In the absence of timely intervention, we are heading towards a significant crisis. Scientists have pinpointed both the cause and a possible timeline, along with strategies for mitigation. However, policymakers may lack the urgency needed to address this looming issue.
This situation is reminiscent of the climate crisis or the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Now, it extends to the emerging field of quantum computing. Recent studies, notably one published by Google, reveal that the point at which quantum computers could jeopardize data encryption is much sooner than anticipated.
The understanding that quantum computers will eventually resolve the complex mathematical equations that secure our data isn’t new. However, it’s becoming increasingly clear that this pivotal moment, dubbed Q-Day by some experts, could arrive far sooner than we expected. If it happens without adequate preparation, the fallout could be devastating: compromised emails, drained bank accounts, and exposed confidential information.
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If Q-Day were to arrive unbidden, it would be catastrophic: bank accounts would be emptied and secrets exposed. “
Fortunately, there is a proactive solution. For decades, experts have been developing post-quantum cryptography (PQC), designed around mathematical challenges that even the most powerful quantum systems will find daunting. In a timely move, Google intends to transition its services to PQC by 2029, a timeline that has raised eyebrows among skeptics.
These advances should catalyze policymakers to act promptly. Various governments, including the U.S., U.K., and European Union, have set 2035 as a target for PQC implementation, but this timeline must be accelerated.
Ironically, while many of these governments have engaged in encryption battles over the years, advocating for “backdoors” to facilitate law enforcement, such initiatives have largely been resisted. If Q-Day is mishandled, these anti-encryption agendas could materialize, wreaking havoc on our interconnected world. It’s crucial that we prepare adequately before it’s too late.
Anatoly Doroshenko is tasked with entering Chernobyl’s reactor No. 4 to obtain crucial radiation measurements.
Mykhailo Palinchak
The remnants of Chernobyl’s reactor 4 stand as one of the most perilous locations on Earth. This site is not only physically hazardous but also highly irradiated, engulfed in darkness, and encased by a deteriorating concrete structure now replaced by a secure confinement system.
Understanding the conditions inside is imperative for scientists. One of those scientists is Anatoly Doroshenko, a dedicated researcher at the Institute for Safety Problems in Nuclear Power Plants (ISPNPP), who undertakes one of the most dangerous tasks in the world. This involves venturing deep into the decommissioned nuclear reactors to collect readings and samples, occasionally getting as close as eight meters from the reactor core.
“I have no fear,” Doroshenko shared with me while beside a scale model of Chernobyl in the lab located within the exclusion zone. “I’ve trained extensively for this. One must be mentally prepared to accept the necessity of this work.”
“It’s an unusual experience. Comparable, I’d say, to climbing Mount Everest, flying into space, or exploring the depths of the ocean. There is a constant adrenaline rush.”
Each time Doroshenko investigates the reactor, he follows a strict checklist under significant time constraints. “You must have a thorough understanding of your tasks and environment,” he emphasizes. “Control is key,” he repeats, as if reminding himself.
“Recognizing that everything is contaminated is essential; if you touch anything, you must understand the implications to avoid contaminating your clothes or yourself,” he states. “It’s vital to maintain awareness of your actions due to the limited safe time available. You want results and to witness any findings.” This job isn’t a casual endeavor. You’re there with a purpose, needing to remain focused on your responsibilities.”
During visits to lower-risk areas of the reactor, Doroshenko dons gloves, a respirator, and a hat. For the most heavily radiation-impacted sections, he’s set to wear a full-body suit, with a third layer of protective polyethylene for added dust defense. He also possesses a lead apron for extra protection, though its weight can hinder movement in cramped spaces.
As a newcomer, he once explored the main circulation pump, guided by a seasoned colleague. This pump, which historically cooled reactor 4, was involved in the safety tests leading up to the catastrophic 1986 event. “This is an iconic spot worthwhile of our investigation as we study the devastation post-explosion.”
1991: Examination of the interior of the sarcophagus containing reactor number 4 at Chernobyl
Image Group/Shutterstock
‘Our primary protection is knowledge, not just gear,’ asserts researcher Olena Paleniuk at ISPNPP. “Anatoly is pivotal to our efforts. While he may appear exhausted and downcast, like many of us, his work is invaluable. There are few young professionals proficient in dosimetry today.”
Doroshenko’s supervisor, Victor Krasnov, noted that since 1986, numerous scientists have entered the reactor for readings and sensor installations. They encounter a confined environment filled with pipes of radioactive water and significant corium remnants—a mixture of molten fuel, concrete, and metal formed in the extreme conditions after the disaster, creating strange formations as it drips through the ruins.
“The initial explorers coined unique phrases for various formations: ‘elephant’s foot,’ ‘cat house,’ ‘dog house,’ and ‘octopus beam,'” Krasnov shared. “Every journey here presents unique challenges given the extensive destruction within.”
The dangers remain extensive. One significant concern is the 2,200-ton bioshield that was originally positioned above Reactor 4, now known as Elena. This massive structure was flipped during the explosion and now rests askew atop the debris. A collapse could trigger a massive reshuffling of hazardous materials and release substantial radioactive dust.
1986 image of the “elephant’s foot” inside Chernobyl’s No. 4 reactor, a molten mass of nuclear fuel and other materials.
Photo 12/Alamy
Ongoing risks and the necessity for precise readings stem from sporadic increases in nuclear activity. While the exact location of all fuel materials remains uncertain, the reactor can become active unexpectedly.
As uranium or plutonium fuel decays, it emits neutrons that may initiate a fission reaction upon capturing. However, water can slow down these neutrons, preventing this capture. After the disaster, the sarcophagus created arid conditions in the reactor, which led to a neutron spike.
Subsequently, the concrete shelter deteriorated, allowing water and humidity to enter, diminishing neutron flux. “Currently, new safety confinement is being installed, and due to the low humidity, we anticipate possible accidents which need monitoring,” Krasnov notes. This reinforces the importance of Doroshenko’s continuous investigations to improve situational awareness.
Though stringent safety measures are implemented at Chernobyl, the risk of entering a destroyed reactor remains ever-present. “We understand the dangers,” Doroshenko remarks. “That’s why I consider my health seriously; if I disregard it, I could make errors. I can’t predict future health issues, but adhering to radiation safety standards helps minimize those risks.”
Human-induced global warming is disrupting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), a critical ocean current system that includes the Gulf Stream, responsible for warming Europe. A total shutdown of the AMOC could trigger a massive release of carbon from deep Antarctic waters into the atmosphere, exacerbating global warming.
Research indicates that an AMOC collapse can lead to severe climatic consequences, including colder winters in Europe and disrupted monsoons in Africa and Asia, while also increasing global temperatures. Recent computer models predict that this scenario could release 640 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide near the South Pole, raising global temperatures by an additional 0.2°C.
“The collapse of the AMOC may trigger large-scale mixing in the Southern Ocean, releasing carbon stored in deep waters,” states Danian, a researcher at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. “This outcome is unprecedented.”
The co-authors emphasize that potential catastrophic events can have even more severe implications than previously understood. As Johan Rockström, also from the Potsdam Institute, notes, “We must remain vigilant, as one failure can trigger a domino effect.”
The AMOC operates by transporting warm, salty water from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Atlantic, where it cools, sinks, and circulates back southward along the ocean floor. Scientists believe that increased fresh meltwater from the Greenland ice sheet is diluting the AMOC, thereby slowing its sinking process.
Recent buoy measurements reveal a weakening return flow, suggesting a 15% decline in the AMOC, with models predicting a potential collapse within decades to centuries.
A new study exploring AMOC collapse under varying climate scenarios shows that if atmospheric CO2 levels exceed 350 ppm, the AMOC fails to recover after shutdown. Given the current CO2 level of 430 ppm, this indicates that AMOC decay may be irreversible.
The study also identified that if the AMOC, a key component of the global ocean current conveyor belt connecting the Southern Ocean and Pacific Ocean, collapses, it could lead to deep water convection near the South Pole. This deep water rests under a layer of fresher surface water, where carbon accumulates from both atmospheric CO2 and decaying plankton. The model suggests a significant portion of this carbon would be released into the atmosphere.
Previous research indicates that past AMOC collapses similarly triggered convection near the South Pole, aligning with evidence that the Southern Ocean is becoming less salty. This reduction in salinity disrupts the layered structure above the saltier deep water, facilitating surface access for deep water.
“It’s striking to observe these changes in such a warm climate amid rising CO2 levels,” says Jonathan Baker from the Met Office. “This study is intriguing, yet its findings depend on whether convection in the Southern Ocean intensifies; different models exhibit varied responses, leading to ongoing uncertainties.”
The study also forecasts that AMOC collapse could cool the Arctic by 7 degrees Celsius, freezing regions in Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia while concurrently warming Antarctica by 6 degrees Celsius. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet remains at risk of surpassing its tipping point, which could trigger a larger collapse of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, resulting in significant sea level rises.
The repercussions of CO2 emissions could persist for over a millennium following any AMOC closure. However, Rockström cautions that continued greenhouse gas emissions may lock in a future collapse of the AMOC in just a few decades.
“The window for change could be as short as the next 25 to 50 years,” he warns. “It’s vital to recognize the urgency; it’s not just about the timing of impacts, but about our commitment to preventing an increasingly inhospitable planet for future generations.”
Climate change continues to intensify due to the rising emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2). Efforts to reduce CO2 emissions globally remain challenging. As atmospheric CO2 levels increase, scientists are exploring innovative methods to capture and reuse CO2 emissions. One promising approach utilizes electricity from renewable energy sources to convert captured CO2 into valuable chemicals through a process known as electrochemical reduction. The chemicals produced, including liquid fuels like formates, are prized for their high energy density, low toxicity, and ease of storage and transportation.
To achieve these ambitious goals, scientists depend on specialized materials referred to as electrocatalysts. These materials enable direct carbon conversion through alternative chemical pathways that require less energy input. However, many electrocatalysts are composed of costly precious metals such as gold, which can cost hundreds of dollars per gram, making large-scale implementation impractical. Additionally, the harsh conditions often required for electrochemical reactions can degrade these catalysts over time, limiting their effectiveness. To combat these issues, researchers are developing enhanced electrocatalysts with improved molecular stability and altered chemical compositions to optimize cost efficiency and performance.
A research team from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals has investigated the potential of a specialized zinc-based electrocatalyst for efficient CO2 conversion into formates. This electrocatalyst is comprised of interconnected zinc ions within a unique 3D molecular structure known as zeolite imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8). ZIF-8 is capable of trapping CO2 but has limited electrical conductivity, which restricts its CO2 conversion capacity. To enhance its performance, the research team integrated conductive bismuth nanoparticles into the ZIF-8 framework, facilitating improved CO2 trapping and formate production.
To synthesize this innovative electrocatalyst, the researchers combined solutions of zinc nitrate hexahydrate and bismuth nitrate pentahydrate using chemical linkers to establish connections within the ZIF-8 structure. A strong reducing agent was added to the mixture, activating the bismuth into nanoparticles. This mixture was then processed in a centrifuge and dried to yield Bi-ZIF-8 powder enriched with bismuth nanoparticles.
Subsequently, the researchers mixed the Bi-ZIF-8 powder with an adhesive-like chemical and coated this mixture onto conductive carbon paper, creating a supportive surface for the electrocatalyst. This coated carbon paper was then placed within a secure device called an electrolytic cell, which was immersed in a saline solution containing bubbling CO2 gas.
The research team applied electrical current continuously for 20 minutes at five distinct current densities, ranging from -25 to -200 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm2). This level of current density can be likened to that passing through small LED bulbs on a fingernail-sized surface. They assessed the electrocatalyst’s capacity to convert CO2 effectively under conditions that simulate industrial demands.
The findings revealed that ZIF-8 alone primarily produced carbon monoxide, with minimal formate output. However, the introduction of bismuth nanoparticles significantly increased formate production. The researchers noted that the nanoparticles augmented ZIF-8’s conductivity by 16 times and its active surface area by 11 times, while simultaneously suppressing competing reactions that could diminish formate yield. Additionally, the ZIF-8 structure stabilized the bismuth nanoparticles, preventing aggregation and degradation.
The team further experimented with varying operational parameters and electrolyzer settings to optimize formate production efficiency. They quantified this by measuring the ratio of charge utilized in producing the desired formate over unwanted by-products. They discovered that operating at higher current densities, combined with direct CO2 feeding to the electrocatalyst, boosted formate production efficiency to as much as 91%. Remarkably, this system sustained high efficiency even at current densities of -150 mA/cm2, outperforming typical laboratory benchmarks by approximately 50%.
In conclusion, the Bi-ZIF-8 electrocatalyst showcases significant potential in the fight against climate change by enabling cleaner, more sustainable energy production. The researchers suggest that the next steps involve optimizing the composition of the electrocatalyst and refining electrolyzer operating conditions for large-scale production, which could enhance the practicality and impact of this innovative technology.
According to recent research, spoken language is witnessing a significant decline. A study reports that the average individual has been speaking about 338 fewer words per day each year since 2005.
This adds up to roughly 120,000 fewer words per person annually, resulting in a considerable reduction in human interactions.
“Small changes in daily behavior accumulate over time,” says Dr. Valeria Pfeiffer, an assistant professor of linguistics and psychology at UMKC.
“The slow decline in conversation may not be immediately noticeable, but it can have profound effects on how people connect over the years.”
Overall, the study revealed a decrease of 28% in spoken language from 2005 to 2019.
“Less talking translates to less time for social connections,” Pfeiffer emphasizes. “Reduced conversation can result in losing both the immediate emotional benefits of social interactions and the long-term rewards of maintaining strong relationships.”
Pfeiffer, along with co-author Professor Matthias Mehr from the University of Arizona, analyzed data from 22 studies over 14 years across the United States, Europe, and Australia.
In these studies, audio data from over 2,000 participants, aged 10 to 94, was recorded as they engaged in their daily routines.
According to Pfeiffer, even small interactions—like those with baristas, store clerks, and strangers—can greatly contribute to daily conversations. Credit: Getty
While the study couldn’t determine the exact reasons behind the decline in spoken language, it noted that this period (2005-2019) coincided with the rise of texting, email, and social media, indicating that some lost conversations may now happen digitally.
“Whether typed conversations offer the same social advantages as oral exchanges remains an unresolved question that future research needs to explore,” she said.
The study also highlighted some age-related differences. Although all demographics experienced decline, individuals under 25 showed a pronounced decrease in verbal communication, likely due to higher technology usage.
Researchers have yet to fully assess the impact of increased reliance on digital communication, written text, and emojis over important vocal elements like tone, timing, and emotional signals.
