By manipulating fundamental physics, researchers can enhance energy-harvesting devices like solar cells
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Researchers have challenged long-standing principles of physics, paving the way for more efficient energy harvesting technologies, such as solar cells.
Linxiao Zhu from Penn State University has aimed to break Kirchov’s law of thermal radiation for nearly ten years. Established in the 1800s, this law states that the amount of thermal radiation emitted by an object is proportional to the heat it absorbs, linking to the fundamental principles of thermodynamics. Historically, it was believed that these constraints were absolute.
“In standard physics literature, it’s indicated that Kirchov’s law is a fundamental requirement of the second law of thermodynamics. However, this is not entirely accurate,” explains Zhu.
Previous breaches of this law were seen, but only concerning specific wavelengths of radiation. Zhu and his team have achieved a more significant departure from the norm.
This breakthrough required two significant elements: precisely structured materials and magnetic fields. Both the arrangement of the material and the magnetic environment play crucial roles in the behavior of the particles making up the radiation, like photons, and the energy they carry.
The researchers developed thin-layered semiconductors from indium, gallium, and arsenides, meticulously organizing the atoms. They positioned this setup near a strong electromagnet, illuminating it with lights of various colors at distinct temperatures, angles, and magnetic field strengths.
This combination of material structure and ongoing magnetic influence led to a significant disparity between the radiation absorbed and emitted—up to 43% more radiation was released than was originally absorbed. Zhu attributes this phenomenon to the presence of multiple colors of light. This characteristic is particularly beneficial since sunlight comprises a mixture of colors when hitting solar cell devices.
Aaswath Raman from UCLA indicates that this trial is a major advancement toward turning previously theoretical concepts into reality. He remarks that the stark difference between absorbed and emitted radiation is “a significant breakthrough.”
While novel materials can enhance the efficiency of light and heat-absorbing devices, the requirement for magnetic fields presents challenges. However, Raman remains optimistic about the emergence of new materials that display magnetic properties without requiring proximity to magnets, which could resolve these issues through innovative electromagnetic techniques.
Modern rendition of garum, a fermented fish sauce dating back to Roman times
Alexander Mychko / Alamy
Garum, a type of fermented fish sauce, was a favored condiment throughout the Roman Empire. Recent analyses of ancient DNA extracted from the production vats have uncovered the specific fish species used in this staple seasoning.
This Roman fish sauce was widely appreciated for its intense salty and umami flavors. However, philosopher Seneca famously remarked that one variant had a price “as audacious as that of rotten fish.” There were various types, including a liquid known as Garum or Liquamen, and a thicker paste called Allec. The preparation involved fermenting fish and plant materials, complicating the identification of the fish species used.
According to Paula Campos from the University of Porto, Portugal, “The small, fractured bones and the acidic conditions contribute significantly to the degradation of DNA.”
Campos and her team conducted DNA sequencing on bone samples dating back to the 3rd century AD, sourced from a Roman fish sauce production facility in northwestern Spain. They compared numerous overlapping DNA sequences against the complete fish genome, allowing them to confidently identify the species involved.
This analysis revealed that the remaining fish was predominantly European sardines, aligning with previous visual identifications at other Roman fish processing sites. Additional fish species such as herring, whiting, mackerel, and anchovy have also been identified in various garum production locales.
This finding indicates that “even degraded fish remains” can yield identifiable DNA, suggesting that “it could enhance our understanding of regional variations in the main ingredients of historical fish sauces and pastes,” noted Analisa Marzano, a colleague from the University of Bologna, Italy, who was not involved in the study.
The research shows a comparison of ancient and modern sardines, indicating less genetic mixing among sardine populations across different marine regions in ancient times. This knowledge “may help us gauge the impact of human-environment interactions over the centuries,” Marzano explained.
For future studies, Campos and her colleagues intend to analyze additional fish species from other Roman garum production sites. “We’re broadening our sampling to verify if the results are consistent throughout the Roman Empire,” she added.
A recent study conducted by the University of California reveals that plants utilize a variety of thermosensory systems, with sunlight-generated sugar playing a critical and previously overlooked role in their responses to daytime temperatures.
Arabidopsis plants showing growth in greenhouses. Image credit: Elena Zhukova/UCR.
“Textbooks traditionally assert that proteins like phytochrome B and early flowering 3 (ELF3) are primarily responsible for thermoregulation in plants,” noted Professor Chen.
“However, these theories are derived from data collected at night.”
“We aimed to explore the dynamics during the day when both light and temperature are elevated, reflecting the typical conditions most plants encounter.”
Professor Chen and his team conducted their research using Arabidopsis, a favored small flowering plant within the Institute of Genetics.
The researchers subjected the seedlings to temperatures from 12-27 degrees Celsius under varying light settings and monitored the elongation of hypocotyls, a classic indicator of growth response to warmth.
They discovered that phytochrome B, the photosensitive protein, could only sense temperature in low light. In bright conditions that mimicked midday sunlight, its ability to detect warmth was significantly inhibited.
Interestingly, plants continued to respond to heat, and their growth metrics remained elevated even when the thermosensory function of phytochrome B was curtailed.
“This highlights the existence of other sensory mechanisms,” Professor Chen remarked.
One significant observation stemmed from examining phytochrome B mutants that lacked thermosensory capabilities.
These mutants were only able to react to warmth when grown under light conditions.
In darkness, devoid of photosynthesis, they lost chloroplasts and did not exhibit increased growth in response to warmth.
However, their temperature response was restored upon reintroducing sugar to the growth medium.
“That was the point I realized that sugar does more than just promote growth; it serves as a signal indicating warmth,” Professor Chen explained.
Additional experiments demonstrated that elevated temperatures lead to the breakdown of stored starch in leaves, releasing sucrose.
This sugar stabilized a protein called PIF4, a crucial growth regulator. In the absence of sucrose, PIF4 would decompose rapidly, but its accumulation only occurred when another sensor, ELF3, became inactive and responded to heat.
“PIF4 requires two conditions: access to sugars and relief from suppression. Temperature facilitates both,” Professor Chen added.
This research unveils a complex network of systems. During daylight, when light serves as an energy source for carbon fixation, sugar-based mechanisms have evolved that enable plants to sense environmental changes.
As temperatures rise, stored starch transforms into sugar, permitting essential growth proteins to function.
The implications of these findings are noteworthy. As climate change brings about extreme temperatures, understanding the mechanisms plants use to sense heat may assist scientists in developing crops that thrive under increasingly unpredictable stress.
“This will transform our understanding of how plants perceive temperature,” Professor Chen remarked.
“It’s not merely about proteins activating or deactivating; it’s about energy, light, sugar, and more.”
“The results also emphasize the intricate sophistication found in the plant kingdom.”
“There’s a hidden intelligence in photosynthesis and the management of starch reserves.”
“When the moment arrives for them to reach for the sky, they do so with sweetness and precision.”
study published in the journal Natural Communication.
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D. Fan et al. 2025. Multi-sensor high temperature signaling framework for triggering daytime thermochemistry. Arabidopsis. Nat Commun 16, 5197; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60498-7
Where does time truly originate? This is a common inquiry I encounter when people discover my background as a physicist. While there isn’t a concise answer, exploring the arrows of time can shed light on the topic.
This concept, emerging in the 1920s, is grounded in the principles of physics governing energy, heat, and entropy. Entropy tends to increase over time, signifying a shift from a low entropy state to a high entropy state—this represents the direction of the “arrow of time.” Often misunderstood as merely obstacles, entropy is better understood as the count of larger configurations, or macrostates, that can arise from smaller ones, known as microstates.
For example, a macrostate with mixed cutlery signifies higher entropy than one where forks are on one side and spoons on the other. Opening a drawer only to find mixed cutlery implies the arrow of time has transitioned from the past to the future.
Yet, a significant issue arises when applying cutlery analogies to the universe. Why did a pristine, low-entropy state ever exist?
This is referred to as the “past hypothesis,” and physicists are generally skeptical of it. When theorizing backward through time, they envision a universe in a state of very low entropy. Given the rarity of such conditions, the existence of such a state raises questions. Moreover, it prompts speculation on whether this state aligns with the Big Bang, the universe’s genesis.
Compounding the mystery is the fact that the laws of physics at scales far smaller than the entire universe—like subatomic particles—are entirely reversible. As Pablo Arrighi from Paris Clair University puts it, this presents a major paradox within physics.
“The laws of physics are reversible, yet our daily experiences contradict this,” he notes. Arrighi and his team set out to create a simplified “toy universe” to better understand this phenomenon.
They discovered that the arrow of time is an inevitability if this toy universe mirrors our own and exhibits constant expansion. In this model, they also discard the need for past hypotheses. The Big Bang can occur without special conditions, while the arrow of time consistently moves forward.
Interestingly, Arrighi highlights that his findings challenge previous notions, such as the potential “big crunch,” where the universe might cease expansion and collapse into a singular point.
Surprisingly, in this constructed universe bound by reversible laws, the Big Bang need not represent a singularity; rather, it opens the door to entropy-driven extensions—conceptually, an alternate universe. “Our existence stems from their emergence. Our challenges are tied to their past,” Arrighi explains regarding the imagined universe beyond the Big Bang.
Though radical, the idea of two universes expanding in opposite directions, each with its own time flow, has fascinated scientists. For instance, in 2014, independent physicist Julian Barbour and his colleagues supported this theory, using gravity studies as a foundation. Unlike Arrighi’s approach, which easily lends itself to simulation, Barbour’s model focuses more on computational arguments. Others, like Sean Carroll from Johns Hopkins University, have previously proposed moving beyond past hypotheses.
Returning to our initial question, can the answer emerge from anywhere, or perhaps from a non-specific place? Philosopher David Albert from Columbia University emphasizes careful consideration of the term “special.” He casts doubt on the assumption that the low-entropic state of the past is inherently special.
“Many believe all physical states should be equally probable. However, when viewed this way, low-entropy states appear quite improbable,” he argues. “My stance is that it’s unreasonable to determine odds a priori.” He advocates for deriving probabilities through observation instead.
Albert favors omitting past hypotheses from fundamental physics concepts, believing that adhering to superior laws is essential. However, he stresses that these insights should rest on observational evidence. The gap between systems studied meticulously, such as gas particles within boxes, and the entire universe is vast. He cautions scientists to be vigilant about the assumptions made when extrapolating from small-scale observations to universal principles.
“Nonetheless, I find it intriguing to explore whether we can derive outcomes without relying on past hypotheses. If that’s feasible, it would be a remarkable discovery,” remarks Albert.
After concluding my conversation with Albert, I plan to reconnect in a year to assess how our understanding of time evolves. Even if I can’t precisely articulate the origins of time, the arrow undoubtedly propels me towards a future rich with exploration and dialogue.
The MethaneSAT satellite, which was anticipated to revolutionize tracking methane emissions, has experienced a loss of contact less than a year and a half after its launch.
MethaneSAT stated that it “probably cannot recover.” A statement from the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), the non-profit managing the satellite, confirmed this loss as a significant setback in efforts to monitor and mitigate methane emissions, which are responsible for a third of the anthropogenic increase in global temperatures.
Upon its launch in March 2024, MethaneSAT contributed to a growing constellation of satellites aimed at detecting invisible methane emissions from principal sources like oil and gas facilities, livestock operations, landfills, and wetlands. While several satellites focus on specific emissions, MethaneSAT is uniquely equipped to assess methane concentrations on a broader scale, making it particularly effective in identifying emissions from fossil fuel extraction.
This capability was designed for estimating methane emissions in well-known fossil fuel production areas, such as the Permian Basin in the southwestern United States, as well as aiding efforts to identify and contain significant sources of potent greenhouse gases.
“That’s a considerable loss,” commented Jason McKeever from Ghgsat, a Canadian company that intended to utilize MethaneSAT data for strategic guidance on satellite deployment. “MethaneSAT was uniquely positioned in its designated mid-orbit.”
The satellite, which cost nearly $100 million to develop and launch, began its data collection in June 2024 and produced its first detection of methane in the oil and gas basin by November 2024. Researchers were exploring automation for data processing; the satellite, which orbits the Earth 15 times a day, promised near real-time emissions data.
“We had just begun a routine of releasing data every two weeks,” stated John Coifman of the Environmental Defense Fund. “The data produced by the satellites was incredibly valuable.”
According to an EDF announcement, mission operations lost communication with the satellite on June 20th. “After exploring all avenues to reestablish contact, we regret to inform that the satellite has lost power,” the statement read.
The MethaneSAT team is currently investigating the circumstances surrounding the incident. Meanwhile, they continue to disseminate the data collected prior to the loss of power, alongside the algorithms developed for analysis.
“We are considering various options,” Coifman remarked, indicating that reactivating another satellite remains a possibility.
Paleontologists have adopted a cutting-edge digital fossil mining technique to examine over 250 fossil beaks from 40 ancient squid species. The findings indicate that there is no prolonged slow-moving change associated with the slower parietal layer, previously linked to the mass extinction event of late white matter around 66 million years ago. Early squid species had already established large populations, surpassing the biomass of both ammonites and fish. They evolved into intelligent and agile swimmers, contributing to modern marine ecosystems.
This lithograph features Loligo Forbesii, a squid species from the order Myopsida. Image credit: Comingio Mercuriano.
