual neutrino events to these galaxies has been challenging.
JCMT0402-0424’s advantageous position behind a gravitational lens enhances the likelihood of discovering such evidence.
“Shadow Blaster’s dense, gas-rich environment aligns with theoretical predictions that suggest efficient high-energy neutrino production,” remarked Dr. Urata.
“Given the lack of a more definitive counterpart despite thorough follow-up research, Shadow Blaster is the leading candidate for the source of IC 210922A.”
If validated, Shadow Blaster will be the first individual dusty star-forming galaxy directly linked to a high-energy neutrino event.
Compact star-forming galaxies like Shadow Blaster are likely plentiful throughout the universe, potentially contributing to a significant portion of the high-energy neutrino background.
“Our analysis indicates that this population may account for up to 20% of the diffuse neutrino background observed by IceCube,” concluded Dr. Urata.
Yuya Urata et al., “The compact, dusty starbursts that occur at cosmic noon are associated with high-energy neutrinos,” Nat Astron, published online June 17, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02884-9
Globular clusters are traditionally known to host a single, ancient population of stars. However, groundbreaking data from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has confirmed the presence of two distinct star populations within the ancient star system Terzan 5. Once classified merely as a globular cluster, Terzan 5 now also shows evidence of two recent rounds of star formation.
This Webb/NIRCam image showcases the star cluster Terzan 5. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Webb.
Terzan 5, discovered in 1968 by Armenian-Turkish-French astronomer Agop Terzan, is located approximately 19,000 light-years away in the constellation Sagittarius.
Also known as ESO 520-27 and 2MASX J17480455-2446441, this star system is home to hundreds of thousands of varied stars.
Nesting within the inner bulge of the Milky Way, Terzan 5 exhibits many characteristics reminiscent of globular clusters, yet significant findings emerged in 2009 revealing two distinct star populations.
A 2016 study using Hubble provided crucial age estimates: one population formed around 12 billion years ago, pre-dating the Milky Way, while the other emerged approximately 5 billion years ago, shortly before Earth’s formation. This complex history suggests Terzan 5’s evolution diverges from typical globular clusters.
Dr. Giorgia Zullo, a student at the University of Bologna, remarked, “Webb’s new near-infrared observations, in conjunction with Hubble’s archival data, present a clearer narrative of Terzan 5’s history.”
Studying Terzan 5 presents challenges due to its dense star environment and substantial dust cover within the galaxy.
Webb’s infrared capabilities enable astronomers to penetrate this dust, allowing for a comprehensive cataloging of both faint and distant stars.
By analyzing the colors and brightness of the stars, researchers can categorize them based on different ages and chemical compositions.
Webb successfully measured these essential properties for all visible stars, including those in Terzan 5 and unrelated foreground stars.
To distinguish Terzan 5’s stars, researchers leveraged Hubble’s long-term observations. The varying intervals between Hubble’s 12-year exposures allowed them to track tiny stellar movements, known as proper motion, helping to identify which stars are part of Terzan 5 versus those belonging to the Milky Way’s bulge.
By integrating findings from both Webb and Hubble, researchers found compelling evidence for two additional stellar populations, one dating back 3.8 billion years and another 2.5 billion years old.
They also determined the ages of the known stellar populations with remarkable precision, revealing formation timelines between 12.5 billion and 4.7 billion years ago.
The existence of these four distinct generations of stars suggests that Terzan 5 likely interacted with another celestial object, potentially a globular cluster or giant molecular cloud, enriching it with gas and dust to spark a second round of star formation.
Observations made using the W.M. Keck Observatory and ESO’s Very Large Telescope indicate that Terzan 5 hosts a unique stellar population.
Dr. R. Michael Rich, an astronomer at UCLA, noted, “As these populations age, the clusters preserve a fossil record of progressive heavy element enrichment from supernovae.”
Terzan 5 has managed to retain essential raw materials, allowing for the formation of multiple star generations.
There is substantial evidence that Terzan 5 witnessed a powerful supernova explosion that produced heavier elements, which were subsequently dispersed amongst the following generations of stars.
In less massive systems, the explosive force could have expelled residual gases and dust, thereby releasing the resultant elements.
Terzan 5’s progenitor possessed enough mass to sustain ejection, enabling new star generations to take shape over billions of years.
The results indicate that Terzan 5 likely remains from a significantly larger star system that formed around 12.5 billion years ago.
This cluster is remarkable in its survival without merging or fully blending with the Milky Way’s bulge.
Professor Francesco Ferraro from the University of Bologna explains, “For some reason, this extraordinary cluster formed separately from the bulge and was not obliterated during the bulge’s formation.”
“Terzan 5 is considered a bulge fossil fragment, resembling the primordial mass that contributed to bulge formation.”
For further details, consult this study published in Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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G. Zullo et al. 2026. Terzan 5’s multi-age stellar population revealed by JWST. A&A 709, A212; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202659349
Renowned philosophers Erik Schwitzgebel from the University of California, Riverside, and Jeremy Pober, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Lisbon, propose that consciousness is substrate flexible. This concept suggests that consciousness may not be limited to the biological tissues found on Earth, but could also emerge in entirely different physical materials throughout the universe.
Schwitzgebel and Pober discuss the potential for consciousness to exist in diverse physical substrates beyond Earth’s biology. Image credit: Fernando Rivas.
In their book, Professor Schwitzgebel and Dr. Pober state, “Who is conscious? We, the authors, and you, the reader, are conscious.” You can access their paper here.
“Some non-human animals likely share this trait. Further, we will explore the possibility that some extraterrestrial beings may also possess consciousness.”
“While we do not currently have evidence that today’s technology has produced conscious artifacts, we do not dismiss the potential for future discoveries.”
“Our argument emphasizes that consciousness can arise in a vast array of physical configurations, or substrates.”
Within the observable universe, there are approximately 1 trillion galaxies. While planets are abundant, most exist in environments vastly different from Earth.
The authors posit that at least 1,000 behaviorally sophisticated species capable of complex communication, goal-directed behavior, and cooperation likely exist somewhere in the universe.
They assert, based on astrobiological studies, that life on other planets could have evolved using distinct chemical building blocks, unlike the amino acids and nucleic acids fundamental to life on Earth.
Scientists have theorized about possible life forms in alien environments such as Venus, using sulfur compounds, organoborates, or silicon-based chemistry.
“We argue that it is improbable for all behaviorally advanced species in the universe to have evolved using the same substrate,” the researchers suggest in their paper.
“Even if our substrate is nearly optimal given known environmental constraints, a plethora of other substrates may be more advantageous in different environments.”
“For example, the extreme conditions of Venus’s gas clouds illustrate one such environmental limitation. Its atmosphere differs significantly from Earth’s, presenting unique challenges for life to thrive using alternative biochemical frameworks.”
The researchers further explore what they describe as the Copernican principle of consciousness.
Just as modern astronomy has debunked the notion that Earth occupies a special place in the cosmos, Schwitzgebel and Pober argue that we should not assume Earth holds a unique status in the realm of consciousness.
If multiple behaviorally sophisticated species evolved across various substrates in the universe, we cannot logically assert that only organisms sharing our biochemistry are capable of subjective experiences.
“It is an unsubstantiated view to presume that only entities with our specific biological makeup can be conscious,” they write.
“Consider that we might infer consciousness exists in all vertebrates and certain cephalopods and insects on Earth.”
“Assuming each galaxy contains, on average, a million planets, it is likely that species with comparable behavioral sophistication will emerge (even if technological civilizations are rare).”
The observable universe may have as many as 1 quintillion (1018) potentially habitable planets.
“With so many chances for life to arise, it’s inevitable that many of these life forms will appear quite unusual.”
“Thus, we shouldn’t confine the understanding of consciousness to organisms constructed from the same materials that form life on Earth.”
Professor Schwitzgebel and Dr. Pober also address the implications for artificial intelligence (AI).
However, they stop short of asserting that current AI systems possess consciousness.
In Dr. Pober’s perspective, we should refrain from assuming that today’s computer hardware is capable of supporting consciousness.
The potential for consciousness in different substrates does not automatically suggest that all substrates can achieve consciousness.
“Until we have compelling evidence to suggest otherwise, we should assume that current computer chips are incapable of consciousness,” he states.
“The default assumption is that substrates, such as those used in modern AI, do not exhibit consciousness unless there is valid reason to believe differently.”
Professor Schwitzgebel takes a slightly more optimistic stance regarding the potential for AI consciousness.
Once we dismiss the notion that consciousness strictly requires human biology, it becomes challenging to rule out silicon-based systems solely because of their composition.
Regardless, he argues that this aspect of the philosophical debate is too narrow.
“We should remain open to the possibility of AI consciousness,” he notes.
“When we recognize that consciousness does not depend on a specific substrate, it seems limiting to draw an arbitrary line, provided the substrate demonstrates the ability to support sufficient behavioral sophistication.”
_____
Jeremy Porber and Eric Schwitzgebel. 2026. Substrate flexibility and the Copernican principle of consciousness
HPV Vaccines: A Game Changer in Cervical Cancer Prevention Since 2006
Subhash Shrestha/NurPhoto via Getty Images
From 2020 to 2024, no women aged 20 to 24 in the UK succumbed to cervical cancer, marking the first instance of zero deaths in this age group. This milestone is attributed to the rollout of vaccines against the human papillomavirus (HPV).
“The findings are remarkable,” states Peter Sasieni from Queen Mary University of London. “It’s heartbreaking when young individuals die from cervical cancer. The rapid vaccine rollout symbolizes a triumph for vaccination, science, and public health.”
Numerous strains of HPV are sexually transmitted and can alter cells in ways that significantly increase cancer risk. Consequently, cervical cancer can arise in women as young as their 20s, and many continue to die from it worldwide.
Since the first HPV vaccine was introduced in 2006, adolescent girls in the UK have been vaccinated since 2008, with boys starting in 2019. This initiative not only protects against cervical cancer but also prevents other HPV-related cancers such as those of the mouth, throat, anus, and penis, mitigating the transmission of the virus.
This research serves as the first robust evidence indicating that the HPV vaccine not only substantially decreases HPV infections but also prevents fatalities related to cervical cancer. Cervical cancer incidence could potentially be decreasing faster than expected. Previous concerns suggested that the vaccine primarily prevented cancers detected early through screenings, but it appears to be effective for cancers that screening missed as well, according to Sasieni.
Fortunately, this is not the case. Sasieni and his colleague Milena Falcaro have been tracking cervical cancer rates in the UK, revealing zero deaths among women aged 20 to 24 from 2020 to 2024. Historical data suggested about 23 deaths were expected within this age group. “Never has there been a year with zero deaths, so five consecutive years is incredibly impressive,” Sasieni noted.
The substantial decrease in cases is likely due to the HPV vaccine, with approximately 90% of women aged 20 to 24 in the UK receiving the vaccine at 12 or 13. “This encouraging news demonstrates that the HPV vaccine is lifesaving,” stated Caroline Temmink, Director of Vaccination for the UK National Health Service (NHS). “We are excited to tell this generation: ‘Cervical cancer and several other cancers are no longer a risk for you.'”
While this particular study focused on cervical cancer, the vaccine offers protection against other HPV-related malignancies as well, significantly reducing the risk of warts in the skin, genitals, and anal region.
Sasieni and Falcaro also acknowledged some fatalities occurring in women aged 25 to 29, but the figures were notably lower than anticipated. They estimate that around 200 lives have already been saved, which is just the beginning. “The 200 lives estimated in the paper is merely the tip of the iceberg, as it appears to provide long-term protection,” Sasieni remarked. “In the future, nearly 18,000 deaths may be a rough estimate of those we’ve prevented so far.”
However, worldwide HPV vaccine coverage remains low, and the incidence of cervical cancer is increasing. Concerns arise as vaccination rates among teenagers in the UK have dropped post-COVID-19. “The alarming news is that vaccine uptake has declined significantly since the pandemic,” Sasieni warned.
“Together with cervical cancer screenings, HPV vaccinations are central to the NHS’s goal of eradicating cervical cancer by 2040,” says Temmink. “This is a safe and effective vaccine, and we urge all eligible individuals to take up the opportunity when invited.”