“Humans have relied on spoken language for over 200,000 years, and it is uncertain whether the shift to digital communication comes with social repercussions,” Pfeiffer stated.
“Our findings underscore the necessity for a better understanding of how spoken and written communication affect feelings of loneliness, health, and overall well-being.”
The four astronauts of Artemis II expressed on Saturday their deep connection, stating they are “forever bonded” in their first public address after NASA’s long-awaited return to the moon, marking over 50 years since the last mission.
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Commander Reed Wiseman, alongside mission specialists Christina Koch and Jeremy Hansen, and pilot Victor Glover, received a warm welcome at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.
“We are forever bound together. No one here will ever know what the four of us went through. It was the most special thing that will ever happen in my life,” stated Wiseman.
Wiseman further remarked, “Before launch, it felt like the biggest dream on Earth, but once you’re out there, you yearn to return home to your family and friends. It’s special to be human, and it’s special to be on this planet.”
These astronauts successfully returned to Earth after a 10-day journey around the moon, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean off San Diego aboard the Orion capsule.
Completing this historic mission, they became the first humans to witness the far side of the Moon—an area that remains permanently hidden from Earth.
Glover expressed, “Even bigger than the challenge of explaining our experience is the gratitude for what we saw, what we accomplished, and being with the incredible people on this journey.”
Koch emphasized the significance of a crew that is “beautifully, inevitably, and faithfully bound together.”
Reflecting on their views of Earth, she noted, “The Earth was just a lifeboat suspended in the vastness of space,” pausing emotionally.
“I may not have absorbed all the lessons this journey offers, but one thing’s clear: Planet Earth and you are our crew,” she added.
When it was Hansen’s turn to address the crowd, the Canadian astronaut lightheartedly quipped, “This is the furthest I’ve been from a lead in a long time.”
Hansen shared his feelings of gratitude, joy, and love, inviting the crew to link arms and discuss their shared affection.
“What you witnessed was a group of individuals passionate about contributing and deriving joy from our efforts. That was a unique experience for all of you,” Hansen remarked.
He further added, “When you look at us, you’re not just gazing at astronauts; we’re a reflection of you. If you admire what you see, delve deeper. This is you.”
The Artemis II crew set a new record for the farthest distance traveled by humans from Earth, covering 252,756 miles, surpassing Apollo 13’s previous record of 248,655 miles from 1970.
Additionally, they achieved multiple historical milestones: Koch became the first woman, Glover the first person of color, and Hansen the first non-American to explore the moon.
This remarkable team was also the first to launch aboard NASA’s Space Launch System rocket and Orion capsule.
The astronauts captured stunning images of the Moon’s far side, which have graced newspaper covers nationwide, showcasing uncharted lunar features like rugged terrains, craters, ridges, mountains, and ancient lava plains.
NASA stated that these remarkable images will aid researchers in understanding lunar formation and the evolution of its landscape.
Looking ahead, NASA intends to launch its next mission, Artemis III, in mid-2027, with plans to land astronauts on the lunar surface in 2028 during Artemis IV.
Exciting times await space enthusiasts! The safe return of the Artemis II crew signifies a historic milestone—marking the first human trip to the moon since Apollo 17 in 1972.
While Artemis II did not land on the lunar surface, its four-member crew executed a thrilling figure-eight flight path around our closest celestial neighbor and made a safe return.
This achievement sets the stage for Artemis III, which aims to not only land on the moon but also become the first mission to land a woman on the lunar surface.
Although Artemis III won’t launch until 2027, you can experience the excitement of upcoming space explorations starting now!
Many missions are scheduled between now and then—from cutting-edge super space telescopes to daring Mars missions. Here are six of the most thrilling missions expected to launch in 2026 after Artemis II.
Chang’e 7
Artemis II won’t be the only lunar mission in 2026. The China National Space Administration plans to launch its latest lander, Chang’e 7, to the moon’s surface this August.
This mission is headed towards the moon’s south pole—a region that has garnered significant interest due to the recent discovery of water ice in its permanently shaded craters.
This untouched ice could provide crucial insights into the early solar system and serve as a valuable resource for future lunar explorers.
Chang’e 7’s design is based on previous landers like Chang’e 4, which successfully landed on the moon’s far side in 2019. – Credit: CNSA/CNS/Getty
Chang’e 7 is set to land on the rim of Shackleton Crater, deploying a small solar-powered rover to collaborate with the main lander in search of water signs.
The mission’s highlight is a unique flying probe that will venture into the crater’s shadow, using a molecular analyzer to detect water. This innovative spacecraft will utilize mini-rocket thrusters, unlike any previous missions to the moon.
Success could uncover valuable hidden treasures in the moon’s shadowed regions.
While similar in size and resolution to the Hubble, Roman will cover 100 times more sky area, making it a game-changer in astronomy.
Roman can view a larger area of the Eagle Nebula compared to Hubble’s limited field of view. – Credit: L. Hustack (STSci)
Roman’s thermal imaging camera will conduct extensive surveys, focusing on targets like the center of the Milky Way and examining the universe’s structure and expansion.
Its groundbreaking findings will include tracking transient phenomena such as supernovae and stars being devoured by black holes.
PLATO
While astronomers have identified over 6,000 exoplanets, Earth-like planets remain elusive. The upcoming PLATO spacecraft, launching in late 2026, aims to change that.
By leveraging 26 cameras, PLATO will scan the sky for small dips in star brightness caused by orbiting planets, particularly those in the habitable zone.
PLATO is expected to discover at least 500 Earth-sized exoplanets. – Credit: ESA
With the potential to identify planets with conditions favorable for life, PLATO provides a foundation for future explorations.
Mars Moon Exploration
In November 2026, JAXA plans a mission to land on one of Mars’ moons, marking a historic first. The mission aims to collect samples from Phobos, one of Mars’ two small moons.
This groundbreaking venture will also investigate how these moons were formed—whether they are captured asteroids or remnants of Mars itself.
The mission will also monitor Deimos, Mars’ other moon, to study the planet’s climate. – Credit: JAXA/NASA
The MMX mission will collect surface samples and return them to Earth by 2031, marking the first return of material from the Martian system.
Hera
66 million years ago, a massive asteroid impact altered life on Earth. Future threats still loom, and the exploration of asteroids is crucial for planetary defense. NASA’s DART mission successfully demonstrated the ability to alter an asteroid’s path.
Dimorphos is a 160-meter satellite of the larger asteroid Didymos. – Credit: ESA/Office for Science
The Hera mission, launching in November 2026, aims to analyze Dimorphos post-DART impact, deploying two CubeSats for comprehensive measurements.
BepiColombo
Mercury, often overlooked, is about to gain attention as the BepiColombo mission arrives on November 21, 2026, after eight years of travel.
This mission consists of two scientific orbiters, aimed at mapping Mercury’s surface, studying its exosphere, and understanding its unique magnetic field in relation to the solar wind.
BepiColombo traveled over 8.5 billion km (5 billion miles) to reach Mercury. – Credit: ESA/ATG medialab/NASA/JPL
This mission aims to enhance our understanding of our solar system and the dynamics of exoplanet atmospheres around other stars.
Astronauts captured stunning images of the moon’s crater-filled Antarctic region during the Artemis mission. NASA is planning future lunar landings focusing on this area.
The moon’s south pole features numerous craters believed to contain water ice, presenting unique challenges for navigation compared to the Apollo landing sites near the equator. Insights gathered during the Artemis II mission will help identify potential landing sites for upcoming exploration.
Towards the conclusion of the lunar flight, astronauts had the incredible opportunity to observe a solar eclipse from space. They recorded detailed observations for roughly an hour as the sun disappeared behind the moon and emerged from the opposite side.
During the initial phases of the eclipse, astronauts utilized specialized glasses akin to those worn on Earth to safely view the event as the moon obscured the sun’s rays.
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Take a moment to breathe. After an extraordinary 10 days in deep space, the Artemis II crew has safely returned to Earth. This marks the first time humans have journeyed to the moon since 1972.
The mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on April 1, 2026, successfully reaching lunar orbit by April 5. Just a day later, the astronauts passed behind the moon, resulting in a communication blackout with Earth, a rare silence reminiscent of the Apollo missions.
The significance of this moment—and the mission as a whole—cannot be overstated. For over 50 years, human spaceflight has primarily remained within low-Earth orbit. Artemis II has fundamentally changed that, demonstrating NASA’s readiness for the next bold steps in lunar exploration.
Next up is Artemis III, slated for mid-2027, which will stay in low Earth orbit to test rendezvous and docking with a commercial lunar lander. Ultimately, Artemis IV aims to place a crew on the moon as early as 2028.
Here are some stunning images captured by the Artemis II crew during their historic voyage.
Photo by Reid Wiseman/NASA
This breathtaking view of Earth, captured by Artemis II mission commander Reed Wiseman, was taken from the Orion spacecraft on April 2, 2026, shortly after the engines ignited to propel the spacecraft out of Earth’s orbit toward the moon.
Photo courtesy of NASA
Christina Koch, mission specialist for Artemis II, is seen preparing for the lunar flyby after completing an aerobic exercise session on the spacecraft’s flywheel apparatus on day four of the mission.
Photo courtesy of NASA
Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen, another mission specialist, enjoys a shave aboard the Orion spacecraft ahead of their lunar flyby on April 6, 2026.
Photo courtesy of NASA
Victor Glover, the pilot and NASA astronaut, gazes back at Earth from one of the Orion spacecraft’s windows.
Photo courtesy of NASA
The “Earthset” photo captured by the Artemis II crew as they passed the moon on April 6, 2026, showcases a muted blue Earth, streaked with bright white clouds, setting against the cratered lunar horizon.
The foreground features the moon’s Ohm crater, characterized by its stepped edges and flat floor disrupted by central peaks formed shortly after an impact.
Photo courtesy of NASA
The above image captures the Orion spacecraft under the sun, with the jagged waxing moon in the distance. The vast Oriental Basin, a 965 km wide impact site, is found on the moon’s surface.
This expansive basin serves as a natural boundary between the moon’s sides—one obscured from terrestrial view and the other marked by vast, dark plains from ancient lava.
Photo courtesy of NASA
The Artemis II crew—Mission Specialist Christina Koch (top left), Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen (bottom left), Commander Reed Wiseman (bottom right), and Pilot Victor Glover (top right)—use solar eclipse viewers during the solar eclipse they experienced during their lunar flight.
Photo courtesy of NASA
This close-up shows Vavilov Crater on the far side of the moon, revealing notable topographical changes, from the smooth ground encircled by mountains to the rough terrain beyond.
A long shadow stretches across the Terminator scene, accentuating Vavilov’s structure and debris from past collisions.
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Photo courtesy of NASA
Victor Glover and Christina Koch devoted several hours to documenting the moon as the spacecraft approached on day six of their journey.
Over a span of seven hours, the crew took turns capturing images and observations while the spacecraft was positioned behind the moon, coming within 6,545 km of the lunar surface at its closest point.
Photo courtesy of NASA
As the Artemis II crew flew over the lunar day-night boundary, they observed that the line was “not straight.” The crater’s jagged edges caught sunlight, appearing like isolated “islands” against the darkness.
The vast Oriental Basin, which formed approximately 3.7 billion years ago, provides a long chain of small craters across the lunar surface, hinting at the basin’s even older geological history.
Photo credit: Robert Markowitz/NASA/JSC
From left to right, the Artemis program’s first science officers—Angela Garcia, Kelsey Young, and Trevor Graff—are pictured in the white flight control room of the Christopher C. Craft Jr. Mission Control Center, monitoring spacecraft data in real-time.
Photo courtesy of NASA
Jeremy Hansen, a crew member of Artemis II, captures an image through one of the Orion spacecraft’s windows, using a camera shroud to ensure a clear shot.
Photo courtesy of NASA
In this stunning image, our planet appears as a delicate crescent against the lunar horizon. The sunlight illuminates bright clouds over Australia’s muted blues as secondary crater chains mar the moon’s surface below.
Photo courtesy of NASA
NASA’s Orion spacecraft is photographed from a camera mounted on its solar array wing during a sleep period for the crew, marking the seventh day of their mission.
Photo credit: NASA
The Artemis II crew awaits airlift from a recovery raft, surrounded by Navy divers in the Pacific Ocean.
Photo credit: NASA
Victor Glover and Christina Koch relax in a U.S. Navy Seahawk helicopter following their successful mission recovery.
Astronauts from NASA’s **Artemis II mission** returned triumphantly after a groundbreaking journey that began on April 1, departing from **Cape Canaveral, Florida**. Traveling farther from Earth and orbiting the Moon like no human race before, the crew landed safely on April 10 off the coast of California. Mission commander **Reed Wiseman** celebrated the occasion, noting that all four crew members—including NASA astronauts **Victor Glover** and **Christina Koch**, along with Canadian astronaut **Jeremy Hansen**—were feeling well after their re-entry.
This historic mission marked humanity’s return to lunar exploration since **Apollo 18** in 1972. The **Orion capsule** reached an astonishing distance of **406,771 kilometers** from Earth, setting a new record previously held by the **Apollo 13 mission**.
Artemis II had dual objectives: to successfully test systems for upcoming lunar missions and to conduct scientific observations. Despite the Moon’s gray appearance from afar, astronauts noted rich shades of green, brown, and even orange on its surface, enhancing our understanding of the Moon’s composition and history. The crew observed previously unseen lunar areas, gaining insights especially into the far side of the Moon.
Yet when Earth and the Moon were visible simultaneously, the bright sunlight reflecting off Earth—termed **geoshine**—obscured these nuanced colors. Koch remarked, “As soon as Earth entered my field of vision, the Moon transformed into a dull and spongy surface.” In fact, the glare was so pronounced that the crew had to cover the window with spare shirts, suggesting the need for special window shades on future missions.
The astronauts captured stunning photos of the lunar landscape and recorded audio descriptions of the terrain below. “These subtle observations could ultimately inform future lunar landing missions and enhance our understanding of solar system chronologies,” stated **Kelsey Young**, NASA’s Artemis science director.
While hidden behind the Moon, the Artemis crew witnessed a unique solar eclipse unseen from Earth, with the Sun appearing smaller than the Moon. Wiseman described the emotional impact of this sight, saying, “Right after that, someone on the plane said, ‘Look for impact flashes.’ Immediately, we saw one, two, three impact flashes.”
Observing these impact flashes—brief sparks of light caused by meteorite collisions with the Moon’s surface—was a key scientific goal, as such findings will inform future lunar missions about meteorite threat levels.
The next leg of the **Artemis program**, **Artemis III**, will focus on training for future lunar landings but will not involve a Moon visit due to recent adjustments meant to streamline the program. Set for 2027, it will primarily test the **Orion capsule’s** docking capabilities with the lunar lander. The anticipated Moon landing will take place during the **Artemis IV mission** in 2028.