Squid are recognized as the most diverse and widely distributed group of marine cephalopods in today’s oceans, serving a crucial role in marine ecosystems as both predators and prey.
Their evolutionary success is generally attributed to the loss of a rigid external shell, a significant characteristic of their parietal ancestors.
Yet, their evolutionary beginnings remain unclear due to the scarcity of fossils from soft-bodied organisms.
The fossil record for squid dates back around 45 million years, with most specimens discovered consisting of fossilized statoris, or small calcium carbonites that assist in balance.
The early absence of such fossils has led to hypotheses that squid diversified following the mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period, approximately 66 million years ago.
Molecular studies of living squid species provide estimates regarding their divergence times; however, these estimates have become increasingly uncertain because of the dearth of prior fossil evidence.
In this recent study, Shin Ikegami, a paleontologist from Hokkaido University, and colleagues addressed these deficiencies using high-resolution grinding tomography and advanced image processing to digitally scan rocks as layered cross-sectional images, effectively revealing hidden 3D models.
This method was applied to Cretaceous carbonate rocks in Japan, resulting in the discovery of 263 fossilized squid beaks from 40 species across 23 genera and five families.
Results indicate that squid emerged around the boundaries of the early and late Cretaceous, roughly 100 million years ago, followed by a rapid diversification.
The authors assert that this newly uncovered fossil record significantly extends the documented origins of the two main squid groups: oegopsida extending back about 15 million years and myopsida extending as far back as 55 million years.
Early oegopsids showcased unique anatomical features that later species lacked, hinting at rapid morphological evolution, whereas Myopsids already displayed modern characteristics.
This study further indicates that late Cretaceous squids were more populous and often larger than their contemporaneous ammonite and bony fish counterparts. This ecological dominance might have triggered the radiation of bony fish and marine mammals roughly 30 million years ago, establishing squid as the first intelligent and agile swimmers that shaped modern marine ecosystems.
“In terms of population and size, these ancient squids were evidently proliferating across the oceans,” stated Dr. Ikenakamoto.
“Their body size rivaled that of fish, often even surpassing the ammonites found alongside them.”
“This demonstrates that squid thrived as the most abundant swimmers in the ancient seas.”
“These discoveries revolutionize our understanding of marine ecosystems in the past,” remarked Dr. Yasuhiro Iba from Hokkaido University.
“Squids were likely the pioneers of fast, intelligent swimmers that dominated the modern ocean.”
Shin Ikegami et al. 2025. The origin and radiation of squid revealed by digital fossil mining. Science E 388 (6754): 1406-1409; doi: 10.1126/science.adu6248
Emotions can manifest as physical sensations—be it a surge of anger, a flutter of excitement, or waves of joy, our feelings often have a tangible presence in our bodies.
This phenomenon arises from the interplay between our mental and physical states.
For instance, experiencing anxiety on a first date may trigger a fight-or-flight response, leading to the release of hormones like adrenaline, which elevate heart rate and tense muscles, allowing you to perceive sensations in your chest and throughout your body.
Both positive and negative emotions can influence various bodily functions, including digestion, breathing, perspiration, skin sensitivity, salivation, blood circulation, body temperature, facial tension, and more.
That’s why we often refer to “gut feelings” and “nervous energy.” These physiological shifts can significantly impact our emotions, creating a continual feedback loop connecting our body and mind.
In 2013, a Finnish researcher conducted a study in which individuals mapped out how different emotions corresponded to specific body areas.
While each person’s emotional experience is unique, common sensations can often be found in specific regions. For example, anger typically resonates in the chest and hands, while happiness is prominently felt in the chest and face.
Over time, our perceptions of where we feel emotions in our bodies may have evolved.
A follow-up study in 2024 examined the emotional mappings of people in ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) by analyzing a million words from historical texts to discover connections between emotions and body parts.
Researchers noted some parallels with present-day emotional responses. For instance, pride was linked to the heart by Mesopotamians, while happiness was most closely associated with the liver, and anger was related to the feet.
These distinctions may stem from Mesopotamian cultural beliefs surrounding the body, wherein the liver was viewed as the central organ of the soul’s essence.
This article addresses the inquiry from Elisevarn of Sheffield: “Why do we feel emotions in different parts of our body?”
For any questions, please email us atQuestion @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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In an extensive community-based investigation, researchers from the Fatty Acid Institute identified a weak yet statistically significant inverse relationship between various inflammatory biomarkers and omega-6 fatty acids.
This image features Oenothera biennis, plants that produce oils with a high linolenic acid content. Image credit: Georg Slickers/CC by-sa 4.0.
“Chronic inflammation is acknowledged as a significant risk factor for various health disorders,” stated President William Harris of the Fatty Acid Institute and his colleagues.
“Omega-6 fatty acids, especially linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA), have been identified as either anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory agents. Researchers have considered both positions regarding dietary intake.”
The researchers utilized data from the Framingham Offspring study, a prominent cohort study in the Boston region.
This groundbreaking longitudinal research initiative began in 1971 and follows children from the original Framingham Heart Study, examining genetic and lifestyle factors influencing cardiovascular and metabolic health.
It has yielded valuable insights into chronic disease risks and prevention for decades, establishing itself as one of the most dependable sources for understanding long-term health trends.
This investigation is cross-sectional, meaning LA and AA levels were evaluated alongside 2,700 inflammation-related biomarkers in the same blood samples.
We statistically analyzed the association between the levels of these two omega-6 fatty acids and the levels of 10 blood and urine biomarkers related to inflammation and oxidative stress.
After statistically controlling for several potential confounding variables (such as age, race, gender, smoking status, blood pressure, and weight), researchers discovered that elevated LA levels were significantly linked to lower levels of five out of the 10 biomarkers.
For AA, higher levels were associated with reduced concentrations of four markers; however, there was no statistically significant relationship with higher inflammation/oxidation levels, unlike LA.
“These new findings clearly indicate that individuals with the highest LA (and AA) levels in their blood exhibit less inflammation than those with lower levels,” Dr. Harris remarked.
“This result contradicts the expectation if omega-6 fatty acids were deemed ‘pro-inflammatory.’ In fact, they seem to exhibit anti-inflammatory properties.”
“Amidst discussions in the media about the dangers of seed oils—the primary source of LA in diets—numerous voices advocate for reducing LA consumption.”
“This recommendation lacks a scientific basis, and this study, along with others, suggests the opposite: rather than decreasing LA intake, increasing it may be the healthier choice.”
“These findings diverge from the prevailing narrative but are consistent with earlier studies.”
“Numerous studies within medical literature support the findings presented here.”
The study was published in the journal Nutrients on June 22nd.
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Heidi T.M. Lai et al. 2025. Erythrocyte omega-6 fatty acids and biomarkers of inflammation in the Framingham offspring study. Nutrients 17 (13): 2076; doi: 10.3390/nu17132076
Recent Summers Show Antarctic Sea Ice Cover at Unprecedented Lows
Nature Picture Library / Alamy
The decline of sea ice around Antarctica has led to a doubling of icebergs calved from the ice sheet and increased spikes in seawater temperatures, exacerbating the effects of heat accumulation in the Southern Ocean.
In recent years, sea ice extent at both poles has sharply decreased. In 2023, the Antarctic winter sea ice area fell 1.55 million square kilometers short of the expected average.
This loss is equivalent to disappearing an ice area nearly 6.5 times larger than the UK. Projections for 2024 suggest similarly low figures, with 2025 also anticipated to experience harsh conditions.
Edward Dodridge from the University of Tasmania and his team are investigating the implications of the long-term reduction of protective buffers provided by Antarctic sea ice.
The researchers discovered that the average temperature in the South Seas has increased by 0.3°C between latitudes 65° and 80° since 2016. Additionally, summer sea ice losses have similarly raised temperatures by 0.3°C.
Alarmingly, the heat from a year with particularly low sea ice does not dissipate by the next year. Instead, it continues to warm the ocean for at least the following three years, resulting in even greater temperature increases than expected, according to Dodridge.
“For some time, we’ve known that summer sea ice loss contributes to ocean warming because ice and its reflective snow cover keep heat at bay,” explains Doddridge.
“The fact that the ocean retains warming effects for three years complicates the consequences of warming in the Southern Ocean.”
Moreover, the dramatic reduction in sea ice may accelerate the loss of inland ice sheets. When sea ice freezes, it dampens the expansion of the South Seas, preventing contact with the ice sheets sitting above Antarctica. Once the protective sea ice barrier disappears, the coastal ice sheets become more susceptible to breaking apart.
The research found that for every additional 100,000 square kilometers of sea ice lost, six more icebergs larger than one square kilometer were formed. “We witnessed double the amount of icebergs at periods of low sea ice,” said Doddridge.
Additionally, the reduction in sea ice significantly impacts species that rely on transferring from the ocean to solid ground for survival. The study indicates that species like the Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) and Crabeater Seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) may face severe challenges.
The scientific investigation in Antarctica is becoming increasingly difficult as the presence of sea ice is crucial for safely resupplying research stations.
Nellie Abram from The Australian National University remarks that “this analysis shows very few positives surrounding the loss of sea ice and its impact on the environment.”
“In years with extremely low sea ice, the Antarctic ecosystem continues to experience effects for years afterward. This isn’t just a one-time event,” Abram asserts. “There are numerous ways this loss of ocean ice influences Antarctic ecosystems.”
3D Models of Skulls from Modern Humans and Neanderthals
Courtesy of Kimberly Anne Plomp
Abnormalities in the skull that compress the lower brain can lead to headaches and various neurological issues, potentially passed down from Neanderthals.
Individuals with Chiari malformations possess a smaller, flatter skull base near the spine junction, causing the cerebellum to be pressed into the neck’s spinal canal.
Type 1 Chiari malformations, which are the least severe, may impact about 1 in 100 individuals. Symptoms can include headaches, neck pain, sleep apnea, and numbness, although some may remain asymptomatic.
Approximately 15 years ago, Yvens Barbosa Fernandes, a neurosurgeon at Campinas State University in Brazil, observed that the skull base of his Chiari patients bore resemblance to Neanderthal specimens from the European Museum, particularly the gentle slopes of the occipital bone where the cerebellum rests. Neanderthals had larger brains than modern humans, yet their skulls were more oblique at the foreheads and bases, resulting in a flatter shape compared to the rounder modern human skulls.
In 2013, Barbosa Fernandes published his hypothesis, suggesting that the shape of Chiari skulls could have a genetic link to an extinct human species, Homo sapiens. “In Chiari’s case, I began to consider a lost connection between anthropology and medicine,” he stated.
Motivated by this theory, Kimberly Plomp from the University of the Philippines in Quezon City and her team created digital 3D models of 46 Chiari 1 skulls and 57 unaffected skulls using CT scans. Their comprehensive mathematical analysis confirmed that the Chiari-affected skulls exhibited more cerebral compression at a flat angle at the base where the cerebellum is located.
Subsequently, the group compared these recent skulls with digital models of eight fossilized heads from Homo Neanderthalensis, Homo Erectus, Homo Heidelbergensis, and ancient Homo sapiens.
They discovered that the skull base measurements of Neanderthal heads closely matched those of modern humans with Chiari, while the skull bases of all other ancient species resembled typical modern humans without Chiari. “This underscores the notion that these modern humans may share Neanderthal characteristics,” suggesting another way Neanderthal genes could influence our health.
For Barbosa Fernandes, this research offers solid backing for his hypothesis. “It makes sense; a less pronounced angle results in less space for the modern human brain,” he noted. “Until now, I lacked scientific evidence to support my theory. This research brings me significantly closer to that proof.”
Looking ahead, the team intends to analyze the DNA of individuals with Chiari malformations in search of Neanderthal genetic markers, according to Plomp.
Other Chiari malformations (types 2-4) are believed to stem from various causes. Type 2 is associated with severe forms of spina bifida, while types 3 and 4 are exceedingly rare and can pose life-threatening risks.
Aging often impacts sleep, leading to challenges as we grow older. Factors such as changes in circadian rhythms, increased nighttime bathroom visits, anxiety, and chronic health conditions can all compromise sleep quality.
Yet, let’s examine the flip side: the influence of sleep on the aging process.
Despite bold assertions from various hyperbaric oxygen therapy centers, nothing can halt our body’s natural aging. However, a closer look at the physiological changes that occur during sleep reveals that cultivating healthy sleep habits can help mitigate the effects of time on our bodies.
What occurs when we sleep?
Our bodies engage in powerful recovery processes during sleep to restore, reset, and rejuvenate organs and cells. Each night serves as a mini-reboot: muscles undergo repair, hormone levels stabilize, and the brain executes a version of waste removal.
Key changes that happen in the body during sleep include:
• Integration of emotional and procedural (long-term, implicit) memory during REM sleep. • The brain experiences a neurochemical reset, with significant reductions in dopamine and serotonin levels during slumber. • Muscle repair promotes the release of growth hormone, restoration of glycogen levels, and the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines to assist muscle recovery. • Hormones like melatonin are produced, while others are regulated; for instance, cortisol (the “stress” hormone) decreases, and leptin (which controls hunger) is maintained.
Dive into the physiological changes that occur during sleep.
Why is sleep increasingly crucial as we age?