Reenactment of Summer Solstice Celebrations in Bulford
Marijane Porter, Wessex Archaeology
Ancient Stone Age societies in Britain constructed wooden monuments to mark the summer solstice approximately 500 years before the iconic stone circles at Stonehenge were established.
Stonehenge also aligns with the summer solstice, hinting that the wooden structures may have inspired its creation. This discovery represents one of the earliest manifestations of monuments dedicated to celestial events in Britain.
“What we have now is substantial evidence that these communities were able to track the sun’s movement,” stated Phil Harding from Wessex Archaeology, who led the excavation project during a press conference unveiling the findings.
Stonehenge, completed at the end of the Stone Age, during the Neolithic era, is situated on Salisbury Plain, England. It encompasses an outer ring of vertical sarsen stones topped with horizontal lintels, alongside a smaller inner circle of vertical bluestone and additional stones. This oldest section dates back to around 3100 BC, with further constructions extending until 1600 BC.
Notably, certain standing stones appear meticulously positioned to align with the summer solstice sunrise and the opposite sight for the winter solstice sunset, with construction of these associated stones occurring around 2500 BC.
Harding and his team unearthed the remnants of a 500-year-old monument near Bulford, roughly five kilometers northeast of Stonehenge, in a location initially designated for a military base housing 5,000 soldiers. Prior to construction, Wessex Archaeology carried out excavations from 2015 to 2017.
The research team identified several pits containing fluted pottery created by late Neolithic cultures. Radiocarbon dating suggests the pottery dates back to around 2950 BC, with 40 samples clustered closely in time. “This site was occupied for a relatively brief period,” Harding explained, estimating an occupancy span of about a decade.
Acknowledging its significance, Susan Greaney from the University of Exeter, who was not involved in the study, remarked, “This is a crucial Middle Neolithic settlement.”
Pottery Unearthed in Bulford, England
Wessex Archaeology
Two pits found at Bulford displayed distinct shapes: tapering sides that transitioned from 1.2 meters wide to just 0.5 meters, lacking pottery but filled with chalk rubble. Harding concluded these were postholes that once supported upright timbers, with one containing rowan charcoal.
Positioned approximately 120 meters apart, the postholes’ alignment directed towards the northeast, roughly 48.1 degrees—a significant angle for summer solstice sunrises. Harding expressed his enthusiasm, remarking, “I was genuinely thrilled.”
Wessex Archaeology enlisted Fabio Silva, a skyscape archaeologist with Stone x Sky, to analyze the posthole arrangements further. Through a 3D landscape reconstruction, Silva concluded that the alignment of the postholes correlated effectively with ancient midsummer sunrises, allowing for a discrepancy of just about one degree.
Silva noted, “This slight variation makes sense considering the potential diameter of wooden pillars, which could have reached 50 centimeters. Accounting for this width, the alignment remains impressive.” He stated, “The chance of this being coincidental is less than 0.5 percent.”
“A rough orientation might suffice for the rituals conducted at such sites,” suggested A. Cesar González Garcia from Spain’s National Research Council, highlighting the community’s long-standing interest in cosmological phenomena.
Evidently, ancient ruins in the vicinity provide indications that early societies tracked the sun, albeit with varying precision. As Matt Leivers of Wessex Archaeology affirmed, “Since the dawn of Neolithic communities, the sun has consistently influenced their ceremonial structures.”
Greaney reiterated that numerous wooden monuments were similarly oriented, with the Bulford site contributing to the narrative of early monumental architecture. For instance, nearby Larkhill features a Neolithic enclosure from approximately 3700 BC, predating Bulford and Stonehenge. Its entrance faces northeast, allowing for full sunrise visibility over Sidbury Hill on midsummer mornings, as noted by Leavens.
Severe flash flooding and prolonged flooding are forecasted for Southeastern states as Tropical Storm Arthur moves through the region.
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Tropical Storm Arthur, which developed off the coast of Texas, is the first named storm of this hurricane season, designated when wind speeds exceed 39 miles per hour.
According to forecasts from the National Hurricane Center, Arthur’s winds have reached approximately 45 miles per hour, with stronger gusts expected. Rainfall forecasts predict 5 to 10 inches along the Texas coast through early Friday morning, moving into Louisiana, Mississippi, western Georgia, and Florida, with some areas potentially receiving up to 20 inches.
The highest flash flooding risks in the coming days are anticipated from Lake Charles, Louisiana, to Montgomery, Alabama, with the most significant rainfall expected around Mobile, Alabama, as noted by the National Hurricane Center.
Zachary Handros, an atmospheric scientist at Georgia Tech, emphasized that the potential for flash flooding heavily depends on the storm’s movement.
“The critical question is whether the rain ceases quickly or lingers in specific locations,” Handros commented. “Predicting this is quite challenging.”
Heavy rain has already been reported in parts of Texas. On Monday, Governor Greg Abbott declared a disaster due to severe storms affecting 101 counties.
Prior to this month, much of the Southeast, including northwest Mississippi and Louisiana, was grappling with prolonged drought conditions. Although recent rains have alleviated some dryness, the chance of flooding remains as Arthur approaches.
“March, April, and parts of May saw minimal precipitation, but conditions have improved,” stated Handros.
“With more saturated soils and areas retaining water, additional moisture can lead to localized flooding,” he added.
Both Houston and Atlanta have hosted World Cup games in rainy conditions. Houston canceled the FIFA Fan Festival on Monday due to rain but resumed it on a modified schedule Tuesday. Handros, however, believes that significant disruptions during the game are unlikely.
“We currently have a game in Houston, and I believe we are at the peak of the worst weather impact,” said Handros. “In Atlanta, the worst-case scenario is minor flooding and potential traffic delays for attendees.”
Arthur marks the first of what is expected to be a relatively mild hurricane season. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has predicted three to six hurricanes (which become hurricanes when wind speeds exceed 124 miles per hour) and eight to 14 named tropical cyclones this season.
An ongoing El Niño pattern in the tropical Pacific Ocean is the primary reason behind this mild forecast. El Niño generally correlates with fewer hurricanes in the Atlantic and increased activity in the Pacific.
El Niño often introduces significant vertical wind shear—variances in wind speed and direction across atmospheric layers. As hurricanes typically thrive in low wind shear environments, El Niño conditions can hinder their formation.
However, the existing conditions still allow for potential storm formation.
“Despite El Niño, sea surface temperatures in the Gulf and Atlantic Ocean remain sufficiently warm, enabling storm development if the conditions align properly, as evidenced by Arthur’s current situation,” stated Handros.
“Ultimately, even if the total number of named storms this season is lower than in previous years, just one impactful storm can make all the difference,” he added.
Carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) not only pollute our air but also accelerate atmospheric reactions, which in turn heat our planet.
Research shows that approximately 15% of the global warming observed since the pre-industrial era is attributed to emissions of non-greenhouse gases, particularly carbon monoxide and VOCs. This figure is double that of nitrous oxide, the third most prevalent greenhouse gas following carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane.
Despite their significance, few nations have integrated these “indirect greenhouse gases” into their emissions reduction strategies.
As noted by Ilyssa Okko of Spark Climate Solutions, California, we must pay more attention to these overlooked climate pollutants. Incorporating them into climate policies could significantly decelerate warming rates in the future.
Carbon monoxide and VOCs are released, in part, from fossil fuel usage, and these substances react with atmospheric compounds to create ozone. While ozone in the upper stratosphere naturally filters harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays, ozone formed at lower altitudes traps heat, exacerbating global warming.
Furthermore, indirect greenhouse gases contribute to warming by interacting with highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. These radicals play a role in removing various pollutants, including methane. As more hydroxyls engage with carbon monoxide and VOCs, fewer are available for methane breakdown, thus trapping significantly more heat than CO2 in the short term.
Alongside black carbon (soot), another pollutant frequently omitted from climate strategies, these indirect greenhouse gases account for approximately 0.3°C of global warming. While some cooling effects are provided by aerosols that block sunlight—such as sulfur dioxide—they still contribute to warming through the formation of low-level ozone and hydroxyl radicals.
Unlike CO2, which lingers in the atmosphere for centuries, and methane, which remains for decades, indirect greenhouse gases have much shorter lifespans, breaking down in mere hours or years. This rapid decay means that reducing these emissions could lead to swift decreases in their warming impact.
If we are approaching a climate tipping point, addressing indirect greenhouse gases presents a significant opportunity to avert catastrophic changes, as highlighted by Alex Archibald of Cambridge University.
The primary source of carbon monoxide is the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels found in appliances, such as gas boilers and stoves, as well as older vehicles. Agricultural practices, such as burning forests and grasslands in regions like the Amazon, also contribute to these emissions. VOCs, on the other hand, are released from various hydrocarbons, including fossil fuels, paints, and cleaning products.
Countries like the UK enact air pollution regulations to mitigate indirect greenhouse gases by enforcing emission standards for vehicles and limiting VOC content in paints. Yet, numerous nations have lax regulations, emphasizing ground-level exposure reduction over broader atmospheric management.
Okko suggests that countries should begin including indirect greenhouse gases in their action plans submitted to the UN climate agency under the Paris Agreement, ultimately establishing reduction targets for these gases.
Failure to do so may lead to ongoing or even increased emissions of indirect greenhouse gases, warns Alastair Lewis at York University, UK.
Hydrogen, as the smallest molecule, often leaks and can easily be vented into the atmosphere by manufacturers. In this process, it consumes hydroxyl radicals, forming ozone and water vapor.
If unchecked, hydrogen emissions and leaks could increase global temperatures by an estimated 0.1°C by 2100, particularly if countries push forward with plans to replace fossil fuels in industries like steel and fertilizer production. The combustion of hydrogen or synthetic aviation fuel also emits nitrogen oxides and water vapor.
As Lewis articulates, “Burning low-carbon fuels without batteries might not show a difference in carbon accounting, but in terms of air pollution and indirect impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, the variations could be immense.”
Innovative Stroke Treatment: How Rapid Cooling Could Mitigate Brain Damage
BSIP SA/Alamy
The combination of two medications commonly used to treat hay fever and psychosis has shown promising results in lowering core body temperature in animal models, subsequently reducing brain damage after a stroke. Early-stage trials in humans are currently underway to explore this innovative treatment further.
Over the years, researchers have focused on various cooling methods to protect the brain post-stroke. The goal is to induce a hibernation-like state in brain cells, minimizing their need for oxygen and glucose during a stroke when blood supply is compromised. Keeping brain cells viable until blood flow can be restored could help prevent extensive brain damage and potential long-term disabilities.
Traditional cooling methods, including cooling blankets and ice packs, have proven ineffective due to discomfort and uncontrollable shivering. According to Kirsten Cupland from the University of Newcastle, Australia, “Physical cooling often leads to severe discomfort, making it impractical. It’s encouraging to see alternative cooling therapies being researched for stroke treatment.”
Shivering is the body’s natural response to combat hypothermia, creating challenges in lowering body temperature effectively. “Understanding this limitation, I find the testing of alternative drugs for cooling therapy refreshing,” Coupland adds.
Research led by Shuaili Xu at Capital Medical University in Beijing tested promethazine and chlorpromazine, both established drugs known for their ability to reduce body temperature. This combination was administered to mice and rhesus macaques following induced strokes.
In both animal models, the drug combination successfully lowered core body temperature, decreased intracellular glucose metabolism, and significantly minimized brain damage caused by strokes. Notably, the treated monkeys exhibited improved limb functionality compared to untreated counterparts.
The research team subsequently conducted a trial involving 32 recent stroke patients who received either the drug combination or a placebo alongside standard clot-removal therapies.
Unfortunately, the combination therapy only produced a minor body temperature reduction of 0.3°C (approximately 0.5°F) without significant stroke damage reduction. Xu believes that the prolonged 12-hour infusion may have hindered the cooling process: “Faster admin could yield more substantial therapeutic effects,” he suggests.