All these missions contribute to the ultimate goal of establishing a sustained human presence on the Moon. NASA has announced a shift towards building a **lunar base** on the surface rather than a station in lunar orbit, a goal echoed by China’s ambitious space program. The vision is to normalize Moon trips as common as visits to the **International Space Station** and potentially as routine as transcontinental flights in the future.
Regardless of the outcome, the captivating images from Artemis II have captured the public’s imagination and reinvigorated our perspectives on the Moon.
Re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere presents significant challenges, particularly for spacecraft capsules that encounter extreme temperatures of approximately 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The Artemis II mission faces heightened risks due to known design flaws in the Orion heat shield.
During the 2022 unmanned Artemis I test flight, NASA identified cracks in the heat shield material upon reentry, which resulted in “charred material flaking off in various locations.” To enhance safety for the Artemis II astronauts, NASA adjusted the capsule’s entry trajectory to a steeper angle and faster descent, reducing exposure time to the harshest temperature conditions.
Following the Orion capsule’s arrival at NASA Kennedy Space Center in Florida, a comprehensive analysis will be conducted to assess the heat shield’s performance in the coming days.
Amit Kshatriya, NASA’s Associate Administrator, emphasized that the Artemis II mission is a pivotal step towards NASA’s objective of returning humans to the moon on future Artemis flights.
NASA plans to launch its next mission, Artemis III, around mid-2027, and will carry out technology demonstrations in low Earth orbit using one or both lunar landers developed by SpaceX or Blue Origin. The Artemis IV mission is scheduled for a lunar landing in 2028.
“The path to the moon is clear, but the tasks ahead are far more crucial than those that follow,” Kshatriya stated. “This has always been the case. Fifty-three years ago, humans departed from the moon. This time, we’re set to return.”
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Paleontologists have utilized high-resolution CT and synchrotron scanning technology to confirm that early Triassic fossil specimens from South Africa’s Karoo Basin feature immature dicynodonts. The mystery surrounding whether the early mammalian ancestor, Lystrosaurus, laid eggs has finally been solved. Researchers propose that dicynodont eggs were likely soft-shelled, which explains their long-elusive nature.
Developed eggs of dicynodont monoapsids from the Early Triassic Lystrosaurus. Image credit: Benoit et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0345016.
Lystrosaurus is a significant group of primarily herbivorous vertebrates that thrived during the Permian and Triassic periods.
This ancient creature measured between 1.8 and 2.4 meters (6 to 8 feet) in length and possessed no teeth, except for a pair of fangs in its upper jaw.
Fossils of Lystrosaurus can be found in locations such as China, Europe, India, South Africa, and Antarctica, providing evidence for the existence of the ancient supercontinent Pangea.
Professor Julien Benoit from the University of Witwatersrand stated, “In over 150 years of South African paleontology, no fossils have been definitively classified as therapsid eggs.”
“The discovery that the ancestors of mammals, like Lystrosaurus, laid eggs is a significant milestone in paleontology,” he added.
Professor Benoit and colleagues utilized advanced image processing to investigate three regions in a Lystrosaurus specimen unearthed from the Karoo Basin of South Africa.
One of the specimens exhibited a tightly curled posture, indicating it was still encased in its egg and lacked its fangs.
“Understanding the reproductive methods of our mammalian ancestors has been a long-standing question, and this fossil offers crucial insights,” said Dr. Vincent Fernandez, a researcher at the European Synchrotron (ESRF).
“Precision in scanning the fossil was crucial to attain the level of detail needed for such small, delicate structures.”
“Upon seeing the incomplete mandibular symphysis, I was filled with excitement,” Professor Benoit remarked.
“The mandible, or lower jaw, consists of two halves that must fuse together before the animal can feed.”
“The absence of this fusion indicates the individual could not nourish itself.”
Artist’s impression of Lystrosaurus. Image credit: Victor O. Leshyk, www.victorleshyk.com / University of Birmingham.
According to the research team, Lystrosaurus eggs were relatively large in relation to their body size.
“In many modern animals, larger eggs typically contain more yolk, which provides essential nutrients for the embryo’s independent development after hatching, without the need for parental feeding,” the researchers noted.
This strongly indicates that, unlike modern mammals, Lystrosaurus did not produce milk for their young.
“Larger eggs also offer a significant advantage: they are more resistant to drying out.”
“In the harsh, drought-prone environment that followed the extinction, this trait would have been vital for survival.”
The findings suggest that Lystrosaurus hatchlings were likely precocial, emerging at a relatively advanced developmental stage.
“These young individuals could have fed themselves, evaded predators, and rapidly reached reproductive maturity,” the researchers concluded.
This groundbreaking discovery not only serves as the first direct evidence of egg-laying in a mammalian ancestor but also elucidates how Lystrosaurus successfully dominated the ecosystem following the extinction event.
“Our research illustrates that the ancestors of mammals, like Lystrosaurus, produced eggs, offering clarity on the origins of mammalian reproduction,” said Professor Benoit.
“Beyond this significant insight, it reveals how reproductive strategies can influence survival in extreme conditions. By laying large, nutrient-rich eggs, Lystrosaurus thrived in the harsh, unpredictable surroundings after the end-Permian mass extinction.”
J. Benoit et al. 2026. The first non-mammalian monoapsid embryo discovered in the Triassic of South Africa. PLoS One 21 (4): e0345016; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0345016
Is your cat turning its nose up at regular food? It might be due to its smell. This insight offers pet owners new strategies to entice their cats to eat more.
Many cat owners experience frustration when their pets refuse food they initially enjoyed. Purchasing different meals only leads to disappointment when your finicky feline decides they’re no longer interested. According to Masao Miyazaki from Iwate University, merely adjusting the aroma of food can lead to a more enjoyable mealtime for your cat.
“Simple changes lik adding a food topper, altering bait slightly, or refreshing the feeding environment can rekindle their interest,” Miyazaki adds. “Cats aren’t as picky as humans, but they can lose interest if they are repeatedly exposed to the same scent.”
Miyazaki and his team conducted experiments with 12 unsterilized cats (six males and six females) to further explore this phenomenon. They provided various commercially available dry cat foods for 10-minute periods while noting how much each cat consumed. After a 10-minute break, each cat was presented with the same or a different type of dry food for another 10 minutes. This cycle continued for six sessions over a total duration of 110 minutes. Results showed a marked decrease in food consumption if the same food was continually offered. However, switching the type of food at each interval nearly doubled their overall intake compared to sticking with the same option.
To assess the influence of smell on how much cats ate, the researchers modified the experiment. They served the same food but placed it at the top of a divided bowl, where it was paired with another type of food in the lower section, just out of reach. Initially, both sections contained the same food, resulting in decreased consumption as expected. However, by the final round, they replaced the inaccessible food with a new variant that featured a noticeable scent. This adjustment led to a dramatic increase in intake, with cats consuming roughly twice as much as before.
The study’s outcomes indicate that scent significantly impacts a cat’s appetite, states Miyazaki. “This insight likely explains the wide variety of canned cat food options available at supermarkets,” comments Katherine Houpt from Cornell University. “One has to wonder: if a cat eats a mouse, will it then be tempted by birds?”
According to Scott McGlenn from Waltham Petcare Science Institute in the UK, both professional and personal experiences validate the idea that cats can be fussy eaters. He emphasizes, “This research sheds light on how food aroma influences eating behaviors. Offering varied flavors of wet food or a mix of wet and dry options can help maintain cats’ interest in their meals.”
Research from David Thomas at Massey University in New Zealand suggests this could be a contributing factor to obesity in pet cats. “This also partially explains why contemporary feeding strategies, such as variety packs, may lead to weight gain in our feline friends,” he notes.
However, Mikel Delgado, an independent cat behavior expert from Sacramento, California, advises owners to enhance meal enjoyment by offering a dynamic range of smells and flavors throughout the day. Managing total daily food intake while ensuring overall health is crucial for maintaining a healthy weight.
Lastly, Delgado advises pet owners to regularly clean their cats’ bowls to eliminate odors from previous meals. If a cat continues to show disinterest even after these changes, it may be a sign of an underlying health issue that should be evaluated.
A groundbreaking statistical analysis of archived sky surveys from the early Cold War reveals that enigmatic, short-lived bursts of light in the night sky are likely to coincide with ground-based nuclear weapons tests and rise in correlation with reports of Unexplained Aerial Phenomena (UAPs).
Four exposures of a 3 x 3 arc minute area of the sky centered on a triple transient identified in July 1952. Top left: POSS I red image from July 19, 1952 at 8:52 (UT) showing a triple transient just above center. Top right: 10 m exposed POSS I blue image taken immediately after. No evidence of a triple transient is present. Bottom left and right: POSS I red (left) and blue (right) images captured two months later (September 14, 1952), with transients still visible. Image credit: Solano et al., doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad3422.
“Sky surveys conducted prior to the launch of the first artificial satellite on October 4, 1957 identified transient star-like objects,” stated Dr. Beatriz Villarroel from the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics (Nordita) and Dr. Stephen Brühl of Vanderbilt University Medical Center.
“These short-lived transients (lasting less than 50 minutes) display a point spread function that is absent in preceding images and all subsequent surveys.”
“In several instances, multiple transients are observed in a single image, featuring characteristics that defy conventional explanations such as gravitational lensing, gamma-ray bursts, fragmenting asteroids, and plate defects.”
As part of the VASCO (Sources of Vanishing and Appearing Over a Century of Observations) project, Dr. Villarroel and Dr. Brühl identified over 100,000 short-lived star-like “transients” on photographic plates from the initial Palomar Observatory sky surveys conducted from 1949 to 1957.
They then correlated the timing of these flashes with a record of 124 ground-based nuclear tests and thousands of reported UAP sightings.
“Across 2,718 days during this period, transient phenomena were observed on 310 days (11.4%),” they reported.
“The count of transients per date varied from 0 to 4,528 across multiple locations and plates.”
“Terrestrial nuclear weapons tests (conducted by the US, USSR, and UK) occurred on 124 days (4.6%) during the study period.”
“UAP reports were logged in the UFOCAT database for 2,428 days during the study period (89.3%).”
The researchers noted that transients were approximately 45% more likely to occur on days within one day of a nuclear test compared to other days.
This effect peaked the day after nuclear testing, increasing the likelihood of witnessing a transient by about 68%.
The study also indicated a moderate correlation between the frequency of transients and the number of UAP sightings recorded on the same day.
For each additional reported sighting, the incidence of transient phenomena rose by about 8.5% on average.
While the researchers’ findings do not confirm what the transient phenomenon is or prove a causal link, they challenge several conventional explanations.
Scientists assert that the transient phenomenon differs from defects caused by dust or radioactive contamination on photographic plates. Additionally, its timing, notably its peak on the day post-nuclear tests, doesn’t align with simpler scenarios like debris from an explosion.
Consequently, the authors propose two major possibilities:
One possibility is that nuclear explosions may trigger previously unidentified atmospheric phenomena that create brief, point-like bursts of light.
The other, more speculative idea suggests that some transients may reflect high-altitude or orbital objects, possibly related to the same event that led to UAP sightings.
The researchers emphasize that neither hypothesis is currently proven.
“Our findings lend further empirical support to the legitimacy of the UAP phenomenon and its possible connections with nuclear weapons activity, augmenting data beyond mere sighting reports,” they concluded.
“We cannot dismiss the likelihood that some transients represent on-orbit UAP events captured on photographic plates prior to the first satellite launch.”
“This study enriches the limited peer-reviewed literature striving to employ systematic scientific methods in analyzing UAP-related data.”
“The ultimate implications of the associations discussed in this study for enhancing our understanding of transient phenomena and UAPs still require further investigation.”
A research paper detailing these findings was published in the journal on October 20, 2025. Scientific Reports.
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S. Brühl & B. Villarroel. 2025. Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS-I) transients may relate to nuclear tests or reports of unidentified anomalous phenomena. Science Officer 15, 34125; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-21620-3
In 2012, Shinichi Mochizuki claimed to have proved the ABC conjecture in number theory.
Credit: Newscom/Alamy
One of the most highly debated proofs in contemporary mathematics may soon find resolution. Two innovative projects are underway, utilizing computer programs to illuminate this ongoing controversy—one of which has operated in secrecy for over two years. Mathematicians express optimism about these developments as they could lead to a breakthrough in this heated debate.
This narrative traces back to 2012 when Shinichi Mochizuki, a professor at Kyoto University in Japan, proclaimed that he had demonstrated a significant concept known as the ABC conjecture, releasing a staggering 500-page document online. This conjecture is simply stated concerning prime numbers in the equation a + b = c and their interrelations. However, solving it necessitates profound insights into the interplay of addition and multiplication, and its ramifications extend deeply into various mathematical realms.
Mochizuki’s proof was explosive but regarded as esoteric by many colleagues due to its innovative techniques and concepts collectively referred to as interuniversal Teichmüller theory (IUT). A slew of prominent mathematicians engaged for months in efforts to distill Mochizuki’s work, including discussions with him, ultimately hitting a standstill regarding the proof’s correctness.
In 2018, two notable mathematicians—Peter Scholze from the University of Bonn and Jacob Stix from Goethe University Frankfurt—claimed they had found a potential flaw. Despite this, no further progress was achieved. While Mochizuki and his close associates at Kyoto University maintained that the proof was valid, the broader mathematical community viewed it as either incomprehensible or fundamentally flawed.
However, last year, Mochizuki reached out to his critics, proposing a possible way forward. Notable advancements in a field called formalization have emerged, allowing mathematical proofs to be transcribed into computer language for automatic correctness verification. A specific language known as Lean captured Mochizuki’s interest. He remarked at the time: “[Lean] is perhaps the best and only technology to advance the goal of liberating mathematical truth from the constraints of social and political dynamics.”
Currently, efforts to formalize Mochizuki’s ABC conjecture proof in Lean are underway, with multiple mathematical groups announcing significant progress. This includes Mochizuki’s team and another group that has been progressing in secret for over two years but has encountered challenges.
In late 2023, Bunji Kato from Japan’s ZEN Mathematics Center, initiated the Lean Geometry and Annabelle Geometry (LANA) project, uniting mathematicians familiar with Mochizuki’s work and Lean experts who have crystallized other complex mathematical endeavors. The primary aim is to “finally resolve the dispute,” as stated by Kato. They enlisted Adam Topaz from the University of Alberta to facilitate the formalization of the proof.
During a press conference held last month to announce the project, Kato indicated that through the years, team members have developed a “deeper understanding” of Mochizuki’s ideas. Nevertheless, they faced hurdles specifically tied to issues flagged by Scholze and Stix in 2018. Topaz commented, “We essentially stalled while attempting to assimilate certain aspects of IUT. We recognized this issue about a year and a half ago, initially believing a better understanding of the theory would avert this potential complication.”