Waste removal The Glymphatic System operates while we sleep to clear neurotoxic waste, such as beta-amyloid. This process becomes increasingly critical with age. The National Library of Medicine states, “The aging process involves a range of neurobiological changes in the brain, including the accumulation of toxic proteins like beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles.”*
Immune support As the immune system naturally declines, deep sleep becomes vital for enhancing immune cell activity, thereby supporting our immunity.
Cardiovascular health Those with a Fitbit will attest that heart rates drop during sleep, allowing blood pressure to lower, which in turn gives the cardiovascular system a chance to rest.
Insulin sensitivity Sleep quality, duration, and timing all influence insulin sensitivity; inadequate sleep can increase insulin resistance and elevate the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.**
Maximizing quality sleep
Hestens, a Swedish bed manufacturer, recognizes the significance of a good night’s sleep. Since 1852, luxury brands have been crafting handmade beds, with each taking up to 600 hours to create using only natural materials.
“Miracles happen while we sleep,” Hestens states. “It’s the sleep that makes a difference. This is a natural process that cannot be replicated or bought over the counter. You can’t cheat your way to perfect sleep, but understanding its importance and implementing good practices can improve your chances of a restful night.”
For more on the advantages of sleep and to explore the full collection of beds and accessories, visit Hestens’ website.
Book local sleep spa bed tests online at www.hastens.com or visit your nearest certified retailer.
Orcas have been observed seemingly presenting deceased prey to humans.
Marine research organization Bay Cetology, led by Jared Tower, was documenting orca pods (Orcinus orca) as they dined on seabirds in Alert Bay, Canada, when a remarkable discovery occurred. Two whales, named Akela and Quiver, approached a tower while clutching birds. The younger orca, Akela, dropped a dead bird in front of the tower and lingered, seemingly watching for a reaction. Following suit, her brother Quiver also dropped a bird and waited.
In a surprising turn, both whales retrieved their prey once more and swam closer to the tower. “I remember thinking, did that really just happen?” Tower recalls. This occurrence aligns with similar ones documented in 2015 and 2018, where a young female orca presented a researcher with a harbor seal pup, prompting further observations of this intriguing behavior.
Further interviews revealed an additional 32 instances between 2004 and 2024 where orcas exhibited similar behaviors. This includes a young male orca from New Zealand, nicknamed Funky Monkey, who repeatedly approached researchers with a long-tailed stingray. Altogether, 18 different prey species have been offered, ranging from gray whales and seals to jellyfish and turtles.
Such behaviors have been regularly observed within the orca pod. “They exist in a highly intricate social structure and share food throughout their lives,” Tower notes.
Yet, the behaviors extend beyond mere interactions. “They engage in actions that reflect goodwill towards another species,” states Lori Marino from New York University, who was not involved in the study.
Tower indicates that this behavior suggests killer whales may possess a capacity for generalized altruism or kindness. Additionally, orcas demonstrate curiosity and boldness, understanding other beings’ perceptions, and actively experimenting with them, he explains.
This form of generalized altruism is beneficial in a social community where collective cooperation brings rewards. Killer whales are also among the few marine predators that sometimes find themselves with surplus prey. “They may leave it uneaten, play with it, or utilize it to explore their surroundings,” notes Tower.
For many killer whales, their generalist predation is characterized by curiosity and exploratory behavior. “Curiosity is a key factor in reducing uncertainty,” Tower adds. “They are actively learning about us by testing the waters.”
Moreover, this behavior might indicate that orcas have a theory of mind, a capability previously recognized in certain birds, primates, and marine mammals such as dolphins.
Hal Lacroix’s adventure unfolds on a spacecraft that has been exploring new planets for centuries
Dotted Zebra/Alamy
Exciting science fiction awaits fans this July, with two highly anticipated books making their debut. Are you intrigued by the beautifully articulated vision of rapid transformation as its effects evolve in a subtle yet increasingly unsettling manner? Don’t miss Alex Foster’s Circular Motion. Or maybe you’re captivated by the excellent “generation ship” narrative? If so, keep an eye on Hal Lacroix’s Here and Beyond. In addition, there are tales of climate fiction, zombies, space romance, and more. Enjoy yourself – I certainly will!
Set in a near future, this striking debut novel envisions an Earth with a colossal aircraft in orbit. Meanwhile, the Earth’s rotation gradually accelerates, initially shortening by mere seconds. However, it ominously contracts to just two hours as the story unfolds, leading to dire consequences. I’ve just completed this novel, and it may very well be my top read of the year so far—smartly written and truly engaging.
I have a special fondness for compelling “generation ship” stories. This one stands out, as 600 people embark on a 360-year voyage to a new planet following Earth’s downfall. Yet, generations must survive aboard their vessel, Shipworld, facing challenges from illness to rebellion, raising tensions among the crew. But don’t take my word for it; our sci-fi reviewer, Emily H. Wilson, gave it a hearty thumbs up, and her taste is impeccable (or at least aligns with mine!).
While I pen these words, London is engulfed in flames, making Susanna Kwan’s dystopian depiction of a rain-soaked future San Francisco even more captivating. We follow Bo, who has fled a city ravaged by catastrophic floods. Living alone on a street transformed into a river, Bo is tempted to leave her boat until her elderly neighbor Mia requests assistance, prompting her to remain. This novel draws comparisons to Emily St. John Mandel’s literary dystopia Station Eleven and Eleanor Catton’s climatological thriller Bilnum Wood, both of which I cherished; thus, I’m eager to delve into Kwan’s rainy world.
Susanna Kwan’s awakening unfolds in a flooded future San Francisco
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This month’s science fiction takes us from Earth in disarray to the rain-soaked where the sun is waning. A unique story features two sisters in a small village amid arid lands who struggle for survival as temperatures plummet, leading villagers to confront death—”an ordinary man replaced by a blinding light that sears his head like a miniature sands.” Fascinating!
Another tale revolves around Quetza, an acrobat in a Martian circus who stumbles upon “ominous secrets.” Millions of years later, Azad inhabits a desert planet, teaming up with a space travel historian to discover why their ancestors abandoned Mars.
This climate fiction narrative (I refuse to adopt the “CLI-FI” label as I find it unappealing) unfolds in a self-sustaining community established on a remote Welsh island in 2056, aimed at escaping a tyrannical government. But 13-year-old Gresni suspects her family harbors secrets, especially when an event from the mainland washes ashore.
Penned by the acclaimed publisher recognized for Gabrielle Zevin’s Tomorrow, Tomorrow and Tomorrow, the narrative follows Zoe and Jack, who meet as chemistry students at Harvard University. Two years later, they drop out to join a venture promising longevity, yet their love faces challenges that test its limits.
I confess that this may not fit traditional science fiction norms, but I’m finding it hard to resist: it’s a 2022 road trip story set in Ukraine, featuring “The Maverick Scientist” Yeva and Lefty, “The Only Snail” navigated to ensure the survival of his species. Yeva funds her passion for breeding rare snails by dating men who come to Ukraine for a “guidance romance tour” in search of obedient brides. “Glorious…funny and clever, filled with science, longing, and adventure,” Anne Puckett states. Therefore, I believe a blend of science and snails would surely captivate sci-fi enthusiasts.
As a passionate fan, I feel there’s a distinct lack of zombie novels like The Walking Dead. Fortunately, Lee Radford addresses this gap with a tale about a scientist whose spouse was the last person bitten by the zombie epidemic. While the government quarantines infected individuals, scientist Kesta harbors perilous secrets. Her zombie husband, Tim, is restrained to prevent his rampage. Rick Grimes, I’m just suggesting he could have handled Tim with a heartbeat…
I’ve earmarked this next book for my reading list and am eagerly anticipating it. Elric only awakens once he’s healed, envisioning an experimental treatment center where heartache can be anesthetized. Naturally, there are some “shadow side effects,” and it follows four strangers (and a dog). The Wizard of Oz certainly seems to embody the journey toward healing from heartache.
The publisher describes it as “Suffic’s action-adventure sci-fi novel.” Volatile Memory features Willa as she uncovers cutting-edge technology on nearby planets. This tech, however, turns out to be the remains of a woman donning an AI mask that resurrected her. Together, they seek to unravel its mysteries…
Emily Buchanan’s Send Flowers depicts a woman’s deceased boyfriend reborn as a houseplant
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In a world nearing climate collapse, eco-influencer Fiona has stayed secluded in her apartment since her boyfriend Ed’s passing. One day, his favorite plant is left at her door, prompting her to sprinkle his ashes on the soil. The next morning, she discovers that the plant not only blooms but can also speak. Ed has returned—albeit as a house plant.
Protocells are membrane-bound spheres formed from fatty molecules, thought to be similar to early living cell precursors.
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Structures similar to those enveloping living cells have demonstrated the ability to self-assemble in micrometeorites, hinting that dust across planets might contribute to life’s origins.
“If we can establish that protocells arise from micrometeorites here on Earth, it’s evident this could occur on other habitable planets,” states Irepgözen from Gomod, a Swedish research and education organization. “This brings me immense excitement.”
Various lipid molecules can spontaneously create membrane-bound spheres, referred to as protocells, as they resemble potential precursors to living cells. While this process can happen in solutions, Gözen is investigating methods to facilitate protocell formation on surfaces that typically do not foster such reactions.
Surfaces possess intrinsic energy, with exposed atoms lacking complete bonds, making them suitable for this transformation. “Creating a surface generates excess energy that seeks to be released,” she observes.
After recently analyzing Martian metstones, Gözen noted that their rough, grainy textures may enhance protocell formation. Consequently, she and her team introduced three types of micrometeorites into lipid suspensions. Post an overnight incubation, microscopic examination revealed the formation of protocells, especially in samples with lipids similar to those found in Archaea membranes.
Hundreds of micrometeorites exist, according to Gözen, and this study serves as an initial proof of concept. While the findings do not confirm the origin of the first living cells, Gözen finds the results intriguing, considering that simple organic compounds frequently appear in meteorites, and micrometeorites are probably widespread on planetary surfaces. “There’s a tiny nuclear reactor carrying intriguing prebiotic organic matter,” she remarks. “They’re falling on nearly every planet, all contained within one particle.”
“I find it exhilarating that micrometeorites possess sufficient surface energy to facilitate their [protocell] formation,” says Anna Wang from the University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. “I wasn’t trained in physics.”
Gözen emphasizes that protocells formed on surfaces exhibit remarkable characteristics. “There’s a significant difference between reactions occurring on surfaces and in solutions,” she explains. “They establish a network of intriguing protocells interconnected by minute nanotubes, enabling content transfer. This allows for a very basic form of signaling.”
The immune system is intricate, consisting of a vast network of cells, proteins, and organs that serve as the body’s primary defense against infections. Given its vital role, it’s essential to maintain its health.
So, how can you achieve that? Similar to other crucial bodily functions, numerous supplements and products claim to enhance your immune system’s performance. However, the reality is that your body may not require these so-called enhancements. In fact, it often functions best when left to its natural processes.
Misconceptions About Immune Boosting
The idea of vitamins that “boost” immunity can be quite misleading. In theory, the immune system is self-sufficient and operates optimally if you maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Moreover, “boosting” the immune system is a somewhat ambiguous notion. Simply increasing the quantity of immune cells or similar components in your body may not be beneficial and could potentially be harmful.
Consider your immune system as a finely tuned machine, operating at peak efficiency as long as it receives proper maintenance. Attempts to push this machine into overdrive may lead to overheating or malfunction.
The same principle applies to the immune system; an overstimulated immune response can inadvertently attack healthy cells, resulting in autoimmune disorders.
“The immune system can typically maintain its own balance. As long as you adhere to a relatively healthy lifestyle, no additional enhancement is necessary,” stated Dr. Bobby Cherayil, author of The Logic of Immunity, in an episode of BBC Science Focus.
“This includes a nutritious diet, sufficient sleep, regular physical activity, and avoiding harmful practices such as smoking or excessive alcohol consumption.”
Though a decline in lifestyle can affect our immune system, this deterioration is gradual, often requiring severe circumstances for visible infection to occur.
“A diet lacking essential nutrients or severe vitamin deficiencies can negatively impact your immune system, but such deficiencies are generally quite extreme.”
Risks Associated with Vitamin Supplements
If you maintain a healthy lifestyle—eating well, sleeping adequately, and exercising regularly—what risk is there in taking supplements aimed at enhancing your immune system?
Often, the risks are minimal, with the primary concern being the lack of effectiveness. The body can only absorb a certain amount of vitamins, and excess amounts typically pass through the body and are expelled in urine.
This applies mainly to water-soluble vitamins; however, vitamins A, D, E, and K do not leave the system so easily, and an excess can lead to toxicity. For instance, too much vitamin D can cause nausea, weakness, and may ultimately lead to bone and kidney pain if left untreated.
Many immune-boosting supplements are categorized as “multivitamins,” which encompass various vitamins and minerals in a single tablet or capsule.
Clinical trials revealed no notable variation in mental or physical health outcomes between those taking multivitamins and those who were not. However, individuals consuming multivitamins often believe these products contribute positively to their health.
The danger is that individuals might assume multivitamins can substitute for other health-boosting practices, leading to neglect in other health areas such as maintaining a balanced diet.
Research indicates risk may increase with age. A study from the University of Minnesota found that among over 38,000 women aged 62 and older, those taking supplements had a 2.4% higher mortality risk.