His team is embarking on a new trial to investigate the potential of a rapid infusion method over one hour to enhance cooling effectiveness and therapeutic benefits. Coupland expressed optimism, noting, “The established safety profile of these drugs, already in human use for various conditions, supports the continuation of further clinical trials.”
Promethazine, a sedating antihistamine, alleviates hay fever and aids sleep, while chlorpromazine, an antipsychotic, treats schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Both medications target the central nervous system to effectively lower core body temperature without causing shivering or cold sensations.
Increased Awareness and Reduced Stigma of Autism and ADHD Linked to Rise in Diagnoses
Ziyad Douglas/Gallo Images/Getty
Recent research sheds light on the factors driving the surge in ADHD and autism diagnoses. A comprehensive study involving 140,000 individuals in Denmark found that those recently diagnosed with ADHD or autism possess fewer genetic variants than those diagnosed a decade ago. This indicates that the broadening of diagnostic criteria may be responsible for the increasing numbers, rather than an overdiagnosis of these conditions.
Over the last 20 years, global autism and ADHD diagnoses have surged, with rates increasing up to tenfold, particularly among girls and adults. This trend could be attributed to heightened awareness, the expansion of diagnostic criteria, and the influence of commercial interests among pharmaceutical firms and diagnostic clinics. Additionally, shifts in environmental factors, such as rising screen time and unverified claims regarding childhood vaccinations and prenatal paracetamol exposure, may have a role.
Genetics is another critical factor influencing these conditions. Research suggests that ADHD and autism are highly heritable, with thousands of common genetic variants identified that slightly increase the likelihood of developing core traits associated with these conditions.
Advances in DNA analysis allow researchers to evaluate a person’s “polygenic risk score” for specific traits. High scores for ADHD or autism are “not diagnostic by themselves,” asserts Dr. Sonya LaBianca at Copenhagen University Hospital. Environmental, cultural, and social factors, as well as rare variants, are not included in these scores. However, due to the stable nature of the population’s DNA over a decade, these scores serve as a benchmark to examine other influences.
LaBianca and her team used genome-wide association studies from 2018 and 2019 to develop polygenic risk scores for ADHD and autism, applying these to the iPSYCH Cohort Study of 140,000 people, of whom over 37,000 were diagnosed with ADHD or autism from 1994 to 2016. The researchers also assessed polygenic risk scores for various mental health disorders, including depression and specific personality traits like risk-taking.
They explored three possible reasons for the increasing rates of ADHD and autism. The first reason suggests that diagnostic thresholds have lowered due to the expansion of diagnostic categories. The second relates to individuals previously diagnosed with other mental health issues now being recognized as neurodivergent. Finally, improved understanding enables the identification of individuals who previously went unnoticed.
Findings indicated that recently diagnosed individuals had significantly lower polygenic risk scores for ADHD and autism compared to earlier diagnoses. Moreover, they also exhibited lower risk scores for other mental health issues and traits related to ADHD, such as impulsivity. This suggests that the current diagnostic practices are now reaching a broader range of individuals, with the primary explanation for rising case numbers being the expansion of diagnostic criteria, according to LaBianca. While increased awareness and diminished stigma may also play a part, there is less data to substantiate this claim.
While this might imply overdiagnosis, LaBianca emphasizes that even those with the lowest polygenic scores still had significantly more risk variants than neurotypical controls. “This supports our finding that we are not overdiagnosing,” she notes. “I would only use the term ‘overdiagnosis’ if diagnosing individuals with similar polygenic levels as the general population.”
Professor Tinka Polderman from Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam also posits that the expansion of diagnostic criteria is the main reason for the rising rates of diagnoses. However, she cautions against viewing genetics and environment as completely separate entities. “Polygenic risk scores only provide one piece of the puzzle,” she explains.
“As more individuals seek support for these conditions, we must also consider other risk factors if one has a low genetic predisposition,” LaBianca advises.
A newborn baby’s brain closely resembles an adult’s brain.
Craig Bolan
The human brain is equipped with a crucial structure at birth. Over nine months, approximately 100 billion neurons develop from a tiny 3-millimeter “neural tube,” establishing the foundation for the entire central nervous system.
This impressive neuronal count is enhanced by around 100 trillion connections that form between them, akin to subway lines connecting station hubs in a bustling city. “It’s intelligently designed to enhance efficiency,” states developmental neuroscientist Moriah Thomasson from New York University.
As birth approaches, the brain’s structure starts resembling that of an adult: the fetal connectome shares 61% of the same functional organization found in adults. “It’s astonishing,” Thomasson remarks, though the fetal brain shouldn’t be mistaken for a smaller version of an adult’s brain. While some species, like foals, can walk or feed shortly after birth, humans undergo extended childhoods, developing into highly social and dependent beings.
“The incomplete nature of our brains allows our environments to shape them,” explains philosopher of mind Timothy Bain from Monash University in Australia. “As a result of evolution, if we were born in a Russian-speaking country, it would be problematic if we inherently spoke Swahili.”
Birth triggers significant changes in the brain. “It’s a transformative experience,” states Thomasson. The transition from the buoyancy of the womb to the weight of gravity, fluctuating temperatures, and a flood of new visual stimuli creates a profound learning environment. Accordingly, insulating layers known as myelin sheaths are rapidly formed, enhancing connections across the nervous system and refining specialized brain networks. “These pruning processes become increasingly intense,” notes Thomasson, “Essentially locking in vital connections.”
As a result, our ability to navigate the world grows more sophisticated, with higher cognitive skills building upon foundational abilities. For instance, we begin by distinguishing between objects before learning to track their movements and recognize faces and emotions. “Tracking emotions early on is critical for understanding others’ mental states,” Bain notes.
Advancements in brain scanning technology allow researchers to study the formation and connectivity of brain networks in both adults and fetuses. However, determining the implications for experiential development remains complex. Observed patterns of brain activity and behavior in utero imply that elements of consciousness may exist within the fetus. “It’s possible that fragments of prenatal experience exist, and the capacity for consciousness is likely present,” Bain states, yet he believes that true consciousness may not emerge until the infant confronts the challenges of the external world.
Despite the connection between consciousness and brain biology being clearer, philosophical debates continue regarding the relationship between thought and consciousness. “Can one think without being conscious? Can there be consciousness without thought?” questions philosopher of consciousness Philip Goff of Durham University, UK. Bain suggests that thinking is more about our capability to engage with the world. For example, a few months after birth, infants can controllably move objects above their heads. “Perhaps the first thought a baby experiences is the joy of fulfilling an intention or the recognition of a failed one,” he ponders.
The notion that thought and consciousness only emerge post-birth seems intuitive. However, cognitive scientist Anna Chaunika, from the University of Lisbon, Portugal, cautions against this adult-centered bias. We often view experience through a lens rooted in brain function and assume that thoughts comprise intricate concepts. Nevertheless, research indicates that sensory experiences integrate into the basic sense of self through behaviors established during early pregnancy, as noted by Chaunika. This process of interaction and learning remains crucial for survival. The evolutionary origins of gut neurons and our olfactory system’s rapid specialization for fetal development highlight this interconnectedness. “Being precedes knowledge,” she concludes.
Ultimately, the fetus’s existence centers around its mother. “In the womb, we are inherently in communion with other beings,” notes Chianica, citing studies showing that newborns exhibit different crying patterns based on their mothers’ linguistic backgrounds. “The initial realization is, ‘I am not alone.’
For the first time, scientists have tracked the eye movements of birds in flight, revealing that pigeons maintain a fixed gaze while soaring through the skies. This fascinating behavior could enhance their flight control while potentially increasing their vulnerability to predators.
Unlike terrestrial animals that utilize rapid head and eye movements, known as saccades, to stabilize their view, the mechanism behind avian vision during flight has remained elusive.
To investigate this further, Ivo Ross and researchers at the California Institute of Technology developed a lightweight mirror-and-camera rig that fits onto a typical pigeon’s head (Columba livia), along with a compact backpack housing the camera control board and battery.
Pigeon Equipped with Eye-Tracking Device
Andrew Biewener
The research team trained six pigeons indoors to fly between two perches spaced roughly 20 meters apart and an additional three pigeons for outdoor flight over a distance of 25 meters, returning to their coop.
During these test flights, head-mounted eye-tracking systems showcased that after takeoff, the pigeons enlarged their pupils and established a consistent eye position, effectively “locking” their gaze during flight.
“Upon takeoff, the eyes naturally rotate forward,” Ross comments.
Interestingly, the synchronization of head and eye movements indicates a linkage to the bird’s visual and vestibular systems, which are responsible for balance and spatial orientation.
The ability of pigeons to move their eyes independently with a maximum amplitude of about 15 degrees was documented. Graham Martin, a researcher at the University of Birmingham, UK, asserts, “Thus, the minimal eye movements—under 1 degree—during flight suggest birds actively stabilize their eye position.”
While the reason behind the pigeons’ fixed gaze remains unclear, Ross posits that it enhances balance and navigation by discerning their movements from external stimuli, such as passing trees or predators. Limiting eye movements may also reduce cognitive strain, particularly when flying, as the environment indeed shifts rapidly.
With a horizontal field of view of approximately 340 degrees, the implications of fixed eye positioning potentially create a blind spot behind, where predators might remain undetected.
The team’s tests were constrained to low-altitude flights, prompting Ross to ponder the eye behaviors of pigeons during different scenarios—such as high-altitude flights with fewer objects. He further questions their visual awareness in flocks, pondering: “Are they detecting other pigeons, predators, or distant threats?”
Martin suggests that other avian species, especially predatory birds, may also stabilize their eye positions while hunting. “When a peregrine falcon chases its prey,” he notes, “fixating its gaze would likely be essential for maintaining focus.”
A Cemetery for Children. Traces of Plague Bacterium Found on Remains.
Vladimir Bazaliiskii
Recent analysis of ancient DNA from hunter-gatherers buried near Lake Baikal, Siberia, indicates a devastating plague outbreak occurred as early as 5,500 years ago. This discovery challenges the traditional belief that significant disease outbreaks emerged only with the advent of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution.
“Before the Neolithic Revolution, we didn’t anticipate major disease outbreaks affecting entire communities,” states Ruairidh MacLeod from Oxford University. “This evidence reveals a catastrophic epidemic impacting the entire hunter-gatherer community around Lake Baikal—similar to challenges we face today.”
Plague bacteria have caused multiple pandemics, including the Plague of Justinian (541 AD), the Black Death (1346), and the third plague pandemic (1855), resulting in over 15 million deaths worldwide.
The plague bacterium can cause severe infections, including pneumonic and septicemic plague. However, the most recognized form is bubonic plague, which results from flea bites that infect the lymph nodes, leading to painful swelling known as “buboes.”
Advancements in ancient DNA sequencing techniques enable researchers to detect plague bacterium in the bones and teeth of individuals buried centuries ago. Notably, this has shown that plague has been affecting rural regions in Sweden and other areas for over 5,000 years.
These revelations have prompted theories suggesting plague could have contributed to the Neolithic decline—a stark population decrease in Europe. However, early strains of plague bacterium were found to lack a vital gene necessary for transmission through fleas.
Infected fleas possess a protein encoded by the ymt gene that clogs their intestines, enriching plague bacteria near their mouthparts. “This condition propels the flea to bite excessively, searching for new blood meals,” explains MacLeod.
Researchers hypothesize that the plague bacterium likely did not become a widespread epidemic until it acquired the ymt gene. Despite this, MacLeod’s team identified the bacterium in 18 out of 42 hunter-gatherer remains unearthed across four archaeological sites near Lake Baikal.
“We finally have compelling evidence that strains of plague from this era were indeed lethal,” asserted MacLeod.
It appears there were two separate outbreaks, with the initial one commencing roughly 5,500 years ago. Evidence shows instances of siblings buried side by side, indicating they perished concurrently, with multiple individuals interred together.
Skull of a Young Plague Victim, Buried with Others
Angela Lieverse
Notably, most identified plague victims were children and adolescents. This high mortality rate among young individuals aligns with historical records indicating that children were disproportionately affected by plague.