Despite numerous workshops and indirect communications with Mochizuki, the team has struggled to move forward.
In a parallel initiative, Mochizuki and his associates have also begun to formalize proofs utilizing Lean. Their goal, however, is not to confirm Mochizuki’s position, as he already asserts its correctness, but emphasizes the project’s value in enhancing communication.
Mochizuki stated at a recent conference at the University of Exeter, “The validation aspect is not our primary focus. The significance of Lean formalization lies in establishing an accurate record of the logical structure of IUT, free from misinterpretations, ensuring it can effectively communicate its essence to other mathematicians.”
Mochizuki and his team’s strategy involves focusing on the contentious areas of evidence previously identified by Scholze and Stix, where the LANA initiative has stagnated. They aim to create a formal blueprint that encompasses four additional steps. Mochizuki has commenced this process by drafting 70 lines of Lean code, though it has not yet been made public.
This code, according to Kevin Buzzard of Imperial College London, is minimal. “Seventy lines hardly suffice; you would struggle to prove even a few undergraduate-level theorems within that.”
However, these developments are among the most promising advancements in comprehending Mochizuki’s proof since its debut. “We haven’t seen much movement, no new relevant information, and this is the first time I sense actual momentum,” Buzzard observes.
Topaz shares that despite existing challenges, he remains hopeful for progress, although the group’s precise efforts remain uncertain, especially as Mochizuki maintains communication with the LANA project.
“I’m quite optimistic that we might find a resolution to this controversy due to the dialogues I’ve had with Mr. Mochizuki regarding Lean,” Topaz adds. “What excites me the most is that we are engaging in reciprocal discussions with Mr. Mochizuki’s team.”
Discoveries of Radiolarian Fossils in a Rock Sample
Provided by Jonathan Aitchison
A minuscule pellet of ancient rock, measuring only half the size of a rice grain, has unveiled 20 microscopic fossils from eight distinct species, including several previously unknown types. This significant discovery enhances our knowledge of the second-largest mass extinction known to science, while demonstrating how innovative analytical techniques can uncover neglected segments of the fossil record.
Jonathan Aitchison, a professor at the University of Queensland in Australia, was pivotal in extracting these pellets from rocks gathered in late 2018 from the Sichuan Basin in China, located approximately 300 kilometers south of Xi’an. These rocks date back 445 million years, situating them just prior to the late Ordovician mass extinction, ranked as the second most severe extinction event in the last half billion years.
The pellets contained eight species of radiolarians—single-celled plankton characterized by silica shells that continue to inhabit oceans today.
The discovered fossils encompass five genera, four families, and three orders, including a newly identified species named Haplotaniatum woufengensis.
The fossils are remarkably well-preserved, with both external and internal structures perfectly encased in asphalt, creating flawless impressions.
Patrick Smith, from the New South Wales Geological Survey in Sydney, Australia, remarked that the fossils were formed before the extinction event escalated.
“The quantity and diversity of fossils indicate that marine ecosystems, especially microscopic plankton communities, thrived just prior to the extinction,” Smith stated. “Ordovician oceans were significantly more biologically diverse than previously understood, especially on a microscopic scale. These fossils showcase a vibrant plankton community during a pivotal moment of environmental upheaval in Earth’s oceans.”
Traditionally, researchers have studied small fossils by using acid to dissolve surrounding rock, a process Aitchison notes is highly destructive.
In contrast, the study employed advanced X-ray technology (from the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization’s synchrotron in Melbourne) to scan the rock pellets, yielding high-resolution 3D images of the contained fossils within seconds.
“Growing up, I was fascinated by ads for X-ray glasses that could see through objects,” Aitchison commented. “Now, I can ‘see’ these radiolarian plankton directly within the rocks without needing to remove them.”
“This represents the most significant technological advancement in my career,” he added.
Professor Aitchison concluded that the extensive life forms discovered in such a limited sample size imply that the marine biodiversity found in other Late Ordovician rocks might be “significantly underestimated.”
Smith emphasizes that a key takeaway from this study is that numerous fossils remain to be explored worldwide, “not due to a lack of specimens, but because our traditional methods are insufficient for detection and recovery.”
Recent research indicates that individuals with high vitamin D levels in their late 30s experienced a notable decrease in a critical Alzheimer’s disease protein in their brains 16 years later, as highlighted in the study.
Results from this neurology open access survey suggest that continuing vitamin D supplementation during midlife may serve as an effective strategy to lower dementia risk.
This correlation is attributed to elevated blood levels of vitamin D being linked to reduced levels of tau protein in the brain, a recognized biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease.
According to the first author, Dr. Martin Mulligan, professor at Galway University, “Previous studies indicate that vitamin D may help by reducing inflammation and enhancing antioxidant defenses and cell signaling, potentially preventing tau protein accumulation.” This insight was shared with BBC Science Focus.
Importantly, no association was observed with amyloid plaques, another hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers suggest that this may reflect the earlier accumulation of tau compared to amyloid, making it more detectable in younger individuals.
Vitamin D synthesis occurs in the body upon sun exposure and can also be sourced from foods like oily fish and eggs.
In the study, nearly 800 participants without dementia, averaging 39 years of age, had their vitamin D levels tested initially, followed by PET brain scans conducted an average of 16 years later.
The robust association between higher vitamin D levels and lower tau levels persisted after accounting for variables such as age, gender, cardiovascular risk factors, and depression.
Vitamin D is produced during summer; in winter, dietary sources and supplements are essential – Photo credit: Getty.
Dr. Mulligan noted that approximately one-third of participants had low vitamin D levels, consistent with global trends.
This study is observational and does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Vitamin D was measured only once within a predominantly white cohort, limiting the findings’ generalizability.
Dr. Mulligan emphasized the necessity for further validation in diverse cohorts before revising clinical guidelines.
“This hypothesis requires additional testing through clinical trials, and based on these results alone, we cannot formally recommend discontinuing supplements as a preventive measure for dementia,” he stated.
Groundbreaking experiments in Germany reveal the first evidence of the long-predicted pairing of carbon-11 nuclei and η’ mesons, shedding light on how the strongest forces in nature contribute to mass formation.
Sekiya et al. Experiments at Germany’s GSI/FAIR research center have uncovered evidence of exotic nuclear states. Image credit: J. Hosan, GSI/FAIR.
“In physics, we identify four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, strong interactions, and weak interactions,” stated Professor Kenta Itabashi from RIKEN and his team at Osaka University.
“Various bound systems are maintained by these forces. For instance, gravity holds the Earth and the moon together, while electromagnetic interactions bind positively charged atomic nuclei with negatively charged electrons.”
“The nucleus of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons, is held together by strong interactions.”
“In addition to protons and neutrons, which are each made up of three quarks, other particles, such as mesons, also participate in strong interactions.”
“Certain mesons carry a negative charge,” the physicists commented.
“In special instances, these mesons can displace electrons within an atom and bond to the nucleus via electromagnetic interactions.”
“However, some mesons, including the η’ meson, are electrically neutral.”
“Due to its lack of charge, the η’ meson cannot bond electromagnetically to an atom’s nucleus, relying instead on strong interactions for binding.”
“These situations, where strong interactions are the sole binding mechanism, are particularly intriguing as they allow us to gain insights into the nature of this force.”
In 2005, scientists anticipated the existence of meson-nuclear configurations formed solely by strong interactions.
However, thorough investigations into this exotic state had remained inconclusive until now.
Professor Itabashi and his collaborators conducted pioneering experiments at the GSI fragment separation facility in Germany.
“Our proton beam strikes the carbon-12 nucleus at approximately 96% of the speed of light, removing neutrons, forming deuterons, and proceeding forward,” the researchers explained.
“The residual carbon-11 nucleus is excited into a high-energy state, producing an η’ meson that occasionally binds with it. This results in a transient, bound quantum state.”
The implications of this experimental breakthrough extend well beyond the initial identification of an exotic nuclear state.
Simultaneously, it was demonstrated that the mass of the η’ meson diminishes within nuclear matter.
This finding enhances our comprehension of how meson mass is generated. The combined masses of the quarks in the η’ meson account for only about 1% of its total mass when unbound.
“Moving forward, our collaborative effort will conduct enhanced follow-up experiments, utilizing substantially more data to accurately gauge the spectroscopic properties of bound η’ meson nuclear systems, focusing on energy levels, binding energies, and decay widths,” the researchers concluded.
For further details, refer to their paper published in the Physical Review Letters.
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Takashi Sekiya et al. 2026. Excitation spectrum of the 12C(𝑝,𝑑) reaction near the 𝜂’-meson emission threshold measured simultaneously with high-momentum protons. Physics. Review Letters 136, 142501; doi: 10.1103/6vsl-ng7x
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Amazon to End Support for Kindle Models by 2012
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As the Artemis II crew prepares for their return to Earth, NBC’s Tom Costello utilizes augmented reality to guide you through the re-entry process step-by-step. April 10, 2026
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Why Iodized Salt Deserves a Comeback
Tatyana Baibakova/Alamy
In university, I had a passionate biology lecturer dedicated to resolving global iodine deficiencies. He always advocated for iodized salt, claiming it plays a pivotal role in enhancing public health. His emphasis on its significance still resonates with me whenever I browse the salt aisle at the supermarket.
Recently, I’ve observed a decline in the availability of iodized salt. Fancy varieties like Cornish sea salt, Himalayan pink salt, and gourmet kosher salts are dominating the shelves. The remaining iodized salt products are often unattractive, posing the question: Are we risking the benefits brought by this simple yet vital mineral?
Iodine is a crucial mineral that the thyroid uses to produce hormones essential for metabolism, growth, digestion, heart rate, and body temperature regulation.
Ensuring adequate iodine intake during pregnancy is especially critical, as thyroid hormones influence fetal brain development. Mild iodine deficiency can diminish intelligence significantly—by as much as 13 IQ points. It is equally important for children, supporting both brain development and thyroid functionality. Reports exist of children suffering from iodine deficiency displaying poor school performance and fatigue due to extreme pickiness in food choices. Additionally, both adults and children can develop goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland, due to insufficient iodine intake.
Natural sources rich in iodine include seaweed, seafood, and dairy products. Milk contains iodine due to iodine being added to cow feed and the use of iodine-based disinfectants during milking. Fruits, vegetables, and grains can capture minimal amounts of iodine from soil, which varies significantly in iodine content. Regions like Switzerland and Michigan historically had iodine-poor soil, resulting in high incidences of goiter among children.
In 1922, Switzerland pioneered iodized salt by adding iodine to table salt. This initiative led to a near elimination of goiters and remarkable increases in children’s height and IQ, as economist Dimitra Politi described it. High school graduation rates soared as a result of this public health intervention.
Iodized salt made its way to Michigan in 1924, followed by widespread adoption across the U.S. and other countries. Its introduction significantly contributed to the global rise in IQ witnessed in the 20th century. Rarely has such an inexpensive invention delivered such monumental benefits. Endocrinologist Gerald Barrow famously stated, “Five cents per person per year can make the entire population smarter than before.”
Despite these gains, iodized salt faces a popularity crisis today. The allure of pink Himalayan sea salt often overshadows the practical benefits of iodized options. Many consumers avoid iodized salt, mistakenly believing it contains harmful additives, despite iodine being a natural element.
As people reduce their use of iodized salt at home, they increasingly rely on processed foods, which typically contain non-iodized salt. The growing popularity of vegan diets and plant-based milk alternatives further diminishes iodine intake.
A recent study indicates that Americans not consuming enough iodine has doubled since 2001, with alarming findings showing that 46% of pregnant women are iodine deficient.
This trend is mirrored in the UK, where women of reproductive age show average iodine levels below recommended standards. In Australia, 62% of pregnant and breastfeeding women lack sufficient iodine. Conversely, some regions in Japan report excessive iodine intake leading to thyroid complications.
Consequently, public health experts urge residents of the U.S., U.K., and Australia to reintroduce iodized salt into their diets to safeguard against cognitive impairments, thyroid issues, and the potential return of goiter.
It’s perplexing. The supplement industry thrives, with people consuming large doses of zinc, selenium, and ginkgo biloba for brain health, often despite minimal evidence supporting these benefits. In contrast, iodine supplements and iodized salt remain overlooked, despite the risks associated with iodine deficiency.
Regardless of current trends, I will persist in my quest for iodized salt at the supermarket, wary of the judgment that may accompany a purchase of those appealing pink flakes.
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Geophagy and Mental Health: Earth eating, or geophagy, is recognized by the American Psychiatric Association as a mental health condition unless tied to cultural practices.
Discover more about this fascinating topic at the Museum of Edible Earth in Somerset House, London, running until April 26th.
During my visit, I encountered approximately 600 soil samples collected by the museum’s founder, Mashal. Highlighted were red ocher from South Africa, a source of iron, and black nakumat clay used by pregnant women in India for nausea relief. In the UK, only two varieties are approved for tasting as nutritional supplements.
Luvos Healing Earth, known for digestive benefits, resembles chocolate sprinkles but tastes like unwashed leek sand. In contrast, I enjoyed the milled Mexican diatomaceous earth, a silky, slightly sour flour. Beyond taste, I reveled in imagining the ancient aquatic creatures that once inhabited this soil.
Vacuum chamber used to measure electronic transitions in atomic hydrogen, aiding in estimating proton size.
Axel Beyer/MPQ
Newly acquired data reveals the true size of the proton, marking a significant milestone in particle physics. Over 15 years ago, a surprising experiment reshaped our understanding of this subatomic particle’s fundamental properties.
Protons are essential constituents of matter, and until 2010, our comprehension of their structure seemed complete. We recognized that protons consist of three quarks, but uncertainties about their size lingered.
Recent investigations involving exotic hydrogen atoms suggest that protons may actually be 4% smaller than previously thought. Research teams are now tirelessly exploring sources of error and theories that might illuminate the proton radius puzzle. In 2019, an additional experiment reinforced indications that the proton’s size had been overestimated.
Excitingly, the confusion surrounding proton size appears to be resolved through two complementary experiments, which convincingly support the idea of smaller protons. Their findings indicate that the proton’s radius is approximately 0.84 femtometers—an astonishing measurement, less than one millionth of a meter.
As physicist Dylan Yost from Colorado State University explains, “Reviewing the data makes you reconsider the betting odds on the proton’s radius. These measurements significantly bolster our understanding.”
To ascertain this new radius, both research teams focused their efforts on hydrogen atoms, which consist of one proton and one electron. The electromagnetic interaction between these oppositely charged particles is influenced by the proton’s size, allowing researchers to deduce its dimensions by observing electron energy transitions.