This area of research continues to evolve, and not all studies reach such dire conclusions. For instance, another study found no significant correlation between multivitamin use and overall mortality rates.
Vitamins Have Their Place…for Some
For many, a healthy lifestyle is all that’s needed to keep the immune system in optimal condition. However, there are individuals with significant vitamin deficiencies that require attention.
Vitamin supplements can be beneficial, particularly for older adults who struggle with chewing or swallowing. This is also true for pregnant individuals or those with digestive issues (always consult a healthcare professional).
Ultimately, the immune system remains a highly advanced, self-regulating entity. For the average person, it functions effectively on its own. Immune-boosting supplements may not pose significant risks, but they often result in “expensive urine.”
About Our Expert, Bobby Cherayil
Cherayil is an associate professor of Pediatrics at Harvard University and author of The Logic of Immunity. His research focuses on the immune system and its response to infection and inflammation.
According to a study led by researchers at the University of Southampton, these pulses are gradually tearing apart the African continent, resulting in the formation of a new sea basin.
Variation of geochemical and geophysical properties around distant triangles. Image credit: Watts et al, doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01717-0.
The AFAR region stands out as a unique site on Earth where three structural lifts converge: the main Ethiopian rifts, the Red Sea rifts, and the Gulf of Aden lifts.
Geologists have speculated for some time that a thermal upwelling from the mantle, commonly referred to as plumes, exists beneath this area and promotes the extension of the crust along with the formation of upcoming sea basins.
However, the details regarding the structure of this upwelling and its behavior beneath the lifting plate have remained largely unknown until now.
“Our findings indicate that the mantle below the region is uniform but not stationary; it exhibits a pulsing nature that carries a unique chemical signature,” explained Dr. Emma Watts, who led the study at the University of Southampton and is currently at Swansea University.
“These rising pulses from the partially melted mantle are directed by the overlying filling plate.”
“This insight is crucial for understanding the interaction between the Earth’s interior and its surface.”
Dr. Watts and her team collected over 130 volcanic rock samples from remote areas and significant Ethiopian rifts.
Additionally, they utilized existing data and sophisticated statistical modeling to examine the structure of the crust and mantle, along with the melts within.
Their research reveals a single asymmetric plume beneath the distant region, showcasing distinct chemical bands that recur throughout the lift system, akin to geological barcodes.
These patterns vary in spacing according to the structural conditions of each lift arm.
“The observed chemical stripes imply that the plume pulsates like a heartbeat,” remarked Professor Tom Gernon from the University of Southampton.
“These pulses seem to behave differently based on the thickness of the plate and the rate at which it is pulled apart.”
“In faster-spreading rifts like the Red Sea, the pulsation occurs more efficiently and regularly, similar to a pulse flowing through a narrow artery.”
The findings illustrate that the mantle plume beneath the distant region is dynamic, reacting to the tectonic plate above it.
Dr. Derek Kiel, a researcher at the University of Southampton and the University of Florence, stated:
“This has significant implications for interpreting processes related to surface volcanism, seismic activity, and continental splitting.”
“Our work indicates that deep mantle upwellings flow beneath the tectonic plate, concentrating volcanic activity in the thinnest areas.”
“Understanding the rate and manner of mantle flow beneath the plate is crucial for further research.”
“Collaborating with experts from various fields within the institution, as we did for this project, is vital for uncovering the processes that occur beneath the Earth’s surface and their link to recent volcanic activity,” Dr. Watts emphasized.
“It’s challenging to see the broader picture, akin to assembling a puzzle without all the pieces unless we employ diverse techniques.”
study published in the journal Natural Earth Science.
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ej watts et al. Mantle upwelling at an afor triple junction influenced by the dynamics of the overriding plate. Nat. Geosci Published online on June 25, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41561-025-01717-0
Ambroxol, a cough medication, is authorized in Europe for treating respiratory issues and boasts a long history of safety, including its use in high doses and during pregnancy, but it has not been approved in the US or Canada.
Ball and stick model of ambroxol molecules. Image credit: Marina Vladivostok/Chemspider.
Dementia in individuals with Parkinson’s disease can lead to memory loss, confusion, hallucinations, and mood changes.
About half of those diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease will develop dementia within a decade, significantly affecting patients, families, and healthcare systems.
“Our objective was to alter the trajectory of Parkinson’s dementia,” stated Dr. Steven Pasternack, a cognitive neurologist at the Parkwood Institute, St. Joseph’s Healthcare London, and the Robert Institute.
“This preliminary trial offers hope and establishes a robust basis for further research.”
The 12-month clinical trial involved 55 participants suffering from dementia related to Parkinson’s disease.
One group received daily ambroxol, while the other was administered a placebo.
They assessed memory, psychiatric symptoms, and GFAP, markers linked to brain damage in the blood.
The research team noted that ambroxol is safe, well-tolerated, and effectively penetrated the brain.
The placebo group exhibited worsening psychiatric symptoms, while those taking ambroxol remained stable.
Participants with GBA1 genetic mutations showed enhanced cognitive performance with ambroxol treatment.
GFAP levels rose in the placebo group but stayed stable in those using ambroxol, indicating potential brain protection.
“Existing treatments for Parkinson’s disease and dementia focus on symptoms without addressing the root cause,” Dr. Pasternack explained.
“These findings imply that brain function at genetic risk may be preserved, marking a promising new treatment avenue that is currently limited.”
Ambroxol aids an essential enzyme known as Glucocerebrosidase (GCase) linked to the GBA1 gene.
In patients with Parkinson’s disease, GCase levels are frequently reduced. If this enzyme malfunctions, waste builds up in brain cells, resulting in damage.
“This research is crucial as dementia in Parkinson’s disease significantly impacts patients and their families,” remarked Dr. Pasternack.
“If a medication like ambroxol proves beneficial, it can offer true hope and enhance quality of life.”
The results will be published in the journal Jama Neurology.
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Carolina La Silveilla et al. Ambroxol as a treatment for Parkinson’s disease dementia: a randomized clinical trial. Jama Neurology Published online on June 30th, 2025. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2025.1687
Illustration of enlarged ovaries in an individual with polycystic ovary syndrome
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Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) may be transmitted through families via chemical markers that modify DNA structure, implying that medications that adjust these markers in embryos could potentially prevent the disorder.
Individuals with PCOS usually display at least two of the following three key traits: elevated levels of male hormones like testosterone, irregular menstrual cycles, and the presence of immature eggs that resemble cysts in the ovaries.
While this condition frequently runs in families, its inheritance pattern remains unclear. “Around 25-30 genetic mutations are associated with PCOS, but they only account for a minor part of the hereditary aspects,” explains Elisabet Stener-Victorin from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden.
Research on mice indicates that variations in epigenetic marks (chemical tags that regulate gene activity without changing DNA sequences) may also be influential. As eggs develop, most of these marks are believed to be erased, but some may persist as a possible means of inheritance.
To investigate this in relation to human PCOS, Qianshu Zhu from China’s Chungin Medical University and colleagues conducted an analysis of the epigenetic markers in eggs and embryos donated 3 days prior, revealing data from 133 and 95 PCOS donors respectively. “No one has truly explored this with human samples,” states Stener-Victorin.
The study revealed a correlation between PCOS donation and altered patterns in three epigenetic marks in eggs and embryos. Two of these marks contribute to silencing genes and helping to package them within cells, resulting in a tighter DNA coil around a protein called histone, rendering the genetic code less accessible for RNA transcription, a crucial step in protein synthesis. Meanwhile, the third type of mark activates genes by loosening the DNA coil.
Together, the epigenetic modifications related to PCOS could potentially affect the metabolic processes of eggs and embryos, thereby elevating the chances of passing on PCOS to the next generation. Nevertheless, more research is essential to understand how these changes influence PCOS symptoms in offspring, both in mice and humans, as noted by Stener-Victorin. “At this stage, I recognize these marks differ, and that doesn’t inherently mean they are harmful,” she remarks.
Additional experiments suggest that the researchers may employ medications to reverse epigenetic alterations, potentially mitigating the risk of PCOS. “If we observe that modifying these histone marks changes the next-generation characteristics of PCOS, it could present a critical prevention target,” Zhu stated in a press release. Furthermore, the team posits that clinicians might utilize PCOS-related epigenetic markers to choose the healthiest embryos during in vitro fertilization procedures.
Zhu presented these findings at the European Breeding Association’s Annual Meeting held in Paris on July 1st.
Paleontologists have discovered a new genus and species of medium-sized Paleasaurus, identified from two fossilized specimens found in China in 2018.
Artist Reconstruction Yinshanosaurus angustus. Image credit: X.-C. Guo, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleontology.
The newly recognized species, Yinshanosaurus angustus, existed during the latest Permian period, around 259 to 254 million years ago.
These ancient creatures were part of Paleiasauria, a distinct group of herbivorous tetrapods that thrived across the Supercontinent Pangaea during the Middle Permian.
“Pareiasauria was a bizarre quadrupedal herbivorous clade present during the Guadalpian and Ropingian epochs, significantly impacted by both the late Capitanian and Permian mass extinction events,” stated the Chongqing Institute of Paleontology.
“Fossils of Pareiasauria have been discovered globally, spanning Africa, Europe, Asia, and South America.”
“Pareiasaurus served as a primary herbivorous consumer within various terrestrial tetrapod faunas, including those from the late Permian in northern China.”
“Since the 1960s, eight species of Chinese Paleasaurus have been documented.”
Two significant specimens—a partial post-skull skeleton with a nearly complete skull and another partial skeleton—were excavated in China in 2018.
“The first specimen was found in a dark purple siltstone layer of the Sunjiagou Formation, near Zhangjiage Tuo Village in Bird County, Shanghai,” reported the paleontologist.
“The second specimen was located in purple silty mudstone at the upper section of Member I of the Naobaogou Formation near Qiandian Village in the Siguai district of Baotou, Inner Mongolia.”
According to the researchers, Yinshanosaurus angustus features the narrowest skull of all Pareiasaurus species, with a length over twice its width at the lateral edge of the cheek.
“With the skeleton of Yinshanosaurus angustus, we present the complete skull and detailed post-cranial structure of this Chinese Pareiasaurus for the first time,” they emphasized.
Their study was published this month in the journal Paleontology Papers.
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Jian Yi & Jun Liu. 2025. Tetrapod fauna of the Upper Permian Naobagou Formation in China: A new medium-sized Pareiasaurus Yinshanosaurus angustus and its implications for the phylogenetic relationship of Pareiasaurus. Paleontology Papers 11(3): E70020; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70020
The streaming giant announced on Monday that it will stream a live launch to subscribers’ homes later this summer, declaring, “we can partner with NASA to bring space a little closer to home.”
This initiative further propels Netflix into the realm of live streaming content, which has already seen success. On Christmas Day, millions tuned in for live coverage of NFL games and a halftime concert featuring Beyoncé. Despite some video quality challenges, November’s boxing match between Mike Tyson and Jake Paul reached 60 million households on Netflix. The platform also ventured into talk show territory this year with “Live with John Mulaney.”
Netflix asserts, “The next giant leap for humanity might just begin with pressing play,” according to its editorial site, Tudum.
NASA+ was launched in 2023 to make space content more accessible to the public; however, much of it is already available for free on the NASA app at NASA.GOV. The space agency hopes to leverage Netflix’s extensive subscriber base of over 700 million to boost interest in space exploration.
“Viewers will soon have another option to stream rocket launches, astronaut missions, and stunning live views of Earth from the International Space Station,” the agency stated in a news release.
The aim, as per a NASA announcement, is to “immerse people in the excitement of discovery, innovation, and space exploration, no matter where they are.”
“The 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act mandates sharing stories of space exploration with the broadest audience possible,” said Rebecca Silmons, general manager of NASA+ at the agency’s Washington D.C. headquarters. “Together, we are dedicated to inspiring a new generation—ushering in a golden age of innovation and exploration, all from the comfort of home and the convenience of a smartphone.”
Netflix is capitalizing on the growing interest in space. According to NBC News, 2025 has been a landmark year for space exploration already. In April, pop artist Katy Perry and five other celebrities embarked on a short journey into space aboard Blue Origin’s new Shepherd Rocket.
Per Tudum, NASA+ Live Feeds will be featured as part of the series on the Netflix platform, with a detailed schedule anticipated to be released as the launch date approaches.
Instances have been observed where orcas appear to offer dead prey to humans.
Jared Tower, from the marine research organization Bay Cetology, was filming orca pods (Orcinus orca) as they feasted on seabirds in Alert Bay, Canada, when he witnessed a fascinating incident. Two whales, named Akela and Quiver, approached a camera tower with birds held tightly in their mouths. Akela, the younger female, dropped a dead bird in front of the tower and lingered nearby, seemingly curious about the human presence. Quiver followed suit, dropping his bird and waiting as well.
In an unexpected turn, both whales reclaimed their prey and swam back to the tower. “I remember thinking, did that really just happen?” Towers recalls. This wasn’t the first instance of such behavior; similar actions were noted in 2015 and 2018, when a young female orca presented a researcher with a Harbor Seal pup, showcasing a killer whale’s desire to share its catch with humans.
Through interviews, Tower uncovered another 32 similar cases between 2004 and 2024. One notable account involved a young male orca from New Zealand, known as Funky Monkey, who repeatedly approached researchers while carrying a long-tailed stingray. In total, 18 different prey species were identified in these instances, including gray whales, seals, jellyfish, birds, otters, rays, turtles, and others.