It is also evident that some individuals survived, receiving standard burial rites. “This provides poignant insight into the responses of hunter-gatherer communities,” MacLeod remarked.
According to MacLeod, hunter-gatherers had greater exposure to wild animals compared to agricultural populations, making them more susceptible to zoonotic diseases. Researchers suggest that marmots, known reservoirs of the plague, may have transmitted the disease, as evident from archaeological findings indicating these animals were hunted for food. Even today, local populations remain at risk from plague through contact with marmots or consuming undercooked marmot meat.
Once one hunter-gatherer was infected, pneumonic plague could swiftly spread via respiratory droplets.
Current genomic analyses indicate that the plague bacterium emerged between 9,800 and 5,700 years ago, with a more recent estimate appearing more plausible. Hence, the plague outbreak might be older than previously believed, but still not overly ancient.
“This study is unique in several aspects,” states Nicholas Raskovan from the Pasteur Institute in Paris. He highlights this research as the oldest known plague outbreak, occurring furthest east and affecting hunter-gatherers rather than agricultural societies.
“This evidence strongly suggests that the emergence of plague was not solely linked to agricultural practices,” Raskovan concludes. “This research indicates that non-agricultural societies had lethal infectious diseases, which is particularly fascinating and may have significantly influenced population decline during the Neolithic era in Europe.”
A comprehensive new analysis of Type Ia supernovae refutes the controversial claim from 2025 suggesting that the expansion of the universe is slowing down.
Type Ia supernovae serve as a fundamental aspect of modern cosmology, providing initial evidence for cosmic acceleration as well as opportunities for new dark energy experiments. Image credit: Alex Parker / NASA / SDSS.
In 2025, a study led by Yong-wook Lee from Yonsei University surprised the scientific community by claiming that indications of dark energy had diminished, asserting that the universe’s expansion was no longer accelerating.
The researchers proposed that the methodologies employed in measuring cosmic expansion via supernovae were inherently flawed.
Dr. Phil Wiseman of the University of Southampton, lead author of the latest study, noted, “The debate following last year’s claims stemmed from a scientific misinterpretation rather than an actual flaw in the universe’s behavior.”
He affirmed, “Earlier measurements, which have long been accepted, remain valid, and our current understanding of the universe’s future is intact.”
“Fortunately, we have sidestepped a crisis, but the question of why the universe is still expanding at an accelerated rate persists.”
“By validating our measurements, we can redirect our focus toward unraveling the true nature of dark energy, rather than questioning its existence,” he added.
The initial discovery of the universe’s accelerated expansion received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2011.
If the assertions made in 2025 were valid, they would reverse nearly three decades of astronomical progress.
Nobel laureate Professor Adam Rees, a co-author of the new investigation, remarked, “Extraordinary claims necessitate thorough scrutiny.”
“Our findings reveal that once we adjust for varying host environments and populations of supernovae, the evidence for cosmic acceleration remains impressively consistent.”
To assess cosmic distances, the authors meticulously analyzed Type Ia supernovae.
The 2025 study posited that as the universe ages, these supernovae exhibit varying peak brightness levels, misleading astronomers into believing that the universe is decelerating.
Contrary to this, the new research indicates that the methodology employed to ascertain the ages of these celestial bodies was flawed.
Researchers demonstrated that previous work incorrectly assumed that the age of the galaxy matched the age of the exploded star.
They further pointed out that the 2025 publication neglected the mass of the host galaxy, a critical correction typically made to ensure precision in contemporary cosmological studies.
Co-author Professor Mark Sullivan of the University of Southampton stated, “Challenging established theories is crucial in the scientific process.”
“While this idea proved incorrect, it has inspired new discussions regarding supernova explosions and the more accurate measurement of dark energy.”
“We have recently intensified our focus on the astrophysics of supernova explosions and their implications for cosmology,” remarked study co-author Dr. Brody Popovich, an astronomer at the University of Southampton.
“This was an excellent chance to reevaluate our underlying assumptions. It turns out that we have indeed understood this and incorporated it into our cosmological assessments.”
Upcoming research will be published in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
_____
Phil Wiseman et al. 2026. Still accelerating: Type Ia supernova cosmology remains robust against galactic age evolution. MNRAS 549 (3): stag797; doi: 10.1093/mnras/stag797
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Recent research has unveiled the earliest evidence of a plague outbreak, discovered in ancient graves of children in Siberia. This revelation may change our understanding of this deadly disease.
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This groundbreaking discovery is detailed in a recent study published in the journal Nature, offering new insights into one of history’s gravest diseases.
The site, located alongside the Angara River, revealed the remains of multiple generations of hunter-gatherers, alongside archaeological artifacts like 5,500-year-old arrowheads. Genetic analysis of the teeth showed plague DNA in approximately 40% of the samples.
Excavations revealed the sad reality that three children were buried together, two of whom were half-sisters aged 9-10 and 5-6. Additionally, an 11- to 12-year-old boy was buried alongside them and tested positive for plague DNA. Provided by: Vladimir Bazarisky
Lead researcher Ruairidh MacLeod from the University of Oxford noted that the grave sites encompassed not only cousins but also sisters aged between four and nine years.
“Three young girls were buried together, likely succumbing simultaneously to the disease. Our findings reveal significant amounts of plague DNA in all three, indicating a tragic impact on these children in prehistoric communities,” he explained.
The study suggests two distinct outbreaks of plague occurred within these hunter-gatherer societies. This evidence implies that the ancient plague likely spread within families, challenging previous notions regarding its impact on prehistoric groups. Previous research has noted a singular plague infection in a hunter-gatherer in present-day Latvia around 5,000 years ago but found no evidence of widespread epidemics or human-to-human transmission.
Throughout history, plagues have dramatically altered human society, notably during the pandemic starting in 1347. This outbreak, known as the Black Death, resulted in the loss of approximately half of Europe’s population, with subsequent recurrences leading to significant societal disruption.
Researchers have long linked the emergence of plague and other infectious diseases to the Neolithic Revolution, when humans transitioned from nomadic lifestyles centered on hunting to settled agricultural societies. This change fostered higher population densities and closer living quarters with animals that potentially carried harmful pathogens.
However, outside experts assert that this new study calls into question previously held beliefs about plague’s origins.
Nicolas Raskobin, a researcher of ancient DNA at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, remarked, “This discovery offers clear evidence of a prehistoric outbreak, highlighting that agricultural lifestyles may not be the sole factor in plague emergence.”
This research indicates that the plague may have sporadically affected certain hunter-gatherer communities living near wild animals harboring the bacteria, primarily spreading among family units.
Eske Willasev, an evolutionary geneticist from the University of Copenhagen, emphasized, “The perception that the hunter-gatherer phase was free from diseases is incorrect. We are now realizing that these societies faced recurrent outbreaks of disease.”
Skull of a girl aged 9-11 years, buried with other plague victims. Provided by Angela Leavers
The bacterium identified in this study, Yersinia pestis, is the same species responsible for the Black Death. However, it is believed that this ancient strain lacked some key characteristics seen in later outbreaks. Research posits that the bacteria may not have developed the ability to cause bubonic plague until about 3,800 years ago.
Researchers hypothesize that the ancient epidemic was likely linked to pneumonic plague, a form affecting the respiratory system and likely transmitted through coughing.
“Pneumonic plague is more serious than bubonic plague, spreading through respiratory droplets rather than fleas,” explained MacLeod. “It poses a significant risk and is highly fatal.”
The skeletal remains analyzed were excavated by Russian archaeologists in the 1980s and preserved from four cemeteries located near Lake Baikal, a vital fishing site for ancient peoples in Siberia. Uniquely, some graves contained multiple remains without any indication of being disturbed.
A solitary burial of a 10- to 12-year-old boy who was found to be infected with plague. Provided by: Vladimir Bazarisky
This suggests that several children likely succumbed to the plague simultaneously and were interred together, indicating a heightened vulnerability among younger individuals in these communities.
By extracting DNA from the molars of these skeletons, researchers were able to uncover familial relationships while detecting the plague bacteria. Of the 46 bones analyzed, bacteria appeared in 18, but the team believes the larger number suffered from the plague, with many samples not yielding detectable bacteria due to preservation challenges.
“Similar investigations of plague victims from historical pits in medieval London yielded a detection rate of around 20%,” shared MacLeod. With a nearly double mortality rate observed in this Siberian site, he suggests that most deceased likely perished from the plague.
Plague cases continue to emerge in certain rural regions. Prompt identification of these cases allows for effective treatment using antibiotics. Last year, Madagascar experienced over 2,400 occurrences of pneumonic plague, while the United States recorded its first plague-related fatality since 2007 in Arizona.
How do you overcome the intermediate plateau while mastering a skill? I understand your struggle. I’ve been honing my table tennis skills weekly for the last 15 years. I can effortlessly beat most casual players during holidays or at social gatherings.
However, when faced with elite players, winning becomes nearly impossible. The frustrating part? There hasn’t been any noticeable improvement in years.
This situation exemplifies a common intermediate plateau. Initially, you may experience rapid progress, reaching commendable levels, but soon your improvement falters, leaving you feeling stagnant.
Researchers have been exploring these learning trajectories for over a century. Notably, classic studies from the late 19th century documented telegraphers as they learned to transcribe Morse code messages.
Each time I achieved a new performance level—transitioning from decoding single letters to recognizing full words and, eventually, complete sentences—I faced stubborn plateaus repeatedly.
Understanding this process hints at strategies for breaking through: in the early stages of learning a skill, everything must be approached consciously and intentionally.
This can make progress feel sluggish and performance challenging. Yet, with persistent practice, the brain learns to automate many of the perceptual and motor processes involved through trial and error.
In fact, as you improve, performance shifts to different brain areas; what was once labor-intensive becomes more automatic, freeing the upper brain’s resources.
The key to progress is to challenge yourself – Image courtesy of Getty Images
I’ve personally experienced this transformation. Nowadays, playing table tennis involves a pleasant fluidity that doesn’t require conscious thought about hitting the ball; my reflexes reliably return the ball.
However, this automaticity can also contribute to stagnation. If your performance becomes second nature and feels “good enough” for most challenges, you may never learn to adapt your techniques.
To advance, stepping out of your comfort zone is essential. This means actively addressing your weaknesses, competing against superior players, and seeking expert feedback with relentless commitment.
Truthfully, we must make practice challenging again. For me, this involves focusing on my weakest shot and finding skilled players to compete against, which necessitates significantly more effort than before.
This approach is termed “deliberate practice,” a concept popularized by Swedish psychologist Anders Ericsson’s research on expertise.
Many focus on Ericsson’s conclusion that elite performers spent over 10,000 hours practicing. However, he later regretted the oversimplification of this number.
To truly become an expert instead of remaining an intermediate, quality practice is crucial. It’s not about quantity; it’s about thoughtful, targeted practice.
The reality is that there’s no simple or painless way to escape stagnation. The pivotal step is finding the motivation to embrace challenges once more.
This article addresses the question posed by Ross Thomas from Wokingham: “How do you overcome the intermediate plateau when learning a skill?”
If you have any questions, please email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out:Facebook,Twitter,Instagram(please include your name and location).
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Scientists are raising alarms that California may soon experience an earthquake similar to a recent quake. According to a new study, the seismic pressures on California’s two major fault lines are currently at their highest level in the past 1,000 years.
Published in Geophysical Research Journal, this new paper emphasizes the unpredictability of earthquake occurrences. However, it reveals that the Southern San Andreas and San Jacinto faults are under unprecedented stress, a condition termed “critical load.”
The last major earthquake of similar magnitude in California was the devastating 7.9 magnitude San Francisco earthquake on April 18, 1906, which claimed nearly 3,000 lives and brought widespread destruction to the Bay Area.
This catastrophic event released a significant amount of energy, affecting the northern segment of the San Andreas fault, while the southern fault systems examined in this study remained unaffected.
Since earthquakes in one section of the fault network do not relieve pressure in others, researchers indicate that strain has been building in the southern segments for decades, if not centuries.