Using lasers, the teams manipulated electrons in hydrogen atoms, measuring three previously unrecorded energy transitions.
The calculated proton radius not only aligned with each other but also confirmed the crucial 2010 measurements. As physicist Lothar Meisenbacher from the University of California, Berkeley noted, “It’s extremely unlikely that this proton radius puzzle persists.”
Conducting these experiments was no small feat. The teams placed hydrogen atoms in complete vacuum environments, utilized expensive lasers, and meticulously calibrated their equipment. While data collection might take weeks, it often requires years to eliminate potential disturbances and errors, according to Meisenbacher.
Yet, if multiple experiments produce comparable results, diversity in methodologies can serve as an advantage, ensuring that equipment-specific errors do not skew findings. Juan Rojo from Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam emphasizes that “the proton’s radius is a universal property, and consistent results across different approaches enhance credibility.”
Understanding proton size is vital for refining theories about potential new particles, as noted by Yost. The recent MPQ experiment has accurately tested existing theories, such as quantum electrodynamics, with a precision of 0.5 parts per million. Although no discrepancies with predicted outcomes emerged, the research lays the groundwork for future explorations in particle physics.
While high-energy colliders seek heavier particles, these precise hydrogen atom studies interrogate for lighter, hidden particles. “With a clearer understanding of proton size, we can now ask, what constraints can we establish for new physics?” concludes Yost.
Logician, mathematician, philosopher, and visionary Kurt Gödel
Pictorial Press/Alamy
Kurt Gödel, the individual who transformed mathematics, stands as one of the most pivotal thinkers of the 20th century. Born in 1906 during an era of great mathematical turmoil, his contributions would later reshape this landscape, albeit confining mathematicians to a more bounded realm.
The realm of mathematics is an extraordinarily powerful intellectual framework, allowing us to construct a vast array of logical ideas upon others. It resembles a cognitive perpetual motion machine; new mathematical insights seem perpetually within reach, awaiting only the right methodologies. Yet, the core of mathematics conceals a profound, limiting truth known as Gödel’s incompleteness theorem.
The genesis of this theorem traces back to the late 19th century, a time when mathematicians began to elucidate the foundational structures of their discipline. To their dismay, they found that thousands of years of mathematical thought rested on unstable ground, leading to a wave of paradoxes that unsettled the field.
In response to this chaos, mathematician David Hilbert, at the 1900 Paris Conference, formulated a list of 23 unsolved mathematical problems that would guide research efforts for the 20th century. “As long as a branch of science poses challenges, it shall endure,” he told the audience.
Gödel would later confront Hilbert’s second problem, which pertains to the axioms of mathematics—the foundational assumptions that dictate logical deductions. Hilbert’s challenge to mathematicians was to prove that the axioms of arithmetic could be considered “non-contradictory,” ensuring that a finite number of logical steps drawn from them could not yield conflicting outcomes.
This proof is vital; envision a board game where scoring relies on contentious interpretations of rules—one interpretation could earn points, while another may result in a loss. Such a game would be inherently flawed.
Over the decades to follow, Hilbert and his associates endeavored to address his second problem through the development of “proof theory,” a method of abstracting proofs into mathematical objects. This allowed them to treat proofs as recipes for generating valid conclusions, which Hilbert showcased in a 1928 lecture on Die Grundlagen der Mathematik (The Foundations of Mathematics), where he asserted that the approach could delineate foundational questions in mathematics through definitively demonstrable formulas, though acknowledging the effort required for meaningful resolution.
At that moment, Gödel was a 22-year-old doctoral candidate at the University of Vienna, under the mentorship of a mathematician aligned with Hilbert’s program. While there is no evidence they ever directly interacted, Gödel’s subsequent publication of his completeness theorem as part of his doctoral work marked a significant milestone toward achieving Hilbert’s objectives.
Completeness theorems revolve around models of axiom sets, essentially mapping concrete mathematical objects to the symbolic constructs like “2” or “+” within a given framework. For simplification, consider axioms stating: “Two entities exist” and “Entities differ.” Though minimal, these are valid axioms, leading to various applicable models, such as coin sides (heads or tails) or numerical representations (0 and 1). Diverse models can inform the same axiom set, with Gödel demonstrating that if a statement holds true across all potential models, it is provable from those axioms.
While this may seem self-referential, it provided optimism for Hilbert’s endeavor to solidify the underpinnings of mathematics.
Unexpectedly, on September 6, 1930, Gödel unveiled his completeness theorem at a conference in Königsberg (now known as Kaliningrad, Russia). Hilbert was likewise present at a different conference in the city, delivering a notable address on September 8, in which he famously repudiated the idea that human understanding bore limits, declaring, “We must know. We will know,” words that eventually adorned his gravestone.
Yet, unbeknownst to Hilbert, Gödel had undermined all such ambitions the day before. During discussions with other logicians on September 7, he revealed his discovery of an “undecidable” statement—one that cannot conclusively be proven true or false within a particular set of axioms. This marked the dawn of an idea that would forever constrain the scope of mathematics.
Incompleteness is a vital concept in modern mathematics, reflecting essential limitations.
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While it’s tempting to visualize Gödel chuckling at Hilbert’s lecture, records show no meetings occurred. However, a few months later, in January 1931, Gödel published the incompleteness theorem—an illuminating counterpoint to his earlier work.
This theorem asserts two crucial points. First, that no matter the axiom set, certain problems remain unsolvable within its confines—akin to the paradoxical phrase, “This statement is false,” which defies classification as either true or false. This leads to what we now call Gödel’s first incompleteness theorem, which retains its significance nearly a century later. I previously explored how a certain computer program could theoretically destabilize mathematics due to an undecidable problem.
While the First Incompleteness Theorem reshaped our perception of mathematical capabilities, Gödel’s Second Incompleteness Theorem posed even greater challenges for Hilbert. Gödel demonstrated that a sufficiently robust set of axioms could never confirm its own non-contradictory nature.
Returning to our board game analogy, reading the rules provides no assurance against contradictions. Hilbert sought assurance of consistency in arithmetic axioms, yet Gödel revealed this concern to be inherently undecidable. There is a workaround: a new axiom could affirm the earlier axiom’s consistency. However, this introduces new contradictions, leaving mathematicians with an enduring sense of the unknown rather than infinite horizons.
What was Hilbert’s response to this earth-shattering revelation? Remarkably, he made no public acknowledgment. As noted by Gödel’s biographer, John Dawson, Gödel forwarded a draft of his findings to Hilbert’s assistant, Paul Bernays, who acknowledged it but offered no feedback. Dawson suggests that Gödel’s findings stirred Hilbert’s ire, yet it wasn’t until 1934 that he publicly addressed Gödel’s work, claiming, “The temporary view that Gödel’s results rendered my proof theory unviable turned out to be false.” In a collaborative book with Bernays, Hilbert stated:
In sum, Gödel’s groundbreaking insights not only challenged Hilbert’s vision of mathematics as an infinite pursuit of knowledge but ultimately prevailed. Gödel’s concept of incompleteness has become a cornerstone in modern mathematics, revealing both its richness and its limitations. I often ponder whether Gödel himself felt a sense of incompleteness after his contentious exchanges with Hilbert.
Quantum Batteries: Harnessing Energy by Reversing Time
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Innovative methods designed to reverse time flow in quantum systems may pave the way for the next generation of quantum batteries.
Across the cosmos, we perceive events as unfolding in a singular direction, conforming to the apparent arrow of time. However, the fundamental principles governing our universe remain effective regardless of whether time advances forward or retreats backward.
Scientists have developed various theories to explain the apparent discord between the one-way arrow of time we observe and the permitted bidirectional flow dictated by physical laws. A prominent example is the second law of thermodynamics, which posits that systems naturally progress towards greater disorder, thereby favoring a forward time direction.
In quantum mechanics, the understanding of the arrow of time diverges. Just like classical laws, quantum processes can technically unfold in either direction. However, the forward direction is determined by comparing measurements of a quantum system against theoretical predictions regarding its temporal evolution. When these measurements align with specific statistical patterns, the system is interpreted as progressing forward in time.
Recently, Luis Pedro Garcia Pintos and his team at Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico, have formulated a method to replicate this statistical characteristic. By reverse-engineering measurement-induced changes in a quantum system, they create an illusion that the quantum system is retreating in time.
“We apply field and control techniques to the system that allow us to undo the effects of measurements,” explains Garcia-Pintos. “If a measurement causes the system to elevate, we can counteract this by bringing it down, effectively creating a trajectory that aligns more with a backward time process.”
The researchers suggest the potential to manipulate the arrow of time in a qubit—an essential element of quantum computing—by measuring its properties, such as spin. Yet, this depends on the ability to continually measure qubits in a non-disruptive manner, enabling the calculation of the temporal direction through microwave pulse applications.
This technology holds the promise of enabling energy extraction from quantum systems requiring measurement, according to Garcia-Pintos. Such an advancement could significantly impact quantum batteries and miniature quantum engines, as each measurement introduces energy into the system.
By carefully adjusting the quantum arrow of time, this energy can be effectively redirected and harnessed for alternative applications. “Consequently, you derive energy from this process,” states Garcia-Pintos. “These measurements can serve as thermodynamic resources.”
As noted by Mauro Paternostro, it’s important to note that the proposed design is specialized and does not universally apply to all quantum systems.
Moreover, achieving order in a system necessitates an energy expenditure, ensuring compliance with the second law of thermodynamics. “When I enter my son’s room, chaos reigns—balls roll and clothes scatter. If I take the time to clean, the room becomes tidier, but this requires energy,” he remarks. “This is precisely what their external control mechanisms demonstrate.”
The four astronauts aboard NASA’s Artemis II mission are nearing their return to Earth, but a crucial and perilous phase of the mission remains ahead.
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NASA astronauts Reed Wiseman, Christina Koch, Victor Glover, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen are set to return to Earth Friday night following a 10-day mission in space.
Their Orion capsule is scheduled to re-enter the atmosphere around 7:53 p.m. ET, embarking on a critical journey expected to take under 15 minutes. If everything goes as planned, the mission will conclude with a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean off San Diego’s coast at 8:07 p.m. ET.
“There’s a 13-minute window where everything must go right,” stated Jeff Radigan, NASA’s Artemis II flight director, at a recent press conference.
Reentry poses significant risks during spaceflight, exposing the craft to temperatures near 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit as it plunges through the atmosphere. This risk is heightened for Artemis II due to a known design flaw in the Orion spacecraft’s heat shield, crucial for shielding astronauts from extreme heat.
This marks the first crewed mission for the Orion capsule.
After the uncrewed Artemis I mission in 2022, NASA detected unexpected damage to the spacecraft’s heat shield.
NASA’s Orion spacecraft was recovered post-Artemis I test flight and transported to Kennedy Space Center in Florida, where its heat shield underwent inspection. NASA
NASA’s research revealed that certain materials in the heat shield cracked upon atmospheric reentry, leading to “charred material flaking off” in various areas. An investigation found that improper gas venting within the heat shield’s outer layers created pressure buildup, resulting in the damage.
Damage to the heat shield from the Artemis I mission is shown. NASA
As a result of these findings, NASA intends to revise the heat shield design for subsequent Artemis missions. The Orion spacecraft for future flights will feature a more permeable outer material layer. Unfortunately, by the time NASA identified the damage from Artemis I, the Artemis II capsule was already built and assembled.
Rather than redesign the heat shield, NASA adjusted the capsule’s reentry trajectory to mitigate risks for the astronauts. The Orion spacecraft typically descends into the atmosphere, “skipping” like a stone on water to lessen thermal stress and gravitational forces before its final descent. NASA Deputy Administrator Amit Kshatriya explained that this “skip” will be brief, allowing the capsule to descend more rapidly and at a steeper angle, thereby reducing exposure to extreme temperatures.
“All systems demonstrated over the past nine days, including life support, navigation, propulsion, and communications, hinge on the flight’s final moments,” stated Kshatriya during a Thursday media briefing.
He further expressed “high confidence” in the spacecraft’s heat shield with the optimized flight path.
Nonetheless, substantial risks remain, with the lives of four astronauts at stake.
Former NASA astronaut Charlie Camarda voiced concerns regarding the heat shield, suggesting NASA should have delayed the Artemis II launch pending further assessment of the existing design.
“History shows that incidents occur when organizations misjudge the complexities of problems. This issue mirrors patterns seen prior to previous tragedies,” he articulated in an open letter to NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman in January.
Conversely, Isaacman declared earlier this month that he holds “full confidence” in the performance of Orion’s heat shield.
Wiseman conveyed satisfaction with the current plan.
“If we adhere to the newly-established atmospheric entry path, this heat shield is safe for flight,” he affirmed during a pre-flight media event in July.
Radigan noted that precise orbital positioning is essential for the atmospheric reentry protocol. Mission control has dedicated significant effort over the past day and a half to maintain the Orion spacecraft’s orbital path, executing necessary engine burns.
“Avoid actions that are impossible,” Radigan emphasized. “Hitting the required angle is crucial for successful atmospheric reentry.”
Artemis II flight controllers monitor the Orion spacecraft from the White Flight Control Room at Johnson Space Center in Houston. Ronaldo Shemit/AFP – Getty Images
During reentry, the Orion capsule is projected to achieve speeds nearing 24,000 miles per hour, with astronauts experiencing gravitational forces approximately 3.9 times that of Earth.
As the capsule penetrates the atmosphere, communication blackouts are anticipated due to plasma buildup surrounding the craft. Flight director Rick Henfling announced that this disruption is expected to last around six minutes.
“Post-blackout, Orion will be at approximately 150,000 feet, still descending rapidly,” he noted.
On Saturday, Artemis II commander Reed Wiseman gazed back at Earth from the Orion spacecraft’s main cabin. NASA
At approximately 6,000 feet altitude, the capsule will deploy three main parachutes to decelerate to about 20 miles per hour before making contact with the ocean.
The U.S. Navy is set to assist with recovery operations in the Pacific. Following confirmation of a safe landing area, NASA plans to extract Koch from the capsule first, followed in order by Glover, Hansen, and Wiseman.
At a press conference on Thursday, Kshatriya commended the crew, emphasizing it was time for flight officials, engineers, and recovery teams to bring them home.
“The crew has performed their duties,” he stated. “Now it’s our turn to execute our part.”
A community of approximately 200 chimpanzees in Uganda’s Kibale National Park has fractured into two rival factions, leading to a years-long, deadly conflict.
The Ngogo chimpanzees have been under continuous study for three decades, yet scientists have recently observed the violent split unfold in slow motion.