This behavior has been previously recorded within orca pods. “They exist in a deeply interconnected social structure and share their prey amongst one another,” noted Towers.
However, it appears this behavior extends beyond their own kind. “They engage in actions that not only benefit themselves but also foster goodwill towards another species,” explains Lori Marino from New York University, who was not affiliated with this research.
Tower suggests that such actions indicate the potential for general altruism, or kindness, among killer whales. They demonstrate curiosity and the boldness to engage with other species, he asserts.
This propensity for generalized altruism makes sense in a social structure where collaboration is key for survival. Moreover, killer whales are among the few marine predators capable of overwhelming their prey at times. “They can opt to leave it behind, play with it, or use it as a means to explore inter-species relationships,” Towers explained.
For many killer whales, adaptability as generalist predators sparks curiosity and exploratory behaviors. “Exploration is a means to alleviate uncertainty,” Towers said. “They are actively learning about us by probing the waters.”
Tower also posits that this behavior signifies that orcas possess a theory of mind, a trait observed in certain birds, apes, and other marine creatures like dolphins.
Exercise caution when seeking AI advice on medical issues
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Wondering whether to consult a doctor about your sore throat? The quality of AI recommendations can vary based on how you frame your questions. In experiments with AI models, users who made typos, expressed uncertainty, or were identified as women were more frequently advised to seek medical attention.
“Subtle biases can shape the nature and content of AI recommendations, significantly affecting the distribution of medical resources.” Karandeep Singh, who did not participate in the research at the University of California, San Diego, commented.
Avinisa Gravatina and her team at Massachusetts Institute of Technology have harnessed AI to produce thousands of patient notes in various formats. Some messages included intentional errors and spaces to replicate the writing style of individuals with limited English skills or typing difficulties, while others utilized uncertain language to reflect different emotional tones, including health anxiety or gendered expressions.
The researchers presented these notes to four widely-used large language models (LLMs) that power many chatbot applications, asking them if patients should manage their conditions independently, visit clinics, or undergo certain tests. The models included OpenAI’s GPT-4, Meta’s Llama-3-70b, Llama-3-8b, and the Palmyra-Med model created specifically for healthcare by AI specialists.
Results indicated that variations in format and style influenced the recommendations, with 7-9% of the AI models suggesting that patients remain at home rather than seek medical appointments. Additionally, female patients were more likely to receive recommendations to stay home. A study highlighted that treatment suggestions were more susceptible to changes based on the gender and language style of the queries than those offered by human clinicians.
OpenAI and Meta did not respond to inquiries for comments. According to Zayed Yasin, a writer involved in the research, these LLMs are not intended for health advice or clinical recommendations without human oversight.
Most operational AI technologies in electronic health records currently depend on OpenAI’s GPT-4 O, which wasn’t directly studied here. Singh emphasized the necessity for enhanced methods to assess and monitor generative AI models within the healthcare sector.
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In this study, published this month in Current Biology, marine researchers reveal evidence of the widespread creation and utilization of grooming tools among the killer whale (Orcinus orca ater) population. I reside in the Salish Sea, part of the Pacific Ocean between British Columbia and Washington.
Arochelpin, a killer whale from Southern residents (Orcinus orca ater). Image credit: Weiss et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.021.
“We discovered that southern resident killer whales frequently utilize bull kelp during social interactions, seemingly as a tool for mutual grooming.”
“It was incredibly thrilling to observe not only the tool-making behavior of whales, but also the application of these objects in manners not previously documented in marine mammals.”
Dr. Weiss and his team identified this surprising behavior while conducting aerial observations of the southern resident killer whales, a population dwindling to fewer than 80 individuals in the Pacific Northwest.
Since 2018, they have been monitoring these whales to gain insights into their foraging and social habits.
“While other killer whale populations exist across the globe, the southern residents hold unique genetic, ecological, and cultural distinctions,” Dr. Weiss explained.
Using high-resolution video captured from aircraft, researchers discovered that the whales fashioned tools by breaking the edges of the kelp’s stems.
Subsequently, they applied the pieces of kelp to their companions and rolled it between their bodies for extended durations.
This behavior was noted among whales from all social groups, irrespective of gender or age.
They observed that whales were more inclined to groom closely-related companions or older partners.
Furthermore, there was some evidence suggesting that whales with more molting or damaged skin were more likely to engage in grooming, indicating potential hygienic benefits.
“What stands out is that despite this evidently common activity, it has only recently come to light, with drones frequently monitoring these whales for nearly 50 years,” said Dr. Weiss.
“This exemplifies not only the strength of new observational methods but also the many aspects of these creatures we have yet to uncover.”
“Although the whale population has been formally studied for five decades, it continues to yield significant new discoveries,” noted Rachel John, a student at the University of Exeter.
“Previous aerial footage lacked the quality needed to recognize ‘Allokelping’ (i.e., using kelp on another whale), but the recent video captures this behavior in remarkable detail.”
It is still uncertain whether this grooming behavior is exclusive to this population or if it is more commonly observed among other whale communities and species.
Regardless, this finding opens new pathways for understanding tool use in marine mammals and highlights the broader implications of such behaviors.
“We know tactile interactions are crucial,” remarked Professor Darren Croft, a researcher at the University of Exeter and the executive director of the Whale Research Center.
“In primates, including humans, these interactions can alleviate stress and strengthen social bonds.”
“Killer whales frequently make contact with other group members — touching their own bodies and fins — but employing kelp in this manner may enhance these experiences.”
“This behavior might also be vital for skin health. Whales and dolphins utilize various strategies to shed dead skin, and this could serve as an additional adaptation for that purpose.”
“Brown algae like bull kelp may possess antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties that could offer extra benefits to the whales.”
“We are currently conducting further research to validate these initial findings and to investigate the social and skin health advantages of this behavior.”
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Michael N. Weiss et al. 2025. Manufacturing and use of similar tools by wild killer whales. Current Biology 35 (12): R599-R600; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.021
Influenza virus particles observed through an electron microscope, color enhanced
John G/Imago/Alamy
A promising long-term antiviral medication may offer protection against all strains of influenza, providing hope for the most vulnerable populations.
The flu results in the loss of thousands of lives annually, and the swift emergence of new variants poses a risk for future pandemics. Each year, scientists reformulate flu vaccines to correspond with the strains that are projected to be prevalent in the upcoming season. These vaccines prompt the immune system to generate antibodies that block the virus from infiltrating the cells.
Efforts are underway to develop a universal influenza vaccine capable of safeguarding individuals from all strains, yet these vaccines face challenges.
“Even if the first approved universal influenza vaccine is created, individuals exhibit varying immune responses, meaning not everyone will be effectively protected,” says Jeffrey Stein, CEO of Cidara. For instance, vaccines often show reduced efficacy in older adults or in those with compromised immune systems.
To tackle this issue, Stein and his team have developed a treatment known as CD388, which includes Zanamivir, an antiviral drug authorized for treating infections caused by all influenza variants that affect humans. Normally, Zanamivir is eliminated from the body within hours, but the research team has modified it to rapidly neutralize the invasive influenza virus. “It’s not part of the immune system,” Stein explains.
For testing, the team enrolled 5,000 participants aged 16-64 from the US and the UK at the beginning of the 2024 flu season. None of the participants were at elevated risk for flu-related complications or had received that year’s flu vaccine. They divided the participants into four approximately equal groups. Three groups received one injection of CD388 at low, moderate, or high doses, while the final group received a placebo.
About six months later, researchers assessed the number of individuals with symptomatic flu infections during the flu season, defined by the presence of influenza virus DNA in nasal swabs and flu-like symptoms such as cough and fever.
Thirty-three individuals in the placebo group reported symptomatic flu, whereas only eight participants in the high-dose CD388 group did, marking a risk reduction of around 76%. The moderate and low-dose groups saw a 61% and 58% decrease in risk of symptomatic infections, respectively. “All doses demonstrated significant protection against influenza illness,” states Nicole Dhabapana, Chief Medical Officer of Sidara. Side effects, such as injection site tenderness, were consistent across both the treatment and placebo groups.
The results indicate that CD388 may offer a more straightforward means of protecting individuals compared to vaccines. “[Unlike vaccines, it] does not need to match the circulating strain, and could be more effective during a ‘poor match’ year or for pandemic preparedness, especially if new flu strains, such as H5N1, transmit to humans,” remarks Pennyword from King’s College London. She adds that, based on previous data on Zanamivir, it is unlikely that influenza strains will develop resistance to it.
This approach is likely to be effective for older individuals and those known to have poor vaccination responses, including the immunocompromised. Davalpana mentions that the team plans to conduct tests on individuals aged 12 and older with compromised immune systems.
Instead of replacing vaccines, Stein suggests that the drug may work best in conjunction with them, although this has yet to be tested. Nevertheless, the findings are timely given the growing hesitance surrounding vaccinations. “We aim to bypass the controversy that unfortunately surrounds vaccines,” Stein remarks.
Sioux Falls, SD – Prior to the widespread implementation of vaccines, catastrophic infections in the U.S. claimed millions of children’s lives and left many others with lifelong health complications.
Over the next century, vaccines successfully eradicated long-standing threats like polio and measles, leading to a significant decrease in many diseases. However, today, as preventable and contagious diseases resurface, vaccine hesitancy is causing a decline in vaccination rates. Moreover, established vaccines are facing skepticism from figures such as Robert F. Kennedy Jr. and some civil servants. Long-time anti-vaccine advocates are influencing perceptions managed by the Federal Health Bureau.
“These concerns, along with hesitations and queries regarding vaccines, stem from the profound success of vaccination, as it has eradicated many diseases,” explained Dr. William Schaffner, an infectious disease specialist at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. “If you don’t experience the disease, you lack respect or fear for it, thus undervaluing the vaccine.”
Anti-vaccine proponents often depict vaccines as perilous, emphasizing the rare side effects while neglecting the significantly greater risks posed by the diseases themselves.
Some Americans are acutely aware of the realities of vaccine-preventable diseases, as revealed in interviews conducted by the Associated Press.
Illness during pregnancy can impact two lives
For decades, Janice Farnham has cared for her daughter Jack. Jack, now 60, was born with congenital rubella syndrome, which caused complications with his hearing, vision, and heart. At the time, there was no vaccine for rubella, and Janice caught the infection early in her pregnancy.
Janice, now 80, did everything within her power to help Jack thrive, yet it took a toll on her own well-being. Jack eventually developed diabetes, glaucoma, autistic tendencies, and arthritis.
A nurse prepares measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines in Harbor Straw, New York, in 2019. Johannes Eisele/AFP -Getty Images File
Currently, Jack resides in an adult care facility, spending four to five days a week with Janice. She is touched by Jack’s sense of humor and loving nature, frequently showering her with affection and often signing “Double I Love You.”
Given their family’s experiences, Janice finds it “more than frustrating” when individuals opt out of the MMR vaccine against measles, mumps, and rubella.
“I know what the outcome will be,” she expressed. “I simply want to spare others from enduring this.”
Delaying vaccinations can have dire consequences
Over fifty years have passed, yet Patricia Tobin vividly recalls finding her unconscious sister Karen on the bathroom floor.
In 1970, Karen was only six years old when she contracted measles. At that time, vaccines were not mandated for students in Miami. Doctors mentioned vaccinations for first graders, but urgency was not communicated by their mothers.
“It’s not that she was against it,” Tobin clarified. “She believed she had time.”
As measles outbreaks progressed, Karen collapsed in the restroom and never regained consciousness. She succumbed to encephalitis.
“We could never converse with her again,” Tobin mourned.
Presently, all states necessitate certain vaccinations for children to enroll in school. However, an increasing number of individuals are opting for exemptions. Schaffner from Vanderbilt emphasized that memories of measles outbreaks have been worsened by fraudulent studies falsely asserting a link between MMR vaccines and autism.
One of Lora Duguay’s earliest memories is lying in a quarantined hospital ward, her frail body surrounded by ice. She was just three years old.
In 1959, polio was rampant in Clearwater, Florida. It was one of the most dreaded diseases in the U.S., leading some paranoid parents to isolate their children during the epidemic.
Due to the infamous nature of polio, the introduction of its vaccine was met with widespread excitement. However, the early vaccines Duguay received had an efficacy rate of only 80% to 90%, leaving many unvaccinated and vulnerable to the virus.
Polio patients receiving treatment with iron lungs in 1950 at a respiratory center in Los Angeles. Bettmann Archive
The treatment allowed her to walk again, but she eventually developed post-polio syndrome, a neuromuscular disorder that deteriorates over time, leaving her in a wheelchair today.
Many children receive vaccinations now because the illness that changed her life is no longer a threat in the U.S. This new vaccine is much more effective than earlier versions, not only safeguarding individuals but also preventing sporadic cases from escalating among vulnerable populations.
Vulnerable populations remain at risk without vaccinations
Each night, Katie Van Troonhout cradles a small plaster cast of her daughter’s feet, a painful reminder of her child who succumbed to whooping cough in just 37 days.
Curry Grace was born on Christmas Eve in 2009. At just a month old, she showed symptoms of whooping cough after being exposed to someone too young to receive the Tdap vaccine.