Key Findings from the Research
Geologists, led by Lillian Burkhardt from the University of Hawaii at Manoa, utilized computer simulations to model significant seismic activities over the past millennium. Their findings indicate that California is experiencing its highest stress levels, thereby increasing the chances of an earthquake.
The model highlights a critical junction, or “earthquake gate,” located at Cajon Pass near San Bernardino, just northeast of Los Angeles. Burkhardt’s team notes that this junction could determine whether a rupture remains confined to one fault or propagates across multiple faults.
According to the model, the “gate” opens based on the matching stress levels of the two faults, both of which are currently under considerable pressure. A rupture that extends across both faults would be far more destructive than one occurring on a single fault, posing significant risks to Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, and the Coachella Valley, among the most densely populated areas in the United States.
Cajon Pass is a junction between California’s San Bernardino Mountains (above) and San Gabriel Mountains – Credit: Getty
Modern building codes have strengthened structures to withstand significantly more shaking compared to those built in 1906; however, a failure at a critical joint may still lead to catastrophic outcomes.
Expert Opinions
Bill McGuire, Emeritus Professor of Geophysics and Climate Hazards at University College London, who was not involved in this research, stated in an interview with BBC Science Focus, “Significant earthquakes are possible in both northern California (San Francisco and the Bay Area) and southern California (Los Angeles).” He highlights the importance of these new insights into earthquake risks.
McGuire further noted, “The concept that junctions like Cajon Pass function as ‘earthquake gates’ influencing whether one or multiple faults rupture is significant and has vital implications for future earthquake risk assessments.” He emphasized that the current stress levels on these faults being at historic highs is crucial for predicting when the next major event may occur in the Los Angeles region.
Red light therapy masks may seem a bit eerie with their ominous glow, reminiscent of a horror movie. Yet, these innovative skincare tools are more than just an online trend; they are backed by extensive research.
According to a market analysis, the red light therapy industry has blossomed into a multi-billion dollar sector, supported by decades of scientific studies.
“The underlying science is valid. It’s not a hoax,” says Dr. Zakir Rahman, a clinical professor of dermatology at Stanford Medical School.
The discussion isn’t about whether red light influences cells, but rather to what extent it does and who may benefit from it.
Understanding the Effects of Red Light Therapy
Anyone who’s experienced a sunburn knows that light impacts skin cells negatively. But what is the effect of other wavelengths, like red light?
This inquiry was posed by Hungarian scientist Endre Mester in 1967. He aimed to replicate an earlier study that suggested a powerful red laser could shrink tumors in mice. While he couldn’t replicate the results with a less potent laser, he discovered something even more astonishing: lab mice that were shaved exhibited significantly faster hair growth under gentle red light.
This surprising finding laid the groundwork for red light therapy, or photobiomodulation, based on the principle that while high-energy light can harm cells, lower-energy light may offer healing benefits.
While the precise mechanisms remain under investigation, numerous scientists suggest that red light acts on molecules in the mitochondria, as Dr. Jessica Garelick, a dermatologist in New York City, explains: “Red light is absorbed by cytochrome C oxidase, a crucial enzyme in the mitochondria, triggering energy production and cellular signaling.”
The challenge lies in translating these intriguing lab findings into real-world applications. “Study designs differ widely, necessitating further research to fully grasp the effects,” Garelick noted.
However, growing consensus supports the idea that red light therapy is beneficial. A recent review indicates that red light therapy shows effectiveness in treating neuralgia, certain pain types, hair removal, persistent skin ulcers, and radiation-induced skin burns.
Dr. Rahman emphasizes that there is “considerable data” supporting skin rejuvenation claims associated with red light therapy, which is believed to reduce pigmentation and enhance collagen production, improving overall skin tone and reducing fine lines.
A 2005 survey revealed that 90% of participants noted improvements in signs of aging after several weeks of LED red light therapy.
Emerging evidence suggests red light therapy can aid cellular healing – Credit: Getty
Dr. Garelick points out that significant evidence supports the use of red light therapy for conditions like ulcers, acne, wound care, and scar treatment.
Researchers are exploring broader applications of red light therapy, generating media interest for its potential benefits in treating conditions such as arthritis, dental issues, certain eye disorders, ADHD, dementia, and traumatic brain injuries. However, caution is warranted.
Although further studies are needed to determine long-term outcomes, the initial evidence is promising enough that many healthcare professionals consider red light a valuable therapeutic tool.
Learn More:
What to Consider Before Trying Red Light Therapy
If you’re contemplating red light therapy, where should you begin?
Devices come in various forms, sizes, and power levels, including masks, panels, and helmets. Treatments can be conducted at home with LEDs or in clinics using more powerful lasers.
Be cautious of claims about official endorsements. “It’s frustrating when devices assert FDA approval,” Dr. Rahman remarked.
FDA approval is typically limited to high-risk medical products; red light therapy devices only require 501(k) clearance, a less stringent process confirming the device is similar to previously classified products.
“FDA-cleared” means the device is safe, but not necessarily effective.
Some devices market themselves as more powerful, yet higher power does not always guarantee better results. “Using too much can be harmful,” warns Dr. Garelick.
Consistency is key when using red light therapy; adhere to the manufacturer’s instructions and be prepared to commit. If treatment is halted, “the benefits fade,” Dr. Rahman cautions. Dr. Garelick recommends maintaining realistic expectations, noting that results may take time since everyone’s skin responds differently.
It’s advisable to consult a dermatologist before beginning treatment, especially for individuals with light-sensitive conditions like lupus or melasma, or for those with darker skin.
The American Academy of Dermatology states that people with darker skin may be more sensitive to visible light and at greater risk for hyperpigmentation, resulting in darker spots lasting longer than from normal sun exposure.
While red light therapy offers potential benefits, maintaining proper skincare routines—like sunscreen application—is crucial – Credit: Getty
Ultimately, while red light therapy has its place in skincare, it should complement a healthy lifestyle.
For those who may not want to invest in red light devices, outdoor activities can also be beneficial. Dr. Rahman suggests taking walks during sunset, as they not only expose individuals to natural red light but also help lower cortisol levels and enhance cognitive function.
In addition, consistent use of sunscreen remains essential for preventing skin aging.
A collaborative effort by an international team of Romanian, Hungarian, and Italian paleontologists has led to the identification of a new genus and species of herbivorous duck-billed dinosaur, discovered from an incomplete skeleton in the Hersheg Basin, located in the Carpathian Mountains of present-day Romania.
Cryptohadros Kallaiae. Image credit: Tibor Pecsics.
Cryptohadros Kallaiae inhabited our planet during the Maastrichtian period of the Late Cretaceous, approximately 70 million years ago.
This dinosaur belongs to the Hadrosauridae family, which includes iconic duck-billed dinosaurs and their relatives.
The holotype specimen of this species was uncovered in continental deposits at the vertebrate site of Fantanelle-3, near the village of Valioara, within the Denshu-Siura Formation in Romania.
This region is renowned among paleontologists for its unique and rare dinosaur fossils.
“Complete skeletons, including cranial elements, vertebrae, and limb bones, are incredibly rare in the Haseg Basin, particularly for hadrosaur fossils,” stated paleontologist Dr. Attila Sisi from ELTE Eötvös Lorand University.
“Most sites yield only isolated bone elements, often mistakenly attributed to known dinosaur groups, despite lacking definitive features.
The skeleton of Cryptohadros Kallaiae is a partial specimen comprising the skull, rib fragments, caudal vertebrae, and parts of the hind limbs.”
Nevertheless, this fragmentary material was sufficient to distinguish the new species from other known dinosaurs, particularly from Thelmatosaurus transsylvanicus, a duck-billed dinosaur that has been misidentified for over a century.
This discovery suggests that at least two closely related duck-billed dinosaurs coexisted in the region during the Late Cretaceous.
“The morphological similarities with Thelmatosaurus are significant, indicating a close relationship,” remarked János Magyar, a PhD student at ELTE Eötvös Lorand University and the Hungarian Museum of Natural History.
“The differences largely pertain to the morphology of the skull elements.”
The researchers classified Cryptohadros Kallaiae, Thelmatosaurus transsylvanicus, and Tethyshadros from Italy as part of a newly recognized evolutionary group known as Telmatosauridae, a distinct lineage that evolved in southeastern Europe’s island environments.
“Our phylogenetic analysis reveals close relationships among all known Late Cretaceous hadrosaurids in southeastern Europe, including Thelmatosaurus, Tethyshadros, and Cryptohadros,” the researchers concluded.
“Furthermore, this analysis identifies several distinct evolutionary lineages of hadrosaurids within the European archipelago during the Late Cretaceous, suggesting multiple dispersal events between Asia and Europe during this period.”
The findings on Cryptohadros Kallaiae are detailed in a study published in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology.
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Janos Magyar et al. 2026. A new early Maastrichtian “duck-billed” dinosaur from the Haseg Basin (Densus-Siura Formation, Romania) documents a unique clade of non-hadrosaurid hadrosaurids from the southeastern Late Cretaceous European archipelago. Journal of Systematic Paleontology 24(1); doi: 10.1080/14772019.2025.2607800
Marine biologists have recently discovered a new species of walking shark, Hemiscyllium dudgeonae, enriching the remarkable family of reef-dwelling sharks that utilize their four fins to “walk” along the ocean floor. This exciting find emerged from the waters of eastern Papua New Guinea.
Hemiscyllium dudgeonae, male paratype from Nubwageta, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. Image credit: MV Erdmann.
These walking sharks belong to a group of 10 similar species of carpet sharks, each identifiable by unique color patterns, genetic markers, and localized distributions.
The Hemiscyllium genus is endemic to Australia and the islands of New Guinea, a region renowned for its rich diversity in carpet shark species shaped by intricate tectonic and sea-level changes.
Typically small and nocturnal, walking sharks reach lengths of 70-80 cm, with the largest individuals documented at 107 cm.
These species prefer shallow coastal areas, such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves, generally inhabiting depths of less than 10 meters, though they can be found as deep as 50 meters.
Due to their limited mobility and benthic lifestyles, the home ranges of walking sharks are constrained, usually spanning just a few hundred square meters to a few square kilometers.
Additionally, these sharks are oviparous, laying small, oval-shaped egg cases on the ocean floor, restricting their dispersal abilities.
Although research has expanded our understanding of walking shark distributions over the past two decades, the endemic species of eastern Papua New Guinea still require further study.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Christine Dudgeon and her team from the University of the Sunshine Coast explored the distribution of walking sharks in eastern Papua New Guinea.
“New species of sharks are a rare find, and this is certainly the first shark named in my honor,” remarked Dr. Dudgeon.
The newly identified Hemiscyllium dudgeonae was discovered during a survey that took place from 2023 to 2025 in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea.
This species, commonly referred to as the Dudgeon Epaulette Shark, features a unique coloration characterized by brown freckles and white spots throughout its body, alongside a distinctive eye-like marking on the back of its head.
Genetic analysis indicates that this new species is closely related to Hemiscyllium micheli.
Researchers expressed concern for Hemiscyllium dudgeonae, noting its limited range makes it particularly vulnerable.
“We anticipate that the IUCN Red List will classify this species as vulnerable or critically endangered,” said Jess Blakeway, a PhD student at the University of the Sunshine Coast.
The study has also updated the known distributions of Hemiscyllium micheli and another walking shark species from Papua New Guinea, Hemiscyllium hallstromi.
“Our research has altered our understanding of walking shark habitats,” Blakeway stated. “It was previously believed that each species occupied distinct habitats separated by barriers, but we now know they have overlapping distributions in eastern Papua New Guinea.”
This new species marks the 10th addition to the genus of Epaulette sharks found in Papua New Guinea.
Currently, there are five endangered species listed under the IUCN Red List, which applies to only 3% of all sharks.
The team’s findings are detailed in a paper published on June 15th in the Marine Science Foundation Journal.
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J.-A. Blakeway et al. 2026. Distribution and description of new species of Walking Shark (Hemiscylliidae: Hemiscyllium) in Papua New Guinea. Marine Science Foundation Journal 46: 71-110; doi: 10.5281/zenodo.20575429
Researchers suggest that early human ancestors, specifically Homo erectus, date back approximately 1.79 million years, coinciding with the intentional use of fire in South Africa’s Wonderwerk Cave.
Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa. Image credit: Michael Chazan.
Wonderwerk Cave is situated 60 km south of Kulman in South Africa’s Northern Cape Province.
This significant site has revealed a fossil and archaeological record that spans nearly two million years of human habitation.
“The mastery of fire significantly impacts the evolutionary dynamics of Homo species, altering their relationship with both natural and cultural environments,” stated Dr. Liora Korska-Horwitz from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and her colleagues.
“While the pace of innovation in hominin fire technology remains debated, evidence suggests that early humans could obtain fire from seasonal wildfires and transport it back to their habitats for survival,” they noted.
“The ability to generate and control fire only emerged much later in human development.”
Current research indicates that the most compelling evidence for early fire usage stems from the Acheulean artifacts found within Wonderwerk Cave.
Previous studies have suggested that fire was utilized in the cave around one million years ago.
However, Dr. Korska-Horwitz and her co-authors conducted a thorough examination of the cave’s stratigraphic layers, discovering charred animal bones that date between 1.07 and 1.79 million years old.
It appears that Homo erectus were not merely passive bystanders to natural wildfires nor advanced fire creators, but rather engaged in a more nuanced interaction with fire.
The findings suggest early humans captured fire from wilderness wildfires, brought it into their caves, and maintained it until it extinguished.
“Detecting evidence of fire from such ancient sites poses unique challenges,” explained Dr. Korska-Horwitz.
“Our research introduces innovative methodologies for uncovering ancient fire signatures, revealing consistent fire presence deep within Wonderwerk Cave.”
Central to the study is a novel analytical technique developed to identify combustion traces in fossilized bones.
“When subjected to specific light wavelengths, bones exposed to high temperatures emit a distinctive luminescence,” the researchers clarified.
“By merging this non-invasive luminescence technique with established chemical analyses, we successfully identified charred animal remains.”
The strong correlation between burnt bones and Acheulean stone tools, coupled with the absence of sediment transport that might explain their presence, underscores the likelihood of intentional human fire usage.
“Our findings reveal that early humans were not mere bystanders to natural fires,” emphasized Dr. Korska-Horwitz.
“They actively engaged with fire and integrated it into their daily lives.”
These findings were published in a 2026 study in the online journal PLoS ONE.
_____
MD Marine Monfort et al. 2026. New evidence of early Pleistocene fire use at Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa). PLoS One 21 (6): e0347480; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0347480
Neuroscientist Emily Rogalski reveals the secrets of superagers
Craig Boylan
As people age, memory often declines, with the ability to recall information significantly reduced by the time one reaches their 80s. However, a unique group known as superagers—individuals over 80 with memory capacity akin to those in their 50s or 60s—remains sharp. One such pioneer in this research is Emily Rogalski.
As a neuroscientist at the University of Chicago and the director of ongoing studies in the Super Ager Research Project, Rogalski is uncovering how these remarkable individuals maintain cognitive sharpness despite exhibiting signs of Alzheimer’s disease in their brains. Her team’s findings indicate that superagers possess larger cerebral cortices and hippocampi, essential areas tied to memory. In her interview with New Scientist, Rogalski delves into what defines a superager and shares insights on enhancing one’s chances of joining their ranks.
Alexandra Thompson: What defines a SuperAger?
Emily Rogalski: A superager is someone over 80 who retains memory capabilities comparable to those in their 50s or 60s. Other cognitive areas like language skills and executive function should also be age-appropriate. Most people can recall at least one incredibly active individual in their lives who they cannot believe is 90 yet behaves like they are just 50.
Reports abound of older individuals achieving impressive physical feats, from running marathons to climbing mountains. Why focus on exceptional memory instead of other characteristics?
Forgetfulness often perplexes older adults, representing a major indicator of Alzheimer’s disease. My research investigates how those over 80 with exceptional memories defy the age-related cognitive decline. One approach to Alzheimer’s research focuses on understanding the breakdowns; another explores those who thrive and asks, “What’s the secret?”
How do you identify superagers?
We engage with communities like farmers’ markets and retirement areas to hold classes on healthy aging, and that’s where we meet these remarkable individuals. Word of mouth also plays a vital role as our current superagers often assist us in locating others. Initially focused in the Chicago area, we’ve expanded to five sites across the U.S. and Canada, ensuring diversity in regional and ethnic representation.
What assessments do candidates undergo to qualify as superagers for your research?
Potential superagers participate in cognitive tests and surveys, undergo clinical interviews, brief neurological examinations, MRI scans, and provide blood samples for genetic studies. Surprisingly, many were previously unaware of their exceptional memory, often expressing pride at having been identified as such.
Participants remain engaged with our study over their lifetimes, returning every two years for evaluations. They also participate in biannual phone assessments and agree to donate their brains posthumously, allowing close examination of cellular and molecular factors.
What insights do autopsy results typically provide?
In superagers, overall levels of tau—a protein linked to Alzheimer’s—tend to be lower. Some may show pathology associated with Alzheimer’s, yet remain unexpectedly cognitively healthy. Conversely, there are instances of patients whose cognitive function is profoundly better than anticipated for their age.
Although genetics may protect some from Alzheimer’s, superagers sometimes show pathological signs without symptoms.
When we began the SuperAger Project, it was often suggested that superagers simply have a low risk of Alzheimer’s. But our research shows no significant genetic differences compared to the general elderly population. Some high-risk individuals still belong to the superager category. This raises questions about potential protective factors that mitigate genetic risks.
Identifying unique cellular markers related to hyperaging, we’ve found the presence of an abundance of von Economo neurons in superagers. These neurons reside in areas like the anterior cingulate cortex, which exhibits thicker structure in superagers than in younger adults. This region is crucial for attention, directly influencing memory.
Socializing promotes healthy aging
Grant Rooney/Alamy
What lifestyle choices do superagers typically share?
Among the key traits of superagers is their social engagement. Maintaining connections with others, including younger generations, helps stave off loneliness. Many superagers thrive in environments with vibrant social interactions, often mentoring or volunteering alongside younger individuals.
“
You might assume everyone had life handed to them on a silver platter. That’s not what we see. “
Adaptability, perseverance, and resilience also characterize superagers. Their stories often reveal life challenges—ranging from surviving the Holocaust to personal losses—but they consistently demonstrate the ability to bounce back and find joy in their lives.
Dietary habits among superagers vary; not all adhere to strict healthy eating guidelines. Many enjoy their favorite foods, sometimes citing childhood favorites. Physical activity habits differ, ranging from gentle exercises to rigorous fitness routines.
Hearing the stories of Holocaust survivors is incredibly impactful.
One survivor I met, over 90 years old, was filled with life and running a gift shop in a retirement community, showcasing a remarkable ability to connect and share her narrative.
Why is social interaction beneficial for cognitive health?
Engaging in new and challenging activities invigorates our brains. Much like physical exercise strengthens muscles, socializing enhances cognitive resilience. Conversations stimulate brain activity, benefiting overall cognitive function.
How do interactions with younger individuals enhance cognitive engagement for the elderly?
Interactions between generations serve as mutual mentoring opportunities. For instance, an older adult living with their family can help bridge knowledge gaps spanning music and cultural references, providing enriching conversational experiences.
Is it possible for cognitively advantaged individuals to become more social rather than socialize to become cognitively proficient?
We must carefully differentiate between correlation and causation. While cognitive abilities may facilitate social interactions, sustaining those connections appears to play a crucial role in cognitive decline mitigation.
“
The daily martini is how they make connections and find a calming point. “
Do superagers indulge in unhealthy habits, or do they strictly adhere to a healthy lifestyle?
Many superagers assert that their longevity is a product of balance. Some mention enjoying daily martinis as a social ritual rather than endorsing alcohol consumption. These moments provide them with a sense of connection and relaxation.
What advice would you offer those seeking to become superagers?
Genetics, once perceived as determining fate, is now understood to be more intricate. While not entirely in our control, our environments and choices can influence outcomes significantly. Social connections are paramount; make an effort to reach out and nurture friendships rather than isolating yourself.
Satellite images reveal a significant phytoplankton bloom in the Arctic Ocean near Svalbard, contributing to a noticeable green hue.
Credit: European Union, Copernicus Sentinel 2 images
Melting sea ice in the Arctic is increasingly allowing sunlight to penetrate, which supports the growth of phytoplankton and other marine life. However, this phenomenon is causing nutrient depletion in certain areas, potentially disrupting the ecosystems that support seals, polar bears, and commercial fish populations in the North Atlantic.
Phytoplankton, essential photosynthetic organisms, serve as the foundation of the marine food web. Recent studies indicate unprecedented increases in phytoplankton blooms, as evidenced by satellite measurements of chlorophyll levels. However, since 2009, overall growth has notably slowed in many regions, particularly on the Atlantic side of the Arctic. Research from Raja Ganeshram and his team at the University of Edinburgh highlights how high phytoplankton levels in the Pacific are depleting nearby nitrate levels, critical for their development.
According to Ganeshram, “Arctic warming impacts ecosystems beyond just sea ice and temperature reductions. This affects food resources both in the Arctic and the North Atlantic, impacting the entire region in ways we are still deciphering.”
Nitrogen is a key nutrient for all forms of plant life, including terrestrial flora and phytoplankton. Recent findings show that nutrient-rich waters from the Pacific, flowing through the Bering Strait into the Chukchi Sea, are vital for sustaining phytoplankton productivity in the Arctic. These nutrients are carried by ocean currents to the Atlantic Ocean, particularly through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard.
The team led by Ganeshram analyzed nutrient data from the Fram Strait, gathered during icebreaker missions from 1998 to 2023. Their findings reveal a significant decline in nitrate levels since 2009, coinciding with a shift toward reduced sea ice extents. Most nitrate influx from the Pacific is absorbed in the Chukchi Sea, where melting ice exposes waters to more sunlight.
This increased phytoplankton growth leads to higher rates of decomposition, as aerobic bacteria break down the organic material, consuming oxygen. Once the available oxygen is exhausted, anaerobic microorganisms take over, decomposing phytoplankton and depleting nitrates. By the time these waters reach the Fram Strait, a vital nutrient has been lost.
This depletion means that diatoms, a type of algae that thrives in nitrate-rich environments, are no longer prevalent in the Fram Strait. Currently, microplankton dominate, as they can efficiently utilize nitrogen from ammonium sources. This shift may disrupt food chains, as smaller zooplankton must consume these smaller phytoplankton before they can transfer energy to larger organisms, further compounding the challenges for fisheries and human communities reliant on marine resources.
The changing dynamics of nutrient flow into the North Atlantic is expected to alter phytoplankton composition, with significant implications for commercial fisheries. These results suggest that phytoplankton growth is increasingly limited by nutrient availability rather than by sunlight, signaling a potential halt in growth across the Arctic Ocean. According to Jean-Eric Tremblay, a researcher at Laval University in Quebec City, not involved in the study, “This shows the Arctic Ocean may not become the future oasis we hope for. Increased phytoplankton production could enhance denitrification, further depleting nitrates and reducing productivity.”
The researchers conclude that the Arctic ecosystem has likely crossed a tipping point. “While year-to-year variations may occur, the recovery of sea ice to previous states is improbable,” says Marta Santos Garcia, also from the University of Edinburgh. “The ongoing loss of nitrate is unlikely to be reversible.”
New research indicates divergent brain connectivity in people with autism, showing both enhanced and diminished inter-brain region connections.
Puwadol Jaturautchai/Alamy
Recent studies show that individuals diagnosed with autism may present either strong or weak neural connectivity patterns. These variations are linked to distinct mechanisms within the brain, hinting at the existence of multiple autism subtypes.
“We have identified major autism subtypes associated with differing biological mechanisms,” notes Alessandro Gozzi from the Italian Polytechnic University in Rovereto.
Autism, often viewed through the lens of neurodiversity, affects approximately 780 individuals per 100,000. Common traits include social interaction challenges, sensitivity to sensory stimuli, and restricted interests. However, the intensity and manifestation of these traits vary widely.