Starting around 2015, this previously unified group began to polarize. Social bonds weakened, neighborhoods within the community solidified into distinct factions, and once-shared territory became hotly contested. By 2018, this division had become permanent.
What transpired next was both surprising and alarming. The smaller faction, known as the western chimpanzees, initiated targeted raids on the territory of their larger rivals, the central group. Over the following six years, they killed at least seven adult males and 17 young children.
This count is likely an underestimate. An additional 14 adolescent and adult male chimpanzees went missing or died unexpectedly between 2021 and 2024, none showing any prior signs of illness.
Today, the Western group has emerged as the dominant force within the jungle.
Recent findings, published in Science, have drawn comparisons to civil wars. Unlike conflicts between strangers, the events at Ngogo involved former allies, groomers, and long-term social partners turning against one another.
Researchers involved in this study estimate that such conflicts occur only once every 500 years.
“One of the most intriguing aspects of this conflict is the so-called ‘friend-to-foe’ transformation,” stated Professor Aaron Sandel from the University of Texas at Austin in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “This provides a rare glimpse into the minds of chimpanzees.”
This research supports the notion that group identities can change, undermining long-held social bonds without the ethnic, religious, or ideological markers typically associated with collective violence.
“It almost facilitates wars between factions,” Sandel commented. “But we remain troubled by civil strife, as it’s often neighbors turning against neighbors.”
He added that insights from chimpanzee behavior could help researchers formulate hypotheses about the factors that drive humans toward or away from similar conflicts.
“By focusing on human interactions and conflict resolution, we may uncover more effective avenues for promoting peace,” he concluded.
Diagram of CAR T Cells: Genetic Modification to Combat Autoimmune Diseases
Christoph Burgstedt/Science Photo Library
A woman suffering from three autoimmune diseases has found remarkable relief after undergoing CAR T cell therapy. Following genetic modification of her immune cells, she didn’t require treatment for nearly a year, thanks to these engineered cells effectively targeting and eliminating rogue cells in her body. “When we first met, she was bedridden and at death’s door. After treatment, she was out of bed within seven days,” stated Fabian Muller from Erlangen University Hospital, Germany. Remarkably, she made a full recovery within months, and an 11-month post-treatment check confirmed her continued good health.
This case represents the growing potential of CAR T cell therapy in treating autoimmune diseases, particularly since she was the first patient treated for three concurrent conditions simultaneously. “It’s astonishing that I could overcome three autoimmune diseases with just one treatment,” Muller remarked.
In response to viral infections, our bodies produce vast numbers of immune cells with random mutations. Unfortunately, some of these mutant cells become self-targeting and can persist indefinitely. This phenomenon occurred in the patient’s case over a decade ago during pregnancy, leading to her autoimmune hemolytic anemia—a severe condition where antibodies attack oxygen-carrying red blood cells.
Her immune system went on to produce antibodies that targeted platelets (leading to immune thrombocytopenia) and proteins preventing blood clots (causing antiphospholipid syndrome), exposing her to both severe anemia and dangerous clot risks.
Despite trying various immunosuppressive medications with no success, the patient required blood transfusions and anticoagulants to manage her symptoms until she was referred to Professor Müller and his team. In 2022, they became the first to treat an autoimmune disorder with CAR T cell therapy, a technique previously limited to cancer treatment.
For her treatment, researchers engineered CAR T cells to specifically target her abnormal antibody-producing immune cells. Following this intervention, these cells were effectively eliminated, restoring her immune system’s functions without entirely wiping it out.
Interestingly, her immune system recognized the infused CAR T cells as foreign and eliminated them within months, paving the way for the development of new, healthy antibody-producing cells. Consequently, her immune system is now functioning normally, free from the destructive cells responsible for her illness.
The CAR T therapy approach has shown promise for treating disorders like lupus, multiple sclerosis, colitis, and severe asthma. Unlike cancer treatments, which may induce severe side effects due to extensive cell death, the CAR T therapy used for autoimmune diseases is generally associated with far fewer adverse effects, as fewer cells need targeting.
Although some residual effects persisted, researchers believe these stem from previous drug therapies rather than the CAR T treatment itself. “This powerful treatment has minimal side effects and can resolve underlying symptoms, which is truly remarkable,” stated Ruben Benjamin from King’s College London.
Currently, most patients treated for autoimmune disorders with CAR T cell therapy have remained symptom-free, although some cases show a return of targeted cells, necessitating additional treatment options, as noted by Benjamin.
“Long-term follow-up is essential for a comprehensive assessment of these therapies,” he added. Jun Shi from the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences in Tianjin is leading an ongoing trial on 15 patients with autoimmune hemolytic anemia using CAR T therapy. Read more about ongoing trials here.
While CAR T therapy is notably expensive, ranging from $200,000 to $600,000 due to its tailored nature, Muller emphasizes the long-term savings and benefits, suggesting that effective treatments can lead to individuals returning to work and improved quality of life. “The initial costs are high, but they could save substantial amounts in the long run,” he stated.
Once a cohesive group, the Ngogo chimpanzees have divided, leading to escalation in violence and conflict. Researchers suggest this division might indicate that warfare is an innate aspect of our nature, rather than a recent development linked to our evolving culture.
According to Aaron Sandel and his team from the University of Texas at Austin, a comprehensive analysis of 24 years of social networks, 10 years of GPS tracking, and 30 years of demographic data on the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Kibale National Park, Uganda, was conducted.
Sandel emphasizes caution with terminology: “These are chimpanzees. Terms like war and civil war carry specific meanings for humans. While the conflict is not a civil war, there exist notable parallels, particularly regarding the shifts in group identity that precipitate lethal conflict.”
Chimpanzees are notorious for violence, predominantly targeting infants of rivals or outsider males.
The Ngogo population, comprising 150 to 200 individuals, is closely related to bonobos (Pongo niger), recognized as humans’ nearest relatives.
Between 1995 and 2015, the Ngogo chimpanzees were known for their cooperative behavior, showcasing fission-fusion dynamics, where individuals form temporary associations throughout the day and regroup each evening.
During puberty, female chimpanzees typically leave the group, while males remain for life. Prior to 2015, adult males formed alliances with females, facilitating hunting and territory patrols.
However, on June 24, 2015, a pivotal confrontation occurred when one faction, known as the central group, violently expelled the western group from their shared territory.
Following this event, the unity among the chimpanzees deteriorated. By 2018, the groups had permanently separated. During the ensuing years, the western group undertook 24 attacks, resulting in the deaths of seven adults and 17 infants from the other faction.
Chimpanzees from the Western Group on Patrol
Aaron Sandel
Sandel noted that the central chimpanzees were the first to pursue the western group; yet, the initial aggressors remain unclear. “As new factions emerged and divisions solidified, both groups engaged in territorial disputes,” he explained. “However, the western group has become the dominant aggressor, responsible for all fatal attacks.”
Various factors are believed to have contributed to the conflict’s escalation. Initial disagreements over food resources may have sparked tensions. In 2014, the deaths of five males and one female likely weakened the social structure. Changes in alpha male dynamics further exacerbated the situation, culminating in an outbreak of respiratory disease.
This outbreak, which claimed 25 Ngogo chimpanzees in January 2017, including the last surviving males of both factions, extinguished hopes for reconciliation.
Sandel and his team propose that the patterns observed in chimpanzee conflicts could provide insights into the evolutionary foundations of human warfare. While contemporary human conflicts are often attributed to ethnic, religious, and political divisions, this perspective may overlook the fundamental social dynamics shared with our primate relatives.
“In specific scenarios, the path toward peace may stem from simple, everyday acts of reconciliation,” the researchers articulated in their findings.
Maud Muzino from Boston University emphasizes that there are two predominant theories regarding the origins of human conflict. The first posits that war is a recent cultural innovation stemming from agrarian society and the establishment of nation-states. The alternative viewpoint asserts that the roots of warfare trace back through human evolution. “Ngogo’s findings significantly contribute to understanding the deep-seated origins of human conflict,” Muzino notes.
This study reveals that social fragmentation and subsequent conflicts can arise independently of the cultural differences often presumed to trigger human wars, be it in beliefs, language, or religious practices, states Luke Glowacki, also from Boston University.
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For many years in Uganda’s Kibale National Park, two groups of chimpanzees coexisted, engaging in grooming, socializing, and territory patrols within their communities.
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Then, in a shocking turn of events, one group violently attacked the other, igniting years of conflict likened to human civil wars.
When the violence erupted in 2015, John Mitani, a professor emeritus of anthropology at the University of Michigan with over 20 years of research on chimpanzees, described the chaos: “It was just chaos. They started screaming and chasing each other.”
In the three years following the outbreak, Mitani and his colleague Aaron Sandel, an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Texas, documented how the chimpanzees’ social networks began to erode. By 2018, the two factions known as Western Ngogo and Central Ngogo chimpanzees “stopped sharing territory and began engaging in aggressive behavior, even killing each other,” Mitani reported.
At least 28 chimpanzees, including 19 infants, have been killed in this period, according to the initial research published in Science.
Mitani remarked, “Individuals who once aided each other now view one another as enemies.”
Basie, a central chimpanzee, is attacked by two males from the western subpopulation. Aaron Sandel
This marks the second observed instance of chimpanzee factions splitting and turning violent. Given that chimpanzees and bonobos are humans’ closest genetic relatives, the findings may offer insights into human behavior.
“Civil wars afflict people. How can you turn a neighbor against you? This study of chimpanzees highlights how group identity evolves and how lethal aggression arises,” Sandel noted.
Infants were torn from their mothers and killed.
Following the social collapse, one-sided violence escalated. The Western chimpanzees, initially a minority group, were responsible for all subsequent attacks post-split in 2018. While their numbers rose from 76 to 108, the Central chimpanzee population has steadily decreased.
Attacks have been brutal, with a Western chimpanzee reportedly tearing an infant from its mother’s arms and killing it.
Sandel highlighted that chimpanzees often utilize gang violence when targeting adult or adolescent males.
“Five or ten chimpanzees will overwhelm an individual, holding them down, biting, beating, and dragging them,” he explained. “The violence can be horrifying.”
Mitani remarked, “It’s distressing to witness.”
“The situation deeply troubles me,” he expressed.
Researchers seek answers regarding the reasons behind the collapse of social structures.
Since 1995, chimpanzees at Ngogo have been closely monitored, with structured documentation of their behavior. The recent study utilized 10 years of GPS tracking, 30 years of demographic data, and 24 years of detailed observations.
The team examined chimpanzee social networks by observing individual males for an hour, recording proximity, interactions, and grooming behaviors. They noted recurring patterns of overlapping social dynamics that ultimately led to a breakdown.
Mitani and Sandel propose that the group’s large size might have played a role in the violent divide. While typical chimpanzee groups consist of around 50 individuals, the Ngogo community boasted about 200, possibly straining social connections and heightening competition for resources.
Additionally, the death of five adult males from disease prior to the split could have disrupted critical social ties. Following this, a new alpha male emerged in 2015, further complicating social dynamics.
“That’s a significant factor,” Mitani explained, noting that such shifts typically occur every 6-8 years, often increasing aggression and altering relationships.
Decades ago, Jane Goodall witnessed similar violence
Approximately 50 years ago, the late Jane Goodall and her team observed a series of assaults that led to group fragmentation in Tanzania’s Gombe National Park. The main group hunted down and killed all males from the splinter group.
Researchers subsequently termed this conflict the “Four Years’ War.”
Anne Pusey, a professor emeritus of evolutionary anthropology at Duke University, studied these interactions until 1975, and noted that conditions preceding the killings were “remarkably similar” to those seen in Ngogo.
In Gombe, changes in alpha leadership, a shortage of mating females, and the deaths of amicable older males precipitated violent behavior.
Pusey remarked, “These social bonds deteriorated, leading to hostility.”
Joseph Feldblum, an evolutionary anthropologist with experience studying Gombe, stated that the recent findings align with historical observations.
“Such behavior is infrequent, yet exists within the natural repertoire of chimpanzees,” he noted.
Mitani expressed concern over the future of the Ngogo central group, suggesting they may be “doomed” based on past events at Gombe.
“The signs are evident,” he stated.
With the ongoing violence against infants and exclusion of females, Mitani concluded, “We might be witnessing an extinction event.”
Impact on humans
What can we learn from the violent behaviors displayed by our closest relatives?
Sandel emphasized that while cultural differences are often blamed for human warfare, this explanation does not apply to chimpanzees.
“Chimpanzees lack ethnicity, religions, and political ideologies, which are often identified as causes of human conflicts, especially internal strife like civil wars.”
Instead, researchers believe the violence is rooted in the breakdown of friendships and rivalry escalation. Sandel suggested that these dynamics may play a more pivotal role in human civil wars than commonly recognized, proposing that small gestures of reconciliation could be vital for peace.
Mitani reminded us that humans diverged from chimpanzees 6 to 8 million years ago. He cautioned against viewing violence against neighbors as an inherent human trait simply because it is observed in chimpanzees.
“We have evolved,” Mitani asserted. “As a species, we have become increasingly cooperative and socially inclined, often helping not only our neighbors but even strangers. This capability is not shared by chimpanzees.”
Parkinson’s Disease: Neurological Insights and Treatment Advances
Image Credit: Dr. Gopal Murthy/Science Photo Library
A potential breakthrough drug, referred to as Compound X, has demonstrated significant improvements in mobility and balance for mice exhibiting Parkinson’s-like symptoms. This innovative treatment enhances the brain’s waste-processing capabilities, effectively removing toxic protein aggregates. However, the research team has yet to disclose the specifics of this compound.
“With intellectual property considerations, we recognize that Compound X represents a pivotal advancement, potentially serving as the first disease-modifying intervention for Parkinson’s disease,” stated Zhao Yan from Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne.
Parkinson’s disease affects over 10 million people globally, characterized by the progressive loss of nerve cells involved in movement control. This degeneration is widely believed to originate from the build-up of misfolded proteins called α-synuclein, due to a malfunction in the brain’s waste disposal system—the glymphatic system. Recent studies aimed to determine if enhancing this system could alleviate symptoms.
To explore this hypothesis, Yang and her colleagues employed a novel mouse model mimicking Parkinson’s disease. This model utilizes repeated nasal administration of misfolded alpha-synuclein, promoting its spread throughout the brain and causing severe motor deficits—more accurately reflecting human Parkinson’s disease compared to traditional models that rely on toxin exposure. Yang showcased her findings at the Oxford Glymphatic and Brain Clearance Symposium in the UK on April 1st.
The team administered weekly doses of alpha-synuclein to 20 mice over four months. After two months, they introduced Compound X—an FDA-approved drug administered four times a week in synergy with methylcellulose, which enhances drug solubility. Preliminary studies indicated that Compound X could increase slow brain waves, known to support glymphatic function, although its specific impact on brain waste clearance warranted further investigation, Yang noted.