At the hospital, Van Troonhout recalls the medical team desperately trying to save her, but “within minutes, she was gone.”
Today, Curry remains a part of her family’s life, with Van Troonhout advocating for vaccination and sharing her story with others.
“It’s our responsibility as adults to protect our children; that’s what parents do,” Van Troonhout stated. “I witnessed my daughter die from preventable illnesses… you don’t want to have my experiences.”
Astronomers employing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured an impressive image of the reflective nebula GN 04.32.8.
This Hubble image showcases GN 04.32.8, a reflective nebula located in the constellation Taurus, approximately 480 light years distant. The color composite was formed from images captured in visible and near-infrared light, utilizing data obtained through two filters. Different hues are assigned to each monochromatic image associated with an individual filter. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/G.Duchêne.
GN 04.32.8 is situated around 480 light years from the constellation Taurus.
Also referred to as DG 41, it forms a small segment of the stellar nursery known as the Taurus Molecular Cloud.
“Reflective nebulae are composed of dust clouds in space that do not produce their own light, unlike other types of nebulae,” an expert stated.
“Light from nearby stars illuminates them by scattering off the dust.”
“Due to this scattering effect, many reflective nebulae, including GN 04.32.8, often appear blue.”
GN 04.32.8 is illuminated by a trio of bright stars at the heart of the Hubble image, chiefly the variable star V1025 Tauri.
“One of these stars partially overlaps with the nebula. This is another variable star called HP Tauri, classified among the stars in Tauri, thus resembling other varieties of stars found in the broader molecular complex in Taurus,” the astronomer explained.
“It’s not unusual for T-Tauri stars to inhabit such prolific stellar nursery environments, as they are very dynamic and turbulent in their early evolutionary stages.”
“The three stars are known as HP Tau, HP Tau G2, and HP Tau G3 and are believed to be gravitationally bound, forming a triple system.”
“Observers with keen eyes might spot a small, crushed orange area just outside the center, beneath the nebula, which intersects with dark lines,” the researchers noted.
“This marks a newly formed protostar, concealed within a protoplanetary disk that obscures some of its light.”
“Disks like these are ideal subjects for study because they are oriented edge-on from our viewpoint.”
“We are utilizing Hubble to investigate this phenomenon and to glean insights about the types of exoplanets that could form within such disks.”
On Monday, a collective of Environmental Protection Agency staff expressed dissent regarding the agency’s policies during the Trump administration, stating it “undermines the EPA’s mission to safeguard human health and the environment.”
More than 170 EPA employees have cited documents and signed anonymously due to concerns of retaliation, according to Jeremy Berg, former editor-in-chief of Science Magazine. This group includes over 70 Nobel Prize winners and other non-EPA scientists and academics.
The letter marks a rare public critique from agency employees who risk facing backlash for voicing their disagreement with the federal administration’s support for climate, environment, and health sciences. Scientists at the National Institutes of Health experienced a similar situation in early June.
“Since its inception in 1970, the EPA has fulfilled its mission by utilizing science, funding, and professional staff to serve Americans. We oppose the current administration’s emphasis on harmful deregulation, misrepresentation of past EPA actions, and disregard for scientific expertise.”
A spokesperson for the agency did not provide an immediate comment when contacted on Monday.
Employees Hope for a Return to EPA’s Core Mission
“I’m genuinely upset. This agency was a beacon for me in my youth. We aren’t upholding the ideals of this agency under the current administration, and we truly desire that,” stated Amelia Herzberg, an EPA environmental protection specialist who is currently on administrative leave from the Environmental Justice and Civil Rights Bureau.
Herzberg’s role focused on protecting the most vulnerable populations impacted by contamination. This includes pregnant and nursing individuals, children and infants, the elderly, those with chronic health conditions, and communities exposed to greater contamination levels. “This shouldn’t be controversial, but it is in today’s political climate,” she remarked.
“Americans should have access to clean water and air without the risk of poisoning. If not, our government has failed,” she asserted.
Berg, who led the National Institute of Integrated Medical Sciences at the NIH from 2003 to 2011, emphasized that the dissent is not driven by partisan agendas but aims to guide employees back to the foundational mission of the EPA, which is fundamentally about “breathing clean air and drinking safe water.”
The letter articulated five primary concerns of EPA employees: disregarding scientific consensus for polluter benefit, reversing progress in vulnerable U.S. communities, dismantling the Research and Development Bureau, and fostering a culture of fear that forces staff to choose between their livelihoods and well-being.
“People will die,” stated Carol Grader, a Nobel Prize laureate and professor of molecular and cell biology at the University of California, Santa Cruz. She referenced last week’s East Coast heatwave as evidence of the real effects of climate change. “If there are no scientists at the EPA, more lives will be lost due to ignorance about our work and its impact on air quality,” she added.
Berg highlighted the significance of the objection declarations from both NIH and EPA employees. These actions reflect a need for consideration about the future of research funding.
When discussing her concerns about potential repercussions, Grader noted that she “experiences all the implications” and frequently engages with graduate students anxious about pursuing scientific careers amidst funding cuts.
She concluded, “If we neglect to support the next generation of scientists, it will lead to long-term consequences: ‘It’s a decades-long issue.’
I’m manipulating your thoughts. Just by reading this, I have invaded your mind, as each word travels from my heart to yours. I can even conjure unexpected images in your mind—quickly, don’t think of a pink elephant! Whatever you do, don’t visualize it!
Fortunately, there are limits to the influence of mere words and ideas. But what if those limits could be transcended? Imagine a phrase so potent that it could guide your very thoughts toward your own demise. This is the premise explored in Basilisk, an experimental thriller by Matt Wixey, designed specifically for the minds of readers like those of New Scientist.
This novel features a complex narrative structure, reminiscent of House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski. It follows ethical hacker Alex Webster, who works with a computer security firm, attempting to breach her client’s network while aiding in their defense, a professional endeavor shared by debut author Wixey.
However, it’s not merely straightforward. Webster narrates her experiences through two intertwined threads. First, we unravel how she and colleague Jay Morton stumbled into the puzzle leading to his death. Then, she reflects on that tragedy and processes its far-reaching consequences.
The narrative doesn’t end there. Webster’s accounts are supplemented with footnotes from both her and the detective investigating Morton’s death, interspersed with correspondence from a mysterious figure known as Helmsman, who sheds light on the puzzle they aim to solve.
This book feels tailor-made for my brain—that of a New Scientist reader.
If all this sounds overwhelming, Basilisk may not be for you. Personally, piecing together the multifaceted narratives exhilarated me, making my mind race with possibilities.
Helmsman’s correspondences themselves adopt various formats, from bureaucratic emails and scientific reports to conversational dialogues. They tackle numerous topics typically found in New Scientist, covering psychology to artificial intelligence, and I appreciated the precise references to scientific literature. Helmsman details attempts to cultivate a “basilisk,” a concept that can inflict harm merely through exposure, named after the mythical creature said to slay with a glance.
Matt Wixey’s Basilisk centers on “Ethical Hacker” Alex Webster
Basilisks are, as far as we know, fictional, yet the concepts they embody are increasingly compelling. Science fiction author David Langford has explored such ideas in his short stories. Basilisk presents the notion of images that may ‘crash’ the human mind akin to deceptive computer code.
A notable example is Roko’s basilisk—a baffling proposition suggesting that all-powerful future AI will punish those who fail to ensure its creation (a more thorough explanation isn’t wise). The latest series of the anthology Black Mirror also references this concept.
Basilisk represents a subset of broader cognitive hazards, which span topics from nuclear weapons to organized religions.
While reading Basilisk, sleepless nights drove me to read yet another chapter, prompting me to question if the book itself qualifies as a cognitive hazard. I found it difficult to stop thinking about even after finishing. Now that you’ve read this review, perhaps you’re at risk, too.
Please proceed. Dive into the book. Wouldn’t you want to discover what unfolds?
The Art and Science Behind Writing Science Fiction
Embark on a journey into the realm of science fiction writing this weekend, dedicated to creating new worlds and artistic marvels.
Whether it’s military tanks, roaming wildlife, or busy cutlery in a restaurant, counting moving objects can be quite challenging. Thankfully, there exists a method that enables you to estimate the total number of items without having to count every single one.
The capture-recapture technique works by sampling. For instance, you allow some animals to roam, then collect a subset. After marking the individuals, they are returned to the population. Later, you can capture another group and count how many of them are marked.
If your first capture involves 50 marked animals, and you find that half of the second group are marked, you can deduce that approximately half of the total population is marked. Therefore, the entire population can be estimated to be around 100.
During World War II, Allied statisticians aimed to estimate the number of tanks manufactured by the German forces. Instead of releasing captured tanks, they labeled tank components with serial numbers. By recording the serial numbers of both captured and destroyed tanks, they could estimate total production under the assumption of uniform distribution. If the highest serial number recorded is l and n is the number of captured tanks, then the total tank count can be estimated as l + L/n.
For example, if the maximum serial number logged is 80, you might estimate the full range to be around 80/4 = 20, resulting in an overall estimate of about 100 tanks. This problem is commonly referred to as the German tank problem in statistics.
One of my favorite stories about estimating populations comes from a friend’s teacher. The class was tasked with estimating the number of forks in the cafeteria.
The students “captured” several forks, marking each with a spot of nail polish before releasing them back. A week later, they recaptured a sample and used it to estimate the total fork count.
Researcher executed a similar study 20 years ago. Concerned about missing teaspoons in their lab, they marked and released a number of spoons, tracked their movements, and published their findings. The outcome proved effective, prompting the notorious return of five misplaced teaspoons by the culprit in the building.
Katie Steckles is a mathematician, educator, YouTuber, and author based in Manchester, UK. She also serves as an advisor to Brent Wister, a puzzle column for New Scientist. Follow her on Twitter @stecks.
For more projects, please visit newscientist.com/maker.
Restoring the levels of specific intestinal microorganisms may help treat fertility problems in people with PCOS
Science Photo Library / Alamy Stock Photo
Women diagnosed with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) seem to face a heightened risk of pregnancy complications linked to lower levels of gut microorganisms.
PCOS stands as the most prevalent hormonal disorder among women of reproductive age and is a leading cause of infertility. Yet, the underlying causes and effective management remain somewhat elusive. For instance, it remains unclear why women with PCOS who do conceive are more susceptible to complications such as miscarriage, premature birth, and gestational diabetes.
Aixia Liu from Z Jiang University in China and her research team tracked the pregnancy outcomes of 220 women across 44 cities, half of whom had PCOS. All were younger than 35 and provided blood samples as well as stool and tissue samples from the endometrial (internal lining of the uterus).
Despite having comparable pregnancy rates, women with PCOS exhibited nearly double the likelihood of facing pregnancy complications, including miscarriage, premature birth, gestational diabetes, and delivering babies with low birth weight. Furthermore, researchers determined that women with PCOS have roughly half the quantity of gut bacteria, particularly Parabacteroides merdae, which was more closely linked to pregnancy outcomes than in those without the condition.
P. merdae aids in converting specific nutrients, like the amino acid isoleucine, into beneficial compounds known as short-chain fatty acids, which are crucial for reproductive health. This likely accounts for the 39% higher average isoleucine levels in the blood samples of PCOS participants and their 10% lower levels of short-chain fatty acids. Additionally, high isoleucine concentrations were noted in the endometrial tissue.
In laboratory settings, when researchers cultured the participants’ endometrial cells and introduced isoleucine, they observed increased markers of cell senescence, indicating wear or damage in the cells that compromised their function. Isoleucine seemed to disrupt the processes endometrial cells typically undergo during pregnancy.
“These findings suggest age-related changes within the uterus,” Li remarked in a statement from the annual meeting of the European Breeding Association, where the data was revealed. “Our research points to high levels of isoleucine from P. merdae potentially impairing endometrial health, even in women under 35.”
Such results suggest that alterations in the gut microbiome could play a role in PCOS-related fertility challenges; however, Andrea Dunaif at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, expresses skepticism. Her studies indicate that reproductive aging in PCOS is more delayed than accelerated. “Reproductive issues often improve in your 30s,” Dunaif notes. “This leads me to doubt the significance of endometrial findings and their true responsibility for pregnancy outcomes.”
Nonetheless, these insights could pave the way for enhanced fertility treatments for women with PCOS. “Where might we intervene in the microbiome and adjust with various probiotics?” Dunaif suggests.
There are no specific foods that are prohibited while using Ozempic (semaglutide), which is prescribed for managing type 2 diabetes and may assist in weight loss.
However, the following recommendations can help maximize your weight loss efforts and promote a sustainable, healthy diet over time.
Foods to Increase…
1. High-fiber foods
Fiber slows the digestion process and enhances the effectiveness of Ozempic in emptying the stomach, helping you feel full longer and preventing blood sugar spikes.
Examples of high-fiber foods include vegetables (like leafy greens, carrots, broccoli, etc.), fruits (such as apples, berries, oranges, etc.), and whole grains like oats.
High-fiber options like oats and fruits can slow sugar release and support gut health – Credit: Zeljkosantrac
2. Lean protein
Incorporating lean proteins such as chicken, fish, and plant-based proteins helps stabilize blood sugar levels.
3. Healthy fats
Sources of healthy fats like avocados, nuts, seeds, and olive oil provide sustained energy and assist in blood sugar regulation without causing spikes.