For years, neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been used to identify unique autism signatures in the brain. “No definitive single signature has yet been identified,” Gozzi states. Some researchers have observed hyperconnectivity in some brain regions, while others have noted low connectivity or a combination of both patterns.
Many previous studies overlooked autism’s diversity, according to Gozzi. To address this, his team studied 20 mouse models with mutations in genes linked to human autism. fMRI results showed variations in connectivity; eleven strains demonstrated primarily hypoconnectivity while nine showed hyperconnectivity.
“These conflicting connectivity signatures are indicative of different underlying mechanisms,” Gozzi explains. They mapped protein interactions associated with the mutated genes. Mice with lower connectivity showed interactions with synapse-related proteins, while hyperconnected mice interacted with proteins linked to gene regulation and immune function.
Furthermore, the research team analyzed fMRI data from 940 autism patients compared to 1,036 age-matched controls. Among the autistic participants, 24% exhibited hypoconnectivity and 17% hyperconnectivity. “At least two biologically distinct autism subtypes are evident,” Gozzi asserts.
Nevertheless, 59% of the autistic population does not fit into these classifications, potentially due to the specific genes selected for study. “Our findings do not suggest these are the only subtypes,” Gozzi clarifies. These were merely the ones detectable through their research methods.
Natalie Sauerwald, a researcher at New York’s Flatiron Institute, concurs that there may be additional, yet unidentified, subtypes of autism. She emphasizes that this work sheds light on autism’s heterogeneity and the biological factors involved.
Challenges persist in utilizing animal models for autism research. Humans have numerous genes, each with minimal individual effects on autism risk. Consequently, studied mice may not represent the full spectrum of autism, as noted by Sauerwald.
Some of the genes examined also relate to developmental delays. Thus, studies like this may only reflect individuals with autism who experience developmental deviations, rather than those without.
Looking ahead, connecting genetics, brain connectivity, and behavioral traits will be crucial to fully understanding autism’s diversity, according to Sauerwald.
A remarkable new species of walking shark has been discovered off the coast of Papua New Guinea, capable of traversing coral reefs with most of its body out of the water.
Local fishermen have long observed this unique fish, known as Kadededewa, which translates to “dog shark” or “lazy shark.”
This newly classified shark belongs to the Hemiscyllium genus, commonly referred to as walking sharks or epaulette sharks. These fascinating sea creatures navigate by using their pectoral fins like legs and are typically found in Australia and New Guinea.
The new species has been named Hemiscyllium dudgeonae, in honor of Christine Dudgeon, a professor at the University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, who was part of the team that formally identified this species.
Dudgeon first encountered this walking shark in March 2025, while swimming in a seagrass meadow in Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea, only a meter deep.
Initially searching for another species, she unexpectedly stumbled upon the shark: “It was very slow, and after spending some time in the water, I noticed it swimming near the bottom,” she recalled.
Using a flashlight to illuminate the shark, which measured approximately three-quarters of a meter, caused it to freeze in a defensive response. Dudgeon then carefully used a technique called “flip and tuck” to secure the shark for study.
Christine Dudgeon with Hemiscyllium dudgeonae
Nesha Ichida
Once securely captured, Dudgeon passed the shark to her colleague, Jess Blakeway, who was stationed on a nearby drifting boat.
Blakeway noted the distinct color pattern immediately, which differed from previously studied species: “It was evident that this shark was unique compared to other documented species,” she stated.
While the other nine known species of walking sharks predominantly feed on invertebrates from the ocean floor, they share similarities in size and appearance. Their skin patterns are their most distinguishing feature.
The species researchers anticipated discovering displayed more leopard-like markings; however, Hemiscilium dudgeonae exhibits a unique arrangement reminiscent of Braille or Morse code, according to Blakeway.
Over the following days, researchers captured 11 additional specimens from the surrounding areas, of which three were retained for detailed study and nine released after sampling.
This species is thought to reside exclusively within the coral reefs of Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea.
Nesha Ichida
In the lab, DNA testing confirmed that this new shark species is genetically distinctive from its relatives.
However, the walking sharks of Papua New Guinea face critical threats from habitat destruction, driven by coastal development, expanding palm oil plantations, and coral bleaching.
Researchers believe that Hemiscyllium dudgeonae may only inhabit the Milne Bay area and could be the most endangered species within this group.
“This species contributes to the incredible biodiversity of Papua New Guinea, but urgent conservation measures are necessary to prevent local extinction,” Blakeway urged.
Ariel Waldman utilized a macro probe lens to capture stunning images of microbial mats in Antarctica’s desert valleys.
Image Credit: Ariel Waldman
Ariel Waldman stands amidst an alien landscape reminiscent of Mars. Below her lie fragments of rock and barren soil, while jagged mountains glisten with dusty ice. Despite being on Earth, she is in the dry valleys of Antarctica—an expansive, deep brown region nestled between frozen mountains and ancient glaciers. In her new documentary series, Unearthed Life, Waldman elegantly articulates the notion that our planet may be more extraterrestrial than we realize.
Her captivating six-episode series, available on PBS and YouTube, is an exploration of the hidden world beneath Earth’s surface. As a member of a soil science team in Antarctica, Waldman employs a macro probe lens and advanced camera technology to document microscopic landscapes and overlooked wildlife, highlighting ecosystems that are rapidly changing due to climate change.
From the seemingly barren canyons of Antarctica to the vibrant swamps of North America, Waldman introduces viewers to microscopic animals such as nematodes, rotifers, and tardigrades. These minuscule yet significant creatures play a vital role in sustaining our ecosystems. Remarkably, she documented her Antarctic expedition solo.
Sitting in her cozy San Francisco office, adorned with cabinets full of microscopes and photographic gear, Waldman’s passion lies in documenting the fragile environments of Antarctica and the prairies before they could vanish. “To create a nature documentary about the dry valleys of Antarctica,” she emphasized, “you need a microscope to reveal the hidden life. The same principle applies to the prairies, where most biomass lurks beneath the surface.”
As the official curator of the San Francisco Microscopy Society, Waldman aims to promote the importance of observing soil through a microscope, akin to how we gaze at the stars through a telescope. Her series, Unearthed Life, showcases tardigrades—resilient creatures that thrive in extreme conditions, hinting at the types of life we may find in outer space.
Connecting Science and Community
Waldman’s journey began at NASA, where she founded Space Hack, a platform connecting citizen scientists to space exploration initiatives. She pioneered CubeSat, enabling DIY satellites to enter orbit, and established Science Hack Day, fostering collaboration between scientists and enthusiasts on diverse projects.
In our pre-Antarctica meeting, Waldman’s primary concern was fitting her extensive equipment into her luggage. Her educational background in graphic design informs her mission: not just to research the planet, but to visually connect people with its wonders. She encourages everyone to acquire an affordable microscope and explore the hidden life around them, believing that this awareness will foster conservation efforts.
Inspired by Eames’ acclaimed film 10 Powers, Waldman emphasizes the significance of scale in understanding our cosmic context. This perspective drives her to employ both microscopes and aerial drones in her explorations. “Humans appear either insignificant or monumental in the universe, depending on your viewpoint,” she reflected, highlighting how technology reveals the virtually invisible aspects of life.
Waldman aspires for Unearthed Life to ignite curiosity and inspire a new generation to utilize microscopes, unveiling the hidden diversity of wildlife beneath our feet. To truly appreciate the marvels of nature, we must start observing the unseen.
For those prone to vomiting while riding in the passenger seat, it’s commonly recommended to avoid reading, limit screen time, and take frequent breaks. Additionally, medications like scopolamine or antihistamines may alleviate symptoms.
Interestingly, listening to the radio can also serve as an effective remedy. This idea is backed by recent research from China.
According to the study, participants engaged in a driving simulator for three minutes and then listened to music or practiced meditation for one minute.
Music categorized as “calm” or “happy” was found to be more effective in reducing motion sickness compared to “passionate” music, while “sad” tunes tended to exacerbate discomfort.
This article addresses the question, “What is the best way to stop getting carsick?” (asked via e-mail by Joshua Howard).
If you have any questions, please reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messageFacebook, Twitter or Instagram (please include your name and location).
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Since child psychiatrist Leo Kanner documented the first case of autism in 1943, this neurodevelopmental condition has evoked both fascination and fear, potentially more than any other. This intense scrutiny has unfortunately perpetuated decades of misunderstandings.
In Kanner’s early work, he proposed the discredited “refrigerator mother” theory, suggesting that emotionally distant parenting causes autism. This myth has been thoroughly debunked, yet it contributed to a lasting stigma that persists today.
Fast forward to 2026, and scientific advancements such as gene sequencing, sophisticated AI, and lab-engineered “mini-brains” offer unprecedented insights into the development of autistic traits. Yet, as research progresses, misinformation continues to proliferate, aided by flawed studies and social media influencers misinforming parents seeking clarity.
Let’s debunk some of the most common misconceptions surrounding autism.
Myth 1: Autism is an epidemic
In spring 2025, the CDC released a report that many incorrectly interpret as evidence of an autism “epidemic.” This interpretation is misleading. David Mandell, a Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, explains that much of the rise reflects significant changes in how autism is diagnosed and identified.
Since the 1990s, the diagnostic criteria have expanded, allowing more individuals who once exhibited “mild” characteristics, such as subtle social communication differences or strict routines, to receive formal diagnoses.
“There’s been a substantial shift in the definition of autism, leading to an increase in diagnosed cases,” says Mandel.
Myth 2: Vaccines increase the risk of autism
Despite overwhelming scientific evidence to the contrary, the unfounded belief linking childhood vaccinations to autism persists. This misconception gained renewed attention when U.S. Secretary of Health Robert F. Kennedy Jr. reiterated such claims.
Extensive research confirms no connection between vaccines and autism, despite ongoing claims circulating online and in public discourse. – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Concerns primarily focus on thimerosal, a vaccine preservative, and the cumulative effect of multiple vaccinations. However, numerous studies have found no evidence supporting these claims. “More than a dozen rigorous studies indicate no connection between thimerosal and autism,” Mandel emphasizes.
Myth 3: All autistic people are geniuses
As noted by Fred Volkmar, Professor of Child Psychiatry at Yale, the stereotype that all autistic individuals possess extraordinary abilities is both misleading and frustrating.
Films often reinforce the “autistic genius” stereotype, overshadowing the rich diversity of autistic abilities. – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Current research shows that around 30% of autistic individuals have an intellectual disability, while 40-70% experience language impairments. “Only about one in ten autistic individuals possesses isolated skills, and this doesn’t denote genius,” Volkmar remarks.
Myth 4: Taking paracetamol increases the risk of autism
In September 2025, claims emerged from President Donald Trump suggesting that paracetamol could lead to autism, a statement that alarmed researchers. This idea stemmed from recent research linking medication use to neurodevelopmental conditions.
Links between pain medication and autism risk often stem from underlying medical conditions rather than the medications themselves. – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Many pregnant women use paracetamol to manage fevers caused by infections, which are significant autism risk factors. “The reasons women take Tylenol often contribute to developmental delays in children,” explains Mandel.
Myth 5: Autism can be treated by removing heavy metals
Worries about autism as an “epidemic” have led to increased interest in environmental toxins, notably heavy metals. Some doctors now offer “chelation therapy” as a supposed remedy.
Chelation therapy aims to eliminate heavy metals from the bloodstream but can have deadly consequences. – Image credit: Getty Images
However, Lucia Peixoto, an Associate Professor at Washington State University, cautions that not only is there no evidence supporting the efficacy of chelation therapy, but it can also pose serious risks. “These treatments often profit from unproven methods,” she states.
Myth 6: Autistic people don’t feel emotions
Misunderstandings arise from the difficulty some autistic individuals have in reading social cues, which can mask their emotional depth. – Image courtesy: Getty Images
For decades, autistic individuals have been depicted as logical but devoid of emotion, even by their families. While some may struggle with emotional identification, this does not negate their emotional capacity; many actually possess intense emotional experiences.