The remaining group of mice received only methylcellulose as a control. The progression of Parkinson’s symptoms paralleled early-stage human patients, including alterations in smell and sleep patterns, according to Yang.
Subsequently, all mice underwent a locomotion test involving navigation on a slender rod. Remarkably, 80% of the mice treated with Compound X successfully completed the task, compared to only 10% in the control group.
In another assessment requiring balance on a rotating rod for five minutes, nearly all Compound X-treated mice maintained their position throughout the duration, while the control group averaged just three minutes.
Further analyses revealed that Compound X enhanced slow-wave activity during deep sleep and facilitated fluid circulation within the glymphatic system. Notably, this treatment reduced α-synuclein aggregates in the mice’s motor cortex by approximately 40% compared to the control group.
“This discovery holds significant potential,” emphasized Duan Wenzhen from Johns Hopkins University, Maryland. “The medical community requires treatments that can decelerate disease progression. Current therapies only alleviate symptoms temporarily, lacking efficacy in altering the disease’s trajectory.”
The research team aspires to obtain regulatory approval for human trials targeting early-stage Parkinson’s patients within the upcoming year. “Our ultimate goal is to provide treatment that addresses the early stages of the disease, where the most significant benefits are realized,” Yang concluded.
“Miniature Wife” Starring Matthew Macfadyen and Elizabeth Banks
Credit: Peacock
Miniature figures have long captivated audiences within science fiction and fantasy, a tradition that traces back to Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. The concept of shrunken characters has graced numerous classic films, from Bridal of Frankenstein to modern hits like Ant-Man and Honey, I Shrunk the Kids. The new Peacock limited series, Miniature Wife, pays homage to these films but falls short of being a noteworthy addition to the genre.
Based on Manuel Gonzalez’s 2014 short story, Miniature Wife follows Elizabeth Banks as Lindy Littlejohn, a once-celebrated author turned university professor overshadowed by her scientist husband, Les (Matthew Macfadyen). Lindy’s feelings of insignificance in both her personal and professional life are amplified when she becomes literally small due to Les’s experimental invention, designed to shrink objects to 1/12th of their original size.
Lindy’s most pressing dilemma is that Les has not yet found a stable antidote for the shrinking process. His failed attempts often lead to catastrophic results. Complicating matters further, Lindy navigates a plagiarism scandal involving a student’s accidental publication of a story under her name in the New Yorker. An emotional tangle with Les’ colleague, Richard (OT Fagbenle), also arises, whose affections for her are stronger than her feelings for him.
Meanwhile, Les strikes a deal with a sinister oligarch (Ronnie Cheng) that pressures him to produce an antidote within 30 days, jeopardizing all his work if he fails. The series often drags with dull office politics, including dealings with a demanding scientist named Vivienne (Zoe Lister-Jones) who becomes Lindy’s new boss. Subplots concerning their college-age daughter, Lulu (Sofia Rosinski), and Lindy’s best friend Terry (Sian Clifford) feel like unnecessary padding, contributing to a scattered narrative.
Creators Jennifer Ames and Steve Turner could have benefitted from trimming the number of episodes, currently awkwardly balancing comedy and drama at around 45 minutes each. Miniature Wife showcases Lindy’s clumsy adaptations to dollhouse life, coupled with the strains of her rocky marriage to Les amid extraordinary circumstances.
“We all suck,” Lulu candidly remarks about the Littlejohn family, and she’s not wrong. Both Lindy and Les are portrayed as unlikable individuals whose relationship deteriorates under pressure. While this could work in a dark comedy context, attempts to depict the Littlejohns as a couple worth rooting for fall increasingly flat. Banks and Macfadyen’s chemistry is lacking, with Macfadyen often treating robberies as emotional expressions.
As a science fiction piece, Miniature Wife is convoluted, filled with complex jargon that ultimately lacks substance. Its special effects struggle to match the more straightforward visuals of Lily Tomlin’s 1981 comedy, The Incredible Shrinking Woman. Les lamentably claims to have created “a little monster,” yet he has only triggered mild annoyances.
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Changes in predator populations may have driven early humans to develop innovative tools
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Approximately 200,000 years ago, a decline in megafauna may have compelled early humans to transition from heavy stone tools to more lightweight hunting kits designed for smaller prey. A recent study supports the notion that this change in hunting strategy could have sparked a rise in cognitive capabilities among our ancestors.
For over a million years, various early human species relied on heavy stone tools such as axes, kitchen knives, scrapers, and stone balls. These robust tools were essential for hunting and butchering large herbivores, including extinct relatives of modern elephants, hippos, and rhinos.
Between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago, archaeological evidence shows a notable increase in smaller, sophisticated tools alongside the fading of traditional heavier tools. Our species, Homo sapiens, emerged during this timeframe.
Circa 200,000 years ago, heavy stone tools vanished from the archaeological record of the Levant, while the presence of diverse, lightweight masonry toolkits—like blades and precision scrapers—increased.
Research led by Vlad Litov, a professor at Tel Aviv University, revealed a correlation between these technological advancements and a significant decline in large herbivores, potentially due to overhunting.
The researchers analyzed archaeological findings from 47 sites across the Levant, spanning the Paleolithic period, which lasted from around 3.3 million years ago to 12,000 years ago. Their analysis of dated stone artifacts in relation to animal remains uncovered a compelling trend.
Findings indicate a drastic reduction in the biomass and specimen count of giant herbivores exceeding 1,000 kilograms correlating with the disappearance of heavy tools 200,000 years ago. Conversely, the availability of smaller prey increased alongside more sophisticated small tools.
Supporting the connection between tool technology and prey type, the researchers noted that sturdy stone tools were still in use in regions with abundant large game, such as southern China, until about 50,000 years ago.
Heavy-duty tools and their evolution to lightweight alternatives used by early humans
Vlad Litov et al., Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University
Previous theories suggested that advancements in technology stemmed from increasing intelligence and creativity due to evolutionary pressures. However, Litov and his research team propose a different perspective: reliance on smaller prey may have catalyzed the evolutionary growth of larger brains in modern humans.
“As large herbivores dwindled, humans increasingly depended on smaller prey, necessitating varied hunting strategies, advanced planning, and the implementation of lightweight, intricate toolsets,” states Litov. “This cognitive evolution was a byproduct of adapting to new prey types, rather than the initial driver of this adaptive transformation.”
“There is more to this adaptation than merely prey size,” says Seri Shipton from University College London. He notes preliminary evidence indicating mass hunting of medium-sized ungulates like horses and bison, with signs of enhanced cognitive abilities and planning emerging during the Middle Paleolithic.
Nicolas Tessandier from the French National Center for Scientific Research also maintains some reservations. “Human adaptation to new fauna underscores adaptability rather than mere intelligence,” he posits. “Producing powerful tools for hunting large herbivores was equally astute.”
Litov recognizes that prior research has shown advanced cognitive functions present early in human evolution, notably in the development of Homo erectus around two million years ago. However, he emphasizes that switching from large to smaller prey had major consequences for human society. A single ancient elephant carcass could sustain a group of about 35 hunter-gatherers for months. As these high-calorie resources vanished, reliance on smaller prey reduced the yield per animal.
“Energetically, we had to gather numerous smaller ungulates, such as fallow deer, to replace the loss of one elephant,” explains Litov. This shift likely stimulated diverse cognitive and behavioral changes, including cooperative hunting strategies, advanced techniques, and enhanced social collaboration and organization. “Such adaptations may have contributed to the evolution of larger brains in later species, including Neanderthals and Homo sapiens,” he adds.
“In my view, the decline in large prey familiar to hominins likely intensified competition among groups,” asserts Shipton. “It was probably an iterative process where the reduction of larger prey prompted cognitive shifts that facilitated access to smaller prey.”
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Unique Tourist Attractions: Exploring the Niche
The Earth is vast, populated with a diverse range of interests. Here at Feedback, we have a penchant for unique tourist attractions along America’s scenic highways — such as the world’s largest collection of miniature representations of the world’s biggest objects.
Recently, science historian Richard Fallon drew our attention to what is likely the world’s only sculpture park dedicated to foraminifera. For those unfamiliar, foraminifera are single-celled organisms, primarily ocean dwellers with hard outer shells. Their fossil record is abundant and detailed, as they are preserved in vast quantities.
Located in Zhongshan, China, this Foraminifera Sculpture Park opened in 2009, and we acknowledge our delayed recognition of it. Nestled in a hillside park, visitors can stroll through 114 large sculptures. Describing these works is challenging without diving into terminology for irregular three-dimensional forms, but fans of Barbara Hepworth’s curvilinear sculptures might find some familiarity here.
On TripAdvisor, the Foraminifera Sculpture Park boasts a 5-star rating, albeit from a single review by a user named Eudyptes—who seems to have a specific fondness for foraminifera sculptures. Eudyptes is the scientific classification for the crested penguin.
We’d love more testimony about this attraction. Unfortunately, our editorial team turned down our request to visit China solely for this purpose, as well as a proposed visit to the Slavic International Toilet Museum in New Delhi.
On that note, we invite our readers to share any scientifically inclined sites that might be even more niche. Just to clarify, we are not seeking suggestions for popular attractions like the Icelandic Penis Museum or the British Vagina Museum. Maybe a unique museum focused solely on moss or Western blot images exists?
Humor in Scientific Research
It’s not uncommon for academics to incorporate humor in their paper titles, but referring to them in abstracts is rare. Typically, abstracts summarize key study points in about 200 words, varying from concise brilliance to confusing jargon.
However, physicist Leonard Susskind submitted a paper to arXiv titled “Is time reversal in de Sitter space a spontaneously broken gauge symmetry?” His summary includes an intriguing answer: “Yes, but with a twist: Time reversal is indeed a gauge symmetry, albeit hidden by spontaneous symmetry breaking.”
While the last part might puzzle many, we were particularly drawn to Susskind’s acknowledgment of his colleagues for their ongoing discussions. He humorously noted, “I’m almost 86 years old and I can’t wait for my readers to catch up.” His insightful summaries have landed on our list of favorite academic summaries, proving that humor can make complex subjects more relatable.
A Missed Opportunity
We owe our readers a heartfelt apology for an oversight. A few weeks back, we critiqued accounting firm PwC’s venture into estimating the moon’s future economy. We expressed skepticism about monetizing lunar assets, but reader Alex Collier raised an intriguing question: Could this entrepreneurial spirit imply the moon is actually made of cheddar?
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With approximately 30 trillion cells in the human body, around 1% are replaced daily. Unfortunately, this cellular renewal is prone to errors. As a result, there can be numerous DNA mutations occurring in our bodies each day.
“You are genetically a little different today than you were yesterday, and you will be different again tomorrow,” notes Roxanne Kamsi in her book, Beyond Inheritance: A New Understanding of Ever-Mutating Cells and Health.
These mutations can vary from minor changes in single DNA letters to the loss of entire chromosomes. While some mutations are lost when cells die, many accumulate over time. By the end of life, each of your cells could harbor thousands of mutations.
While many may associate these mutations with cancerous growths, Kamsi highlights that non-cancerous mutations can lead to various health issues as well.
“
Since Darwin, many thinkers have recognized that the forces of evolution must also operate within the body. “
Some mutations can have beneficial effects. For example, the formation of purple “bruises” arises from mutations during development that impact blood vessels. Additionally, mutations in skin cells may influence melanin production, creating skin patches in lines known as Blaschko lines.
This phenomenon occurs throughout the body and across all developmental stages, demonstrating that we are all mosaics composed of various cellular types. These variations can provide certain cells with distinct advantages.
When blood stem cells divide, one cell remains a stem cell while the other becomes a blood cell. If both divide at the same rate, they maintain a balanced progeny. However, mutant cells that divide more rapidly can skew this balance over time. By age 70, it’s estimated that one in ten individuals may have a predominance of mutant blood cells, increasing risks for heart attack or stroke.
This scenario resembles an evolutionary struggle among cells, where those with even slight growth advantages gradually emerge as dominant. Remarkably, Kamsi points out that post-Darwinian thinkers understood that evolutionary principles operate within our bodies, a notion that was largely forgotten after the advent of modern genetics in the 20th century.
Numerous so-called clonal diseases, including certain cases of endometriosis, illustrate this idea, as uterine cells may grow on other organs. Moreover, many mutations can be elusive to detect, especially in hard-to-study organs like the heart or brain.
However, not all mutations spell trouble. A surprising section of the book reveals how new mutations can correct inherited conditions, with research suggesting that liver cells have evolved mechanisms to tackle issues such as fatty liver disease. Yet, advantageous mutations remain the exceptions, not the rule.
While I have some critiques about the writing style and structure of this book—there are digressions about personal attributes that seem unconnected to the main content—the core message is invaluable. This book synthesizes various studies to convey essential information that should resonate with the medical community and beyond. Our bodies are composed of cells that constantly mutate and compete, often aligning with their own interests rather than our health.
Kamsi asserts, “By abandoning the outdated idea that all cells possess identical DNA and embracing the unsettling reality that each cell’s genetic code varies slightly, we can pave the way for a new era in medicine.”
While I remain skeptical about this new era, the implications are profound. Although Kamsi does not explicitly state it, her work addresses how multicellularity weakens as cellular diversity and selfishness increase—a theme of fragmentation against a backdrop of unity.
Kamsi explains that this accumulation of mutations may be a fundamental cause of aging. Conditions associated with premature aging often correlate with DNA repair issues, which facilitate the rapid accumulation of mutations.
Regardless of whether the influx of selfish mutations is a primary cause or merely a contributing factor to aging, the notion of halting aging remains misguided. While certain drugs may slow mutation accumulation and gene editing may repair some, such interventions are ultimately transient.
Even if organ transplants become commonplace, the brain will face inevitable malfunctions. Research on individuals who died in accidents has revealed approximately 1,500 mutations in each analyzed neuron. The relentless wave of mutations cannot be fully contained.
We cannot stem this tide once we begin life in the womb. Dr. Kamsi posits, “Humans are the first beings to try to shape their own genetic destiny.” However, the logical conclusion remains that the most effective way to extend lifespan would involve redesigning the human genome to significantly decrease mutation rates.
While this may one day be feasible, it’s crucial to note that such new beings would no longer be considered human.
Mitochondria, the powerhouse of our cells, were once independent bacteria before merging symbiotically with our ancestors, facilitating complex life. As Lane discusses, their distinct nature continually shapes our lives.
Emphasizing our shared condition as mutants, Leroi discusses extraordinary cases such as babies born with single eyes. Sadly, some conditions, like albinism, can be life-threatening, yet they provide insights into our developmental processes.