4. Low-glycemic foods
Foods with a low glycemic index, such as sweet potatoes and non-starchy vegetables, can help prevent rapid increases in blood glucose levels.
Processed and fried foods may exacerbate the side effects of semaglutide, including nausea – Credit: Alexander Spatari via Getty
Foods to Reduce…
1. Sugary treats
Candies, pastries, sodas, and other sweet snacks can cause spikes in blood sugar and contribute to nausea and other digestive issues.
2. Processed and Fried Foods
These foods are typically high in unhealthy fats, salts, and preservatives, which can worsen nausea and interfere with blood sugar control.
3. Spicy Foods
Due to the delayed gastric emptying caused by Ozempic, spicy or heavy foods may lead to nausea or gastrointestinal discomfort.
4. Alcohol
Individuals taking Ozempic may experience reduced alcohol tolerance, so it’s wise to be mindful of consumption. Additionally, alcohol contains calories that won’t aid in weight loss.
This article addresses the question posed by Jamil Pierce from Surrey: “What are the best and worst foods to eat while on Ozempic?”
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What is the ekpyrotic universe theory? Ekpyrotic Cosmology serves as an alternative to the conventional Lambda-CDM or λCDM model.
The λCDM model relies on a significant flatness of the universe, necessitating a phase of rapid “inflation” to smooth out initial density and temperature fluctuations.
Despite the lack of direct evidence or identifiable causes for this inflation, it provides a solid explanation for many complex aspects of our observable universe, aligning well with current data.
In contrast, ekpyrotic theory posits no beginning of time, substituting the big bang with a “bounce” between two “branes” within a 3D world of 5-dimensional space-time.
The structure of the contemporary universe is established before this bounce, thereby negating the need for inflation.
Additionally, this theory circumvents the problematic “singularities” present in traditional Big Bang cosmology. However, it has its drawbacks, such as the emergence of negative energy particles that could potentially annihilate the universe.
There are also notable divergences in the predictions of ekpyrotic and λCDM theories, including the gravitational wave background’s shape (the random ripples in potential space-time caused by Big Bang forces) and the existence of so-called “ghost particles.”
Nevertheless, there is currently no observational evidence backing Ecpyrus theory in comparison to λCDM cosmology.
Thus, while the theory is a compelling alternative, the standard Big Bang model remains the most widely accepted framework among physicists.
This article addresses the question: “What is the Ekpyrotic Universe Theory?”
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Do you identify as an empathetic individual who prefers to stay out of the limelight? Have you found it challenging to articulate your own thoughts and feelings, often listening to others instead? Have you experienced a long-term relationship with a narcissist? If any of this resonates with you, you might be an echoist.
Echoism stands in contrast to extreme narcissism. Though this might seem favorable, a high degree of echoism can complicate one’s life significantly.
Echoists often do not perceive themselves as special and frequently neglect their own needs.
What is an echo?
Individuals with echoism typically shy away from or reject attention. They are deeply empathetic and attuned to the emotions of others, yet often engage in self-criticism and struggle with low self-esteem.
They may also be hesitant to express their own thoughts and feelings, often stemming from a fear of rejection and criticism.
The echoist might say, “I lead my life by the principle that the less attention I attract, the better.” Dr. Craig Malkin, author of Rethinking Narcissism.
“A defining characteristic of an echoist is a fear of appearing narcissistic in any way.”
Individuals with echoism tend to actively avoid or reject attention – Photo credit: Solvin Zankl/Naturepl.com
But where does the term “echoist” originate? To grasp this, let’s look back at Greek mythology.
Echo is named after the mountain nymph who fell in love with a hunter named Narcissus. Echo was spurned by Narcissus, who was doomed to only repeat the last words spoken to her.
The term echoism symbolizes the loss of Echo’s voice and identity as depicted in mythology.
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Are narcissism and echoism linked?
Many echoists grow up with narcissistic parents or find themselves in relationships with narcissistic partners. Navigating the whims of a narcissist can take an emotional toll. Research indicates that living with a pathologically narcissistic partner or family member can be quite burdensome.
Malkin explains that, as a child, the echoist was often afraid of losing her mother if she did not appease her frequent outbursts of tears and anger. The fear of rejection from loved ones is a common trait among echoists.
Malkin also notes that echoists are often drawn to narcissists due to fears of burdening others or appearing inadequate. Being involved with someone who enjoys the spotlight can provide a sense of security for echoists.
However, echoism can emerge even in the absence of malicious narcissism, particularly if echoist parents instill phrases like “Don’t get a big head” or “Don’t show off.”
Continually absorbing these negative messages can foster a child’s disproportionate sense of shame, hindering their ability to take pride in their achievements.
While society tends to discourage prideful behavior in children (and adults), it is important to recognize that taking pride in accomplishments is crucial for developing the self-esteem that echoists often lack.
About our experts
Dr. Craig Malkin is a psychologist and lecturer in psychology at Harvard Medical School, USA, as well as an author. He has published two books: Rethinking Narcissism and Narcissist Test.
This article addresses the question from Helena Howard of Torkey: “How did living with a narcissist affect me?”
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Initially created to manage diabetes, the emergence of drugs like Ozempic has sparked a weight loss phenomenon.
As these medications gain popularity for individuals with high body mass index, a new cosmetic issue has emerged: “Ozempic Face.”
This term refers to the sagging and indentations in the face that some individuals encounter after significant weight loss. Whether through medication, diet, or lifestyle modifications, losing weight reduces fat in all body areas, including the face.
Facial fat is essential for providing structure, volume, and youthful contours. Its absence can lead to a sunken appearance, making the face seem older as skin may droop and wrinkles become more prominent.
This concern isn’t exclusive to weight loss medications; it also occurs with any form of rapid weight reduction. However, drugs like Ozempic tend to facilitate quicker weight loss, giving your body less time to adjust.
Avoiding this issue can be challenging, as the body doesn’t fully control fat loss locations, but there are methods to mitigate more drastic effects.
Gradually lose weight: Slow weight loss allows for a better adaptation period for skin changes, lessening the risk of noticeable sagging.
Maintain hydration: Staying hydrated enhances skin elasticity and helps maintain its shape as fat diminishes.
Nourish the skin: A solid skincare regimen, including moisturizers, may assist.
“Ozempic Face” refers to the sagging and hollowness that some experience after substantial weight loss.
Some online sources suggest that options like fillers, Botox, and other cosmetic treatments may help restore volume and lift in the face; however, these also carry risks and aren’t always effective.
Ultimately, weight loss aspirations—regardless of whether they’re achieved through medication or other methods—should prioritize health over mere aesthetics.
If you’re concerned about changes to your facial appearance, consult your doctor or dermatologist to discuss a balanced weight loss approach.
This article addresses your inquiry (you’ll receive an email from Asad Iravani) about the possibility of developing “Ozempic Face.”
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In 2026, a group of astronauts is floating inside a gleaming white cylinder, positioned hundreds of kilometers above the Earth.
They gaze down at our planet through a 1.1-meter dome window and rest in an inflatable bed engineered for zero gravity, while conducting experiments focusing on human physiology, plant development, and protein crystallization.
Yet, this isn’t the International Space Station (ISS). It’s not managed by NASA, Roscosmos, or the China National Space Administration. This is Haven-1, the world’s inaugural commercial space station constructed by a private company named Vast.
Set to launch in May 2026 aboard the SpaceX Falcon 9, Haven-1 signifies transformative shifts in how we live and work in space.
“If you can achieve this prior to securing a NASA contract [to replace the ISS], using our funds, we have numerous CEOs,” says Max Haot to BBC Science Focus. “We will not only be the first commercial space station but also the sole predicted bidders to accomplish this.”
Minimum viable space station
Vast’s strategy is quick, concentrated, straightforward, and practical. Rather than constructing an extensive orbital laboratory, they designed a carefully constrained system that prioritizes safety and quality.
With a volume of 45m3 (1,590 feet)3, Haven-1 provides roughly the interior space of a small tour bus. Its life support system operates on a simpler “open loop” model, adapted from previous NASA technology and utilized during the space shuttle era.
The crew will stay for shorter durations compared to the ISS. Instead, four astronauts will visit for approximately 10 days, arriving aboard the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft. Over Haven-1’s projected three-year orbital lifespan, only four such missions are planned.
“As a demonstration of a minimally viable product space station, safety is our top priority,” Haot states. “The second priority is achieving this within an unprecedented timeline. A swift timeline leads to reduced costs.”
Simplifying processes enables Vast to accelerate progress. The main structure is already assembled and will undergo testing this summer after completion in July. By early next year, the entire system should be integrated, and final tests will commence.
Haven-1 hosts four crew members at a time on a 10-day mission. – Extensive
Stations that look like the future
Aesthetically, Haven-1 is a remarkable departure from its predecessor. While the ISS is an engineering marvel, it often resembles a floating plumbing workshop. Haven-1 is designed with a science fiction aesthetic. Its interior is clean, functional, and sleek for space habitats.
This aesthetic reimagining is not solely for show. It’s about functionality. “We go to space to work,” Haot explains. “It’s straightforward to understand that better rest, well-being, and communication lead to increased productivity.”
Here, Vast’s Human Factors team plays a crucial role, led by veteran NASA astronaut Drew Feestel.
For instance, sleep is facilitated using an inflatable bed that applies gentle pressure, mimicking the physical sensations astronauts crave in microgravity.
“Astronauts have various preferences for sleeping on the ISS,” says Haot. “Many opt for pressure against their bodies while they sleep.”
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What occurs aboard the ship?
Each mission to Haven-1 will be shorter yet packed with activities. Scientists can engage approximately 40 crew members throughout the station’s lifespan, given the limited opportunities for human time in orbit.
“Humanity has limited time to learn about space habitation and test technology,” notes Haot. “We believe that you can be incredibly productive within that time.”
Already lined up are research projects addressing human biology, drug screening, plant development, and protein crystal formation. Vast has established partnerships with Redwire Space (USA), Yuri (Germany), and Exobios Fair (Luxembourg).
A French company, Interstellar Lab, is investigating plant growth in microgravity.
Between missions, the station will be utilized to experiment with artificial gravity systems. This is an early step toward enhancing safety and feasibility for long-duration space travel.
Haven-1 is more than just a research platform; it’s a strategic maneuver in a much broader competition.
NASA intends to retire the ISS around 2030 and is currently reviewing bids for the next-generation orbital platform. Haot aims to secure that contract, and launching Haven-1 early with private funding is a bold way to leap ahead of competitors.
“Our goal is to present the most compelling strategy among all contenders,” Haot explains. “We’ve already achieved this by being ahead in technology development, teams, facilities, and certification processes.”
However, winning the race is not guaranteed. A competing spaceflight company, Axiom Space, has already secured a $140 million contract from NASA to connect at least one module to the ISS. Work is ongoing at Axiom, with the inaugural launch slated for late 2026.
Other companies, including Blue Origin, Northrop Grumman, and Starlab, are also in the running.
If successful, the Vast team will be well-positioned when NASA makes its decisions in 2026. If NASA’s objectives do not come to fruition, they may explore opportunities with foreign governments and private entities interested in utilizing the station.
“We remain optimistic about the future of Vast, but our primary focus is internally,” affirms Haot. “Winning this opportunity is of pivotal significance—it’s the largest market opportunity currently in the space station sector.”
Despite shorter time frames, astronauts onboard will conduct hundreds of experiments. – Extensive
From Haven-1 to a comprehensive orbital hub
Haven-1 is just the beginning. Vast’s subsequent venture is Haven-2, a more advanced module adhering to the same philosophy. Starting in 2028, the company plans to launch new modules every six months, ultimately assembling a complete commercial station by 2032.
This modular future facilitates more frequent crew missions, civil research programs, and, ultimately, a broader orbital economy.
Thanks to a partnership with SpaceX, Haven-1 will also become the first space station connected to Starlink, providing ORBIT Gigabit Speed Internet.
“If you want to operate Haven-1 and communicate continuously, you can,” Haot asserts. “This will significantly change how the public and crew interact.”
Redefining space
Haven-1 may not be the largest or the most sophisticated station in orbit, but it will be the first entirely constructed, funded, and operated by private enterprises. That’s the crux of its significance.
Vast aims to reshape the landscape of low Earth orbit, illustrating that space infrastructure can be efficient, elegant, and commercially viable. Whether in science, exploration, or industry, HAOT believes the future of space belongs not to nations, but to those who reach the stars first.
“The goal isn’t to erect luxury hotels in space to attract tourists,” emphasizes Haot. “The aim is to create a robust environment that supports exploration.”
“It’s not without risks. We need to observe what transpires in reality.”
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About our experts
Max Hat is an entrepreneur with a background in aerospace, appliances, and the internet. He currently serves as the CEO of Vast.
Geologists have found significant evidence indicating the preservation of Hadean Rocks, with an age of 4.16 billion years. The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt offers a rare glimpse into the early Earth.
Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt. Image credit: Jonathan O’Neill.
The earliest geological history of Earth remains largely unclear due to the scarcity of rocks and minerals from the Hadean period (over 4.3 billion years ago).
These ancient materials are often altered or destroyed as the planet’s crust undergoes continual recycling through various geological processes.
“One potential survivor of the Hadean era crustal rock is the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt,” stated Dr. Christian Saul, a senior author from the University of Ottawa and his colleagues.