Just because they struggle with reading social cues doesn’t mean they lack empathy. As Daniel Geschwind, a professor of neuroscience and genetics at UCLA, notes, “Autistic children can form strong emotional bonds.”
Myth 7: A gluten-free diet can reverse autism
In summer 2024, a controversial study claimed that adopting a gluten-free and dairy-free diet could “cure” autism, which quickly gained traction online.
While gluten-free diets may provide comfort-related benefits, they do not change the nature of autism, a fact often overstated. – Image credit: Getty Images
Claims of dietary changes preventing autism have been disproven multiple times. Though autistic children have a higher incidence of gastrointestinal issues and dietary adjustments can ease discomfort, it doesn’t cure autism. “They are still autistic; improved comfort should not be mistaken for neurodevelopmental change,” explains Geschwind.
Copper diacetylbis(4-methyl-3-thiosemicarbazone), commonly known as Cu (ATSM), has demonstrated significant potential in rejuvenating vital waste clearance mechanisms in the brain, reducing harmful amyloid beta accumulation, and enhancing spatial memory in a laboratory model of Alzheimer’s disease. This study was conducted by a dedicated research team at Monash University.
The study leveraged the APP/PS1 mouse model for familial Alzheimer’s disease to assess how Cu(ATSM) affects cerebral microvascular integrity and P-glycoprotein activity, influencing amyloid beta clearance, brain amyloid levels, and cognitive abilities. Image credit: Pyun et al., doi: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6c00252.
Alzheimer’s disease arises from the accumulation of the toxic protein amyloid beta.
Under normal circumstances, the brain eliminates these proteins through the blood-brain barrier into the bloodstream.
In Alzheimer’s patients, a critical pump known as P-glycoprotein becomes significantly impaired, leading to a buildup of toxic proteins in the brain.
“This innovative treatment effectively targets cerebral blood vessels to decrease toxic protein levels, resulting in noteworthy behavioral improvements,” explained lead researcher Dr. Jae Pyung. The findings are detailed in their published paper in ACS Chemical Neuroscience.
“This study marks the first instance demonstrating that Cu(ATSM) can enhance P-glycoprotein clearance by 24.1% in an Alzheimer’s disease context, thereby connecting the restoration of the blood-brain barrier to decreased toxic protein levels and improved cognitive capacity.”
“By bolstering this pump mechanism, the brain can effectively eradicate trapped waste materials.”
“Over a 56-day treatment period, Cu(ATSM) reduced harmful amyloid beta levels by 42% and enhanced spatial learning abilities by nearly 44%.”
“Given that this compound has already undergone safety evaluations for other medical conditions, it shows great promise for swift progression into human clinical trials,” stated Professor Joseph Nicolazzo, the senior author.
“Cu(ATSM) is a copper-based compound with notable anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective characteristics, currently undergoing clinical trials for diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.”
“These preclinical findings strongly advocate for further investigation of this drug in early symptomatic Alzheimer’s disease, as reducing amyloid levels is clinically validated to enhance functional outcomes.”
While Cu(ATSM) effectively lowers amyloid accumulation, researchers are still deciphering the precise biological pathways that facilitate protein clearance from the brain.
Apart from its role in repairing the blood-brain barrier, there is speculation that copper treatment might empower the brain’s immune cells, known as microglia, to ingest and degrade toxic plaques.
“Future investigations will concentrate on elucidating the exact clearance mechanisms that allow proteins to exit the brain and enter circulation,” the research team remarked.
“This breakthrough establishes a robust basis for exploring biometallic therapies like Cu(ATSM) to counteract vascular dysfunction and cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer’s disease.”
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Jaepyeong et al. Cu(ATSM) enhances blood-brain barrier P-glycoprotein levels and promotes cognitive function in the APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. ACS Chem. Neuroscience published online on May 30, 2026. doi: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6c00252
Paleontologists have unearthed 13 fossilized teeth deep within a limestone cave in southern China, belonging to the species Gigantopithecus brachy, the largest known primate species in history. This groundbreaking discovery provides crucial insights into the species’ adaptability during significant climate changes between 1.2 million and 700,000 years ago, thereby filling important gaps in the fossil record.
Artist’s impression of a herd of Gigantopithecus brachy in the forests of southern China. Image credit: Garcia / Joannes-Boyau, Southern Cross University.
Gigantopithecus brachy was an extinct great ape inhabiting the jungles of Southeast Asia.
This impressive primate surpassed modern gorillas, standing up to 3 meters (10 feet) tall and weighing as much as 540 kg.
This species existed from approximately 2.3 million years ago until its extinction roughly between 295,000 and 215,000 years ago.
First described in 1935 by German-Dutch anthropologist Gustav von Königswald, the species was based on an isolated tooth discovered in a Hong Kong pharmacy.
The fossil record for Gigantopithecus brachy includes several thousand teeth and a limited number of jawbones.
“Gigantopithecus brachy is hypothesized to have been the largest primate species,” stated paleontologist Dr. Yanyang Yao from Shandong University, Nanning Normal University, and Guangxi Museum of Anthropology, alongside colleagues in China.
“Their fossil record primarily dates back to the Early Pleistocene and continues into the Middle Pleistocene, but material from the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition (1.2 million to 700,000 years ago) remains relatively rare.”
Yanli Dong, Chongzuo City, Guangxi Province, China. Image credit: Yao et al., doi: 10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0010.
Paleontologists successfully uncovered 13 teeth of Gigantopithecus brachy, including both upper and lower canines, premolars, and molars, at Yanli Cave 1 in Chongzuo City, Guangxi Province, China.
This significant find dates accurately to the Early Middle Pleistocene Transition (EMPT), a period characterized by cooler, drier climates and increasing glacial influence.
Estimated ages of the fossils are derived from associated animal fossils rather than direct dating of the teeth.
Researchers identified specimens from 30 species across six orders, including relatives of orangutans, tigers, clouded leopards, tapirs, Javan rhinos, stegodons, and Asian elephants.
Notably, two species in this assemblage provided valuable information for dating. The Airuropoda oolinshanensis represents a giant panda characteristic of the late Early Pleistocene, while Airuropoda melanoluca bakoni typifies a panda subspecies of the Middle Pleistocene.
The co-occurrence of both species strongly indicates that this deposit was formed during the transition between these two epochs.
“This faunal assemblage is indicative of the biostratigraphic age of EMPT,” the researchers stated.
The fossils of Gigantopithecus brachy found in Yanli Cave 1 appear to showcase ongoing evolutionary changes.
Some specimens exhibit the relatively small tooth sizes typical of early populations, while others approach the larger dimensions found in later populations, likely reflecting dietary adaptations.
“Comparative analyses of tooth dimensions of Gigantopithecus fossils from other sites indicated that some specimens from Yanli Cave 1 retain the smaller size characteristics prevalent in early Early Pleistocene populations,” the scientists noted.
“Conversely, other specimens approach the larger tooth sizes common in late Early Pleistocene populations and the extensive size ranges recorded in Middle Pleistocene populations.”
“These findings align with our biochronological assessments.”
“Following discoveries at Queque Cave and Zhanwang Cave, both located in nearby Chongzuo, Yanli Cave 1 represents the third significant EMPT site. This regional focus is likely to provide essential evidence for understanding dental evolutionary patterns and adaptive strategies in response to climate change during the EMPT.”
Yanyang Yao et al. 2026. Discovery of Gigantopithecus brachy in Yanli Cave 1, Chongzuo City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, during the transition period between the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Chinese Anthropology Methods 45 (02): 199-209; doi: 10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0010
In contrast to many of NASA’s flagship missions, the Roman Telescope was successfully delivered on budget and ahead of schedule. However, achieving this milestone was not without its challenges, according to Benford.
“Bringing this observatory to life in space has been a significant focus of my professional journey, and throughout the years, it felt like a relentless struggle,” he stated.
The Roman Telescope project has faced significant interruptions, including the COVID-19 pandemic and two long government shutdowns in U.S. history. Initially, NASA aimed for a launch by May 2027 at the latest.
The observatory is scheduled to launch atop a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. Following its launch, the Roman Telescope will journey for over three months to reach its orbital destination. Upon arrival, mission controllers will test the observatory’s instruments before commencing scientific observations.
NASA employees and guests view the Nancy Grace Roman Telescope in the clean room. Jason Andrew, NBC News
If all goes according to plan, Benford anticipates that the telescope’s first images will be revealed by the end of this year.
“It could be around Christmas time; hopefully, it will make for a delightful present,” he remarked.
Currently, NASA has no major space telescope initiatives in the pipeline. The agency is considering a mission called the Habitable World Observatory aimed at discovering signs of life on exoplanets, but this project won’t launch until the 2040s.
The impending launch of the Roman Telescope holds special significance for Goddard Space Flight Center employees, many of whom also contributed to the Hubble and Webb missions.
“The excitement is overwhelming; I’ve dedicated a substantial part of my career to this project,” shared mission systems engineer Mark Melton. He anticipates shedding tears upon the telescope’s deployment.
“It started as a concept, and now it’s a reality,” he concluded.
Is a revolutionary, error-free quantum computer on the horizon? Researchers at the renowned quantum computing firm QuEra assert that a breakthrough could be achieved as early as 2025.
Quantum computing technology is advancing rapidly, and the industry’s growth is staggering. One major barrier hindering its application in fields like chemistry, materials science, and drug development is the high error rates of quantum computers, limiting their calculation capacities. QuEra’s Yuval Boger and his team are confident they have strategies to overcome this challenge.
QuEra’s upcoming quantum computer, named Libra, is designed to be fault-tolerant, meaning it has the ability to identify and correct its own errors. Scheduled for cloud deployment in collaboration with Amazon Web Services (AWS), Libra is projected to be operational by 2028. Currently, no fully functional, fault-tolerant quantum computers exist; Boger likens this milestone to “breaking the sound barrier.”
The qubits in Libra are crafted from electrically neutral atoms at subzero temperatures and managed using laser technology. The system is expected to operate with 10,000 to 15,000 qubits, arranged into 256 logical qubit clusters. Remarkably, even if the individual qubits are unreliable, they will only falter once in a million instances.
QuEra anticipates that Libra will facilitate “mega-quops,” or one million operations. In 2025, quantum expert John Preskill at the California Institute of Technology noted that this mega-quop machine could herald a new chapter in quantum computing. However, achieving this vision will require significant advancements: the largest neutral atom qubit array today contains just 6,100 qubits and hasn’t been applied to calculations, while the record for error-correction among logical qubits stands at 48. Major players like IBM predict the introduction of fault-tolerant quantum computers by 2029.
Jonathan King from Atom Computing, which develops its own neutral atom quantum computer, suggests that achieving a fully functional system will necessitate integrating various scientific and technological breakthroughs beyond laboratory prototypes. QuEra operates five experimental machines to refine Libra’s components, including the replacement of defective atoms due to increased temperatures, optimizing laser power management, and system integration.
“The balance is shifting from 90% science to 10% engineering, leaning more towards engineering,” Boger explains. The team is also improving the interaction between traditional computing systems used to monitor and control qubits, collaborating with AWS to incorporate Libra into the substantial cloud infrastructure.
“There’s still much work ahead,” reflects Thomas Wong from Creighton University, who adds, “We might reach this goal by 2028, but it could also take several more years.” Joe Fitzsimmons from Horizon Quantum Computing notes that although Libra’s ambitions are significant, QuEra has a strong history of making progress in error correction for quantum systems. While various techniques exist to develop qubits, the neutral atom method has an edge when it comes to converting between qubits and logical qubits.
Assuming everything unfolds smoothly, one major question remains: What capabilities will the MegaQuop machine offer? According to Boger, it is particularly suited for simulating intricate systems in physics and materials science that remain beyond the reach of conventional or existing quantum computers. He hopes researchers will leverage it to create new quantum computing algorithms for future fault-tolerant systems. “I wouldn’t be surprised if most of the truly impactful algorithms have yet to be discovered,” he asserts.
Wong envisions Libra as a potential “discovery machine” that could spur a multitude of innovative applications. “I believe QuEra aims to shape the future of research so the community can determine how to best utilize 256 logical qubits,” he concludes.
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