Does old age signify the end? Not in Old Man’s War, a thrilling sci-fi adventure. I won’t spoil the plot, but the sequel is equally compelling and a must-read.
Antarctica is witnessing a dramatic decline in two iconic species—the emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) and the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), both of which are now classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List.
Meanwhile, the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) has been downgraded from “Least Concern” to “Vulnerable.”
The IUCN Red List is recognized globally as the most comprehensive evaluation of the conservation status of animal, fungal, and plant species.
Data from the IUCN reveals that satellite imagery indicates a staggering loss of about 10%—over 20,000 adult emperor penguins—between 2009 and 2018. Projections estimate that their population will be cut in half by the 2080s.
“We’ve determined that human-induced climate change represents the most critical threat to emperor penguins,” stated Philip Trathan of the British Antarctic Survey and a member of the IUCN Species Survival Committee. “Early spring sea ice collapse is already impacting colonies throughout Antarctica, further alterations in sea ice will influence breeding, feeding, and molting habitats.”
The population of Antarctic fur seals has plummeted by over 50%, dropping from more than 2 million adult seals in 1999 to approximately 944,000 in 2025, primarily due to climate change.
In addition, southern elephant seal numbers have been severely affected by avian influenza, resulting in over 90% mortality among newborns in certain colonies, according to the IUCN.
Sharon Robinson from the University of Wollongong, Australia, along with colleagues, highlighted in 2022 that emperor penguins are among Antarctica’s most endangered species, potentially facing extinction by 2100.
“Global warming, which warms the oceans and melts sea ice, is eradicating the breeding grounds essential for successful reproduction of emperor penguins,” Robinson noted. “Like many birds and mammals, penguin chicks require safe environments for development, yet human activities are swiftly dismantling these critical habitats.”
Robinson, along with Dana Bergstrom from the University of Wollongong, also stressed the urgent need for attention. The 2025 survey offered alarming updates on the plight of emperor penguins and fellow Antarctic species.
“Of over 60 known emperor penguin colonies around the coastline, about half have exhibited increased reproductive failure or complete loss of breeding success due to early ice loss since 2016, with 16 colonies affected more than once,” Bergstrom explained. Fast ice refers to the sea ice that clings to the coast or seabed.
“This context adds to the already dire situation on the Antarctic Peninsula, where premature sea ice collapse has led to drowning chicks,” she stated.
The fate of the emperor penguin is “inextricably linked to climate policy,” according to the World Wildlife Fund. “To mitigate severe impacts, it’s critical to transition from fossil fuels and restrict global temperature rise to as close to 1.5°C as feasible,” WWF emphasized.
Computational cancer researchers leverage machine learning technology to tackle a significant challenge: the vast amounts of data available for training machine learning models. Despite this abundance, training is hindered by inconsistent data formats, structures, and properties. Consequently, when scientists apply various cancer types and data cleaning procedures, the resulting models can yield vastly different outcomes.
Researchers have identified the disparity between available and usable datasets as a considerable obstacle for scientists lacking specialized bioinformatics training. Furthermore, varied processing strategies make it difficult to equitably compare new machine learning techniques and identify the most effective method for specific cancer research tasks—such as classifying patient samples into benign or malignant categories.
To address this issue, a collaboration between researchers in Japan and the United States has resulted in the development of a comprehensive database tailored for machine learning applications. This database, named MLOmics, encompasses genetic and molecular information from over 8,000 cancer patients. Similar to a well-organized library, MLOmics offers cancer data that can be directly utilized by computer models, eliminating the need for extensive preprocessing.
In constructing MLOmics, the team gathered patient samples from 32 cancer types sourced from publicly available databases like the Cancer Genome Atlas. Data collection included four distinct types of molecular information, consisting of two forms of DNA products: Transcriptomics data, data on repetitive DNA regions termed Copy Number Variations, and information about chemical DNA tags known as Methylation. The team meticulously labeled experimental sources affecting data quality, eliminated contamination from non-human samples, and removed unlabeled values specific to transcriptomics data.
For the copy number variation data, researchers focused on cancer-specific repeats, identifying and labeling recurrent aberrant repeats along with corresponding genes in those regions. They also adjusted the methylation data to eliminate biases from various experimental platforms. Each processed molecular data type was then assigned a standardized identifier to mitigate discrepancies in naming conventions.
Subsequently, a coding pipeline was established to assess data quality and consolidate each patient’s molecular data types into a unified dataset—an approach known as multi-omics, as it integrates various molecular measurements. The researchers matched each patient’s sample to its relevant cancer type, resulting in an organized dataset suitable for analysis.
The research team developed 20 task-aware datasets across three categories of machine learning problems, providing crucial metrics for model evaluation in each. Their objective was to showcase how other scientists can effectively utilize MLOmics for a range of common tasks.
The first category focuses on classification, including six datasets that assist scientists in training models to categorize samples as malignant or benign. The second category, clustering, incorporates nine datasets that reveal natural groupings among samples based on molecular patterns when predefined labels are absent. The final category, data completion, features five datasets aimed at addressing incomplete molecular data resulting from experimental or technical challenges, showcasing how models estimate or fill in missing values—a common occurrence in real-world scenarios.
The MLomics database is organized into three sections, each offering detailed usage guidelines. The first section includes task-aware cancer multi-omics datasets in comma-separated values (CSV) format. This format is ideal for large genomic datasets, as programming languages like Python and R have built-in functions for effective reading, writing, and analysis. The second section offers code files to facilitate model development and application of evaluation metrics, while the final section contains links to supplementary resources to enhance biological analyses and ensure the database is accessible to all researchers, regardless of their educational background.
In conclusion, the researchers assert that MLOmics represents a vital resource for the cancer research community, enabling researchers to concentrate on developing superior algorithms instead of data preparation. They highlight the accessibility of MLOmics for non-specialists and its support for interdisciplinary and broader biological research. The team is committed to continuously updating MLOmics with new resources and tasks to align with advancements in the field.
Recent research from Germany reveals that Neanderthals captured the European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) approximately 125,000 years ago, likely valuing its shell as a tool more than its modest meat yield.
European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) beside the leg of a straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus). Image credit: Nicole Viehofer / MONREPOS – LEIZA.
Professor Sabine Gaudzinski-Windhauser of MONREPOS and Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz stated, “Recent findings on Neanderthal prey selection reveal a fascinating overlap with their ecological adaptability—showing similarities with the subsistence activities of Homo sapiens in the Upper Paleolithic.”
“Their diet ranged beyond traditional medium-to-large mammals like horses, bovids, and deer to include numerous small mammals such as leopards, birds, and reptiles, even incorporating massive straight-tusked elephants (Palaeoloxodon antiquus), which could weigh up to 135 tons.”
“Additionally, evidence indicates that Neanderthals consumed freshwater and marine resources, including shellfish and crabs, throughout the Mediterranean Basin and southwestern Iberian Peninsula.”
The latest study investigated fragments of a 125,000-year-old turtle shell unearthed in Neumark-Nord, a renowned Paleolithic site in present-day Saxony-Anhalt, Germany.
Utilizing advanced 3D scanning technology, researchers discovered cut marks on the interior surfaces of many of the 92 shell fragments. This indicates that Neanderthals carefully slaughtered these turtles, severing their limbs, removing internal organs, and thoroughly cleaning the shells.
“Our findings provide the first evidence that Neanderthals hunted and processed turtles beyond the Mediterranean region and north of the Alps,” remarked Professor Gaudzinski-Windhauser.
Researchers believe that the turtle identified was a European pond turtle, which was not primarily utilized as a food source.
Professor Gaudzinski-Windhauser added, “Given that the site is rich in large, high-yielding animal remains, this possibility can be virtually dismissed.”
“It seems they had an ample surplus of calories.”
“The pond turtle weighs about 1 kilogram and offers relatively low nutritional value, yet they are fairly easy to catch. Children may have participated in hunting them, as their shells could have been crafted into tools.”
“Furthermore, they might have been pursued for their taste or potential medicinal properties, a notion supported by subsequent research on indigenous populations.”
“Our results illuminate Neanderthal ecological flexibility and intricate survival strategies that extend well beyond mere calorie maximization.”
The team’s results were published in today’s edition of Scientific Reports.
_____
S. Gaudzinski-Windhauser et al. 2026. Shell Play: Neanderthal Use of the European Pond Turtle (Emys orbicularis) in the Landscape of the Last Interglacial Period North of Neumark (Germany). Scientific Reports 16, 8628; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-42113-x
Paleontologists have discovered remarkable specimens of early reptiles, specifically Captorinus aguti, dating back 289 million years. These preserved fossils showcase three-dimensional skin coverings, a complete shoulder girdle, rib cages including cartilage, and astonishingly, protein remains that are nearly 100 million years older than any previously known examples.
Captorinus aguti. Image credit: Michael Debraga.
The transition from aquatic to terrestrial life marked a key milestone in vertebrate evolution. Early amniotes required new breathing techniques to adapt to the dry environment.
Initially, these early amniotes relied mainly on throat and skin respiration, but as they evolved, later amniotes utilized their ribs and thorax for more efficient lung ventilation.
Due to the rarity of soft tissue fossilization, direct evidence of this evolutionary transition has been limited.
“Captorinus aguti is a notable lizard-like species that plays a crucial role in understanding the early development of amniotes,” stated Ethan Mooney, a doctoral candidate at Harvard University.
“Growing over five centimeters long, these reptiles were among the first to explore terrestrial habitats, exhibiting thriving populations at that time.”
Three exceptionally preserved Captorinus aguti specimens were discovered in a unique cave system near Richards Spur, Oklahoma, encased in fine clay and oil, which revealed unprecedented structural features.
In one specimen, researchers identified a segmented cartilaginous sternum, sternal ribs, intermediate ribs, and structures connecting the thorax to the shoulder girdle.
This discovery enabled scientists to reconstruct the complete respiratory apparatus for early amniotes for the first time in the fossil record.
Professor Robert R. Rice, a paleontologist at the University of Toronto and Jilin University, explained, “We propose that the respiratory system in Captorinus aguti represents an ancestral state of rib-assisted respiration recognized in modern reptiles, birds, and mammals.”
“The utilization of thoracic musculature marked an evolutionary innovation that facilitated the terrestrial conquest by the early ancestors of modern reptiles and mammals,” he added.
“This innovation likely spurred the rapid diversification of early amniotes, paving the way for their dominance on land.”
“Such adaptations enabled these creatures to lead a more active lifestyle,” Mooney concluded.
Employing synchrotron infrared spectroscopy, researchers also uncovered remnants of original proteins preserved in bones, cartilage, and skin. These organic molecules, unprecedented in Paleozoic fossils, are approximately 100 million years older than the oldest examples found in dinosaurs.
“The discovery of protein remnants is extraordinary,” remarked Mooney. “It significantly enhances our understanding of soft tissue preservation in the fossil record.”
R.R. Rice et al. Mummified Early Permian Reptiles Reveal Ancient Amniote Breathing Apparatus. Nature, published on April 8, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10307-y
Evolution of Tools: Early Humans Innovate for Smaller Prey
Raul Martin/MSF/Science Photo Library
A notable decline in megafauna populations approximately 200,000 years ago prompted ancient humans to pivot from robust stone tools to lighter, more versatile hunting kits for capturing smaller animals, according to a groundbreaking study. This research bolsters the theory that the shift to hunting smaller prey played a pivotal role in enhancing the cognitive abilities of early humans.
For over a million years, diverse early human species relied on heavy stone toolkits, including axes, kitchen knives, scrapers, and stone balls. Evidence indicates these tools specifiably targeted large herbivores, such as now-extinct relatives of elephants, hippos, and rhinos.
Between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago, the emergence of smaller, advanced tools coincided with the disappearance of heavier implements. Our species, Homo sapiens, emerged during this transformational period.
About 200,000 years ago, heavy tools vanished from archaeological records across the Levant, while the quantity of sophisticated, lightweight stone toolkits—such as blades and precision scrapers—increased significantly.
Research led by Vlad Litov, a professor at Tel Aviv University, establishes a compelling connection between these technological advancements and the dramatic decline of large herbivorous mammals, likely caused by overhunting.
Researchers meticulously cataloged archaeological evidence from 47 Paleolithic sites—covering 3.3 million to 12,000 years ago. Cross-referencing stone artifacts with animal remains revealed a distinct pattern.
The findings show a marked decline in large herbivores exceeding 1,000 kilograms, coinciding with the disappearance of fundamental stone tools 200,000 years ago. Conversely, the presence of smaller prey and innovative small tools rose significantly.
Supporting the correlation between tool types and prey availability, previous research indicates durable stone tools persisted in areas like southern China—where large game remained abundant—until about 50,000 years ago.
Comparative Analysis: Heavy Stone Tools vs. Lightweight Tools
Vlad Litov et al., Institute of Archeology, Tel Aviv University
Previously, it was posited that technological advancements were driven by an inherent rise in intelligence among humans, potentially influenced by unknown evolutionary pressures. However, Litov and his colleagues suggest that the reliance on smaller prey may have been a significant factor in the brain’s evolution across modern humans.
“As megaherbivores dwindled, humans increasingly turned to smaller prey, demanding novel hunting methods, enhanced planning capabilities, and the use of more intricate, lighter toolkits,” states Litov. “This cognitive evolution was thus a response to new adaptive needs, rather than its initial driver.”
“It’s essential to consider more than just prey size,” states Seri Shipton from University College London. He mentions evidence suggesting mass hunts of medium-sized ungulates like horses and bison, indicating that cognitive developments and advanced planning were already occurring during the Middle Paleolithic period.
Nicolas Tessandier from the French National Center for Scientific Research adds a critical perspective. “Human adaptations to new fauna reflect resourcefulness rather than sheer intelligence,” he explains. “The development of effective technologies for hunting large herbivores was equally strategic.”
Litov acknowledges that earlier studies demonstrate cognitive abilities in ancient hominins, particularly Homo erectus specimens dating back around 2 million years. However, he contends that the transition from large to small prey had far-reaching implications for human development. An ancient elephant carcass could have sustained about 35 hunter-gatherers for an extended period. With this high-calorie resource’s disappearance, relying solely on smaller prey could drastically reduce caloric returns.
“To match the energy yield of one elephant carcass, we had to acquire numerous smaller ungulates, like fallow deer,” Litov explains. This necessity may have spurred cognitive and behavioral transformations, such as enhanced cooperative hunting strategies and better planning, laying the groundwork for increased brain sizes in later hominins like Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
“In my view, the decline of large prey likely escalated inter-group competition,” notes Shipton. “It’s possible this dynamic created a feedback loop where diminishing large prey spurred cognitive advancements, allowing access to diversified smaller prey.”
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