“However, this perspective is contentious. Some researchers argue that the isotopic data backing these estimates might instead reflect later geological mixing rather than the true age of the layers.”
“If proven to be of Hadean origin, the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt would represent the oldest known preserved rock sequence on Earth.”
“This could yield critical insights into early geology and possible environments for the emergence of life.”
To refine the age of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, researchers concentrated on specific types of ancient rock intrusions known as metagabbro within the belt.
These intrusions intersect with ancient basaltic rocks, enabling the authors to utilize combined uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating to determine the minimum age limits of older layers, along with both short and long-lived samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd) isotopic analysis.
Sm-Nd data yielded a consistent age of approximately 4.16 billion years, irrespective of the sample location or mineral composition.
The convergence of both isotope systems producing the same age in rocks with clear evidence of magma differentiation strongly supports their Hadean era crystallization.
This is in accordance with the Hadean Eon surviving within the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt.
“Studying these rocks allows us to trace back to the origins of our planet,” noted Dr. Jonathan O’Neill, a researcher at the University of Ottawa.
“This will enable us to gain a better understanding of how the first continent formed and help reconstruct the environment in which life emerged.”
C. Sole et al. 2025. Evidence of Hadean Mafic invasion in the Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt. Science 388 (6754): 1431-1435; doi: 10.1126/science.ads8461
NASA astronomers have utilized data from multiple universes and ground-based telescopes to produce breathtaking new images of the Andromeda Galaxy, the nearest spiral galaxy to our Milky Way.
This new composite image of the Andromeda Galaxy features X-ray data from Chandra and XMM-Newton (depicted in red, green, and blue), ultraviolet data from Galex (blue), optical data from ground astrophotographers (Jakob Sahner and Tarun Kottary), as well as infrared data from Spitzer, Cobe, Planck, and Herschel (in red, orange, purple). Wireless data sourced from the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (red-orange). Image credit: NASA.
Also referred to as NGC 224, Messier 31, or M31, the Andromeda Galaxy is a spiral galaxy located approximately 2.5 million light-years from Earth.
With over 100 billion stars, it is comparable in size to our own Milky Way galaxy.
Visible as cigar-shaped patches of light high in the autumn sky, the Andromeda Galaxy’s enormous bubbles of high-temperature diffuse plasma make it appear 100 times the angular diameter of the full moon.
The galaxy is surrounded by a dark, invisible halo extending about a million light-years and is believed to contain half of its star mass.
Andromeda has significantly contributed to various fields of astrophysics, especially in the study and identification of dark matter.
In the 1960s, astronomer Dr. Vera Rubin and her team investigated Andromeda and identified invisible forces influencing the galaxy’s spiral arm rotations.
“This new image of the Andromeda Galaxy is released to honor Vera Rubin’s pioneering contributions that transformed our comprehension of the cosmos,” stated a NASA astronomer.
“Rubin’s meticulous measurements of Andromeda’s rotational curves provided some of the earliest and most convincing evidence that galaxies exist within vast halos of unseen material.”
“Her research reshaped long-standing assumptions and sparked a new era of inquiry into the structure and dynamics of the universe.”
“To celebrate her scientific achievements, the US Mint recently issued a quarter featuring Rubin as part of the American Women Quarters program in 2025.”
To create a new image of the Andromeda Galaxy, astronomers analyzed data from NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Observatory, XMM-Newton, Planck, and Herschel Telescopes from ESA, in addition to data from retired Galex and Spitzer telescopes. Information was also gathered from astrophotographers using ground-based telescopes and wireless data from the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope.
“Each type of light provides unique insights into this neighboring galaxy as compared to the Milky Way,” the researchers noted.
“For instance, Chandra’s X-rays unveil high-energy radiation around the ultra-massive black holes at Andromeda’s core, alongside numerous small, dense objects scattered throughout the galaxy.”
“A recent publication on Chandra observations of the Andromeda Galaxy details the amount of X-rays emitted by the ultra-massive black holes at the galaxy’s center over the past 15 years.”
“One flare was detected in 2013, showcasing the typical X-ray amplification seen from a black hole.”
The fossilized bacteria from Cachin Amber in Central Cretaceous belong to the same family as the zombie ant bacteria, ophiocordyceps unilateralis, which has become well-known as the inspiration for various popular apocalyptic video games and TV series, such as Our Last.
Ecological reconstruction of Cretaceous insects and insect pathogenic fungi. The ants have abandoned the infected PUP, and the infected fly is located on the trunk of a distant tree. Image credit: Zhuang et al., doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.0407.
Two newly identified species, Paleoophiocordyceps gerontoformicae and Paleoophiocordyceps Ironomyiae, represent some of the oldest fossil records of animals and pathogenic fungi.
These specimens were discovered in 99-million-year-old fragments of Kachin amber, sourced from a mine near the village of Neuebham in northern Myanmar.
“Insects and fungi are among the most diverse groups of living organisms, cohabiting Earth’s ecosystems for over 400 million years,” explains Professor Edmund Jalsenbowski, a paleontologist at the Geology, Paleontology and Natural History Museum in London, along with his colleagues from the Nanjing Institute of Studies.
“Consequently, they have developed intricate and close ecological relationships, including reciprocity, predation, and parasitism.”
“Entomopathogenic fungi, in particular, have garnered attention for their role in regulating insect populations, though much remains unclear about them.”
“The infection process begins when spores come into contact with the proper host, initiating germination through enzymatic hydrolysis, allowing entry into the insect’s body cavity (hemocoel).”
“Once the fungus infiltrates the insect’s body, it (as yeast-like cells at this phase) proliferates via budding, consuming the host’s body from within.”
“Eventually, the host typically succumbs to fungal toxins, leading to the formation of chains of yeast-like cells that transition to the filamentous stage shortly after the host’s death.”
“These filaments gradually organize into compact spore-producing structures (sporocaps) that emerge from the softer parts of the insect, dispersing spores into the environment to infect additional hosts.”
Holotype of Paleoophiocordyceps Ironomyiae. This comparison of mid-Cretaceous specimens shows similarities with existing Bacillus ophiocordis: (a, b) Lateral and dorsal views of the bipteran host, where potential fungal structures are visible. (c) Closure of the fungal stroma of Paleoophiocordyceps Ironomyiae; (D, E) Apex of the fungal stroma. The red arrows indicate the surroundings. (f, g, h) Presence of ophiocordyceps stromas for Ant and Dipteran hosts. Scale bars – 0.5 mm (a, b), 0.1 mm (c) and 50 μm (d, e). Image credit: Zhuang et al., doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.0407.
According to the authors, Paleoophiocordyceps gerontoformicae was found in a young ant, while Paleoophiocordyceps Ironomyiae was discovered on a fly.
“It’s captivating to observe that some of the unusual phenomena we witness today were also present during the age of dinosaurs,” remarked Professor Jarzembowski.
“Known as a zombie fungus, it can influence the behavior of its host, a feature that has been depicted in popular apocalyptic video games and series like Our Last.”
“Given that the infection is lethal, ophiocordyceps and its fossil counterparts likely played a significant role in regulating insect populations during the Middle Cretaceous, similar to how their modern relatives do today.”
“While parasitism is common in today’s ecosystems, evidence of these interactions is seldom found in the fossil record.”
“This is primarily due to the poor preservation of their soft tissues in fossils and the fact that they reside within their hosts, making identification among insect remains challenging.”
“While ancient parasite specimens have been uncovered, our understanding of their evolution remains limited.”
“This new discovery provides rare insight into these parasites from a long-ago era.”
The team’s research paper was published in the June 2025 issue of Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biology.
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Yuhui Zhuang et al. Cretaceous insect pathogenic fungi illuminate the early evolution of insect-fungal associations. Proc. R. Soc. B 292 (2048): 20250407; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.0407
Modern disk galaxies frequently display distinct thin and thick disks. The mechanisms driving the formation of these two discs and the timeline of their emergence are still unanswered questions. To investigate these issues, astronomers examined various epochs (statistical samples of 111 edge-on disk galaxies dating back up to 11 billion years, or approximately 2.8 billion years post-Big Bang) utilizing archived data from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.
Webb/nircam composite images of a quarter of the team’s samples were sorted by increasing redshift. Image credit: Tsukui et al., doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf604.
Present-day disk galaxies often comprise extensive, star-rich outer disks alongside thin, star-like disks.
For instance, the thick discs of the Milky Way reach approximately 3,000 light-years in height, while the thin discs are roughly 1,000 light-years thick.
But what mechanisms lead to the formation of this dual disk structure?
“The thickness of high redshift discs, or unique measurements from the early universe, serve as benchmarks for theoretical research that can only be conducted using Webb,” states Takagi, an astronomer at the Australian National University.
“Typically, older, thicker disk stars are dim, while the younger, thinner disk stars dominate the galaxy.”
“However, Webb’s exceptional resolution allows us to observe and highlight faint older stars, enabling us to distinguish between two disk structures in a galaxy and measure their thickness separately.”
Through an analysis of 111 edge-on targets over cosmological time, astronomers studied both single-disc and double-disc galaxies.
The findings indicate that galaxies initially form a thick disk, which is followed by the formation of a thin disk.
The timing of this process is contingent on the galaxy’s mass: high-mass, single-disk galaxies transitioned to two-disk structures around 8 billion years ago.
In contrast, a thin disk emerged about 4 billion years ago within low-mass, single-disk galaxies.
“This is the first time we’ve resolved a thin star disk at such a high redshift,” remarked Dr. Emily Wysnioski from the Australian National University.
“The novelty becomes evident when observing the onset of thin star disks.”
“It was astonishing to witness a thin star disk from 8 billion years ago, and even further back.”
To elucidate the transition from a single thick disk to a dual-disk structure, as well as the timing differences between high-mass and low-mass galaxies, researchers expanded their investigation beyond the initial edge-on-galaxy samples. They examined data showing the movement of gases from large millimeter/sub-millimeter arrays (ALMAs) in Atacama and ground surveys.
By considering the movement of the galaxy’s gas disks, they found their results aligned with the “turbulent gas disk” scenario.
In this framework, the turbulent gas disks of the early universe catalyze intense star formation, leading to the creation of thick star disks.
As stars form, they stabilize the gas disks, diminishing turbulence and consequently resulting in thinner disks.
Larger galaxies can convert gas into stars more efficiently and thus calm down more quickly than their lower-mass counterparts, leading to the formation of the earlier thin disk.
“This study delineates structural differences between thin and thick discs, but we aim to explore further,” Dr. Tsukui mentioned.
“We look to incorporate the types of information typically acquired from nearby galaxies, such as stellar movement, age, and metallicity.”
“By doing so, we can bridge insights from both nearby and distant galaxies, enhancing our understanding of disk formation.”
Survey results were published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
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Takagi Tsukui et al. 2025. The emergence of thin and thick discs of galaxies across the history of the universe. mnras 540(4): 3493-3522; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf604
Paleontologists have unearthed a new species of large passerine birds based on fossilized remains from the Bannockburn Formation near St. Bathans in Otago, New Zealand.
Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen), adults and juveniles, in Tabeumi, Fiji. Image credits: Charles J. Sharp, https://www.sharpphotography.co.uk / CC by-sa 4.0.
The newly identified bird inhabited New Zealand during the early Miocene period around 19 million years ago.
It has been named St. Batan’s Caloun (MioStrepera Canora), closely related to the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen) found in New Zealand today, likely exhibiting an entirely black plumage.
“We’ve experienced a lot of excitement and hard work,” shared Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“We probably haven’t encountered a member of this large magpie family for just five million years.”
“New Zealand’s ecosystem has undergone significant transformations over millions of years, welcoming diverse species throughout various eras,” noted Dr. Trevor Worthy, a researcher at Flinders University.
“There’s a notion that we should strive to restore New Zealand to its pre-European ecosystem.”
“However, that ecosystem had been in a constant state of flux for millions of years.”
“By the time humans arrived, Aotearoa had already lost much of the floral diversity that once thrived.”
“There were limited tree seeds available, but the decline of the choloun and other pigeons indicates this loss.”
“Different plant and animal groups emerged between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.”
“Even more have come since humans began to inhabit the land.”
“New Zealand’s pre-European ecosystem isn’t inherently better or worse than any other period in the past.”
“The fossil record hints at the absence of a utopian state and encourages us to celebrate the diversity present today.”
The fossilized remains of MioStrepera Canora were found at the St Bathans fossil site, which was once located at the bottom of a vast prehistoric lake.
“The research revealed that the Miocene bird population in New Zealand bears surprising similarities to contemporary Australian birds,” Dr. Scofield mentioned.
“New Zealand was vastly different during the Miocene, between 200,000 to 5 million years ago.”
“If you walked through New Zealand’s forests during that time, you would have seen abundant eucalyptus, laurel, and casuarinas, much like the forests of Australia today.”
“The most significant factor shaping New Zealand’s current landscape was the extinction of many plants and animals that thrived in warmer climates, following a rapid cooling that began around 13 million years ago.”
“It was likely not the only bird call you would have heard in ancient New Zealand.”
The discovery of MioStrepera Canora is detailed in a paper published in the journal Palz.
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Worth it et al. A large-scale clastatin passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae) from the early Miocene of New Zealand. Palz published on June 25th, 2025. doi:10.1007/s12542-025-00736-x
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