The wealthiest 10 percent of the global population are significantly accountable for the environmental degradation that is costing our planet trillions of dollars.
According to new research published in Communication Sustainability, this study aims to quantify the economic impact of environmental harm resulting from the affluent lifestyles and business practices of the world’s richest individuals.
The estimated environmental damage is staggering. The authors of the study found that the annual costs incurred by the richest 10 percent amount to approximately $1.7 to $5.7 trillion (£1.3 to £4.3 trillion), which translates to around $2,300 to $7,500 (£1,700 to £5,700) per person (in 2017 USD), outpacing the international funding gap for climate change and biodiversity.
To gauge the potential financial liability, the researchers utilized the Environmental Pricing Handbook to assess the economic costs associated with climate change, biosphere integrity, biogeochemical cycles, and freshwater use for the affluent 10 percent in 2017.
Loss of biodiversity affects local ecosystems that play critical roles in water filtration, crop pollination, and landscape preservation – Credit: Getty
The study identified biodiversity loss and climate change as the primary contributors to this damage. Among the six countries reviewed, U.S. consumers incurred the highest environmental costs.
“A small fraction of the population is responsible for the majority of the damage, while they are also in control of the resources meant to address climate change and biodiversity loss,” explains Professor Lisa Schipper from the University of Oxford, who was not part of the study.
The authors suggest implementing an environmental tax to ensure that the wealthiest 10 percent compensate for their consumption, but Professor Schipper argues that the issue is more complex. “Some activities funded by the top 10 percent may provide employment, nourishment, or services to many in the remaining 90 percent, often in ways that compromise a sustainable and resilient future.”
Schipper points out that charging the largest contributors to environmental damage could alleviate the financial burden on the public sector, which currently bears the costs despite the private sector’s responsibility.
“In practice, however, this is challenging because the top 10 percent also wield significant power. For such an initiative to be viable, there must be a collective acknowledgment of responsibility.”
A large-scale review of clinical trials published in this week’s Pain magazine indicates that melatonin, a widely used sleep supplement, may offer significant relief for individuals suffering from chronic musculoskeletal conditions, including lower back pain, osteoarthritis, and fibromyalgia.
Recent studies reveal melatonin’s modest effects on musculoskeletal pain, but it should not substitute for standard treatments.
Melatonin is a natural hormone produced by the pineal gland and is often used as an over-the-counter remedy for sleep issues. However, clinical guidelines typically do not recommend it as a frontline treatment for insomnia.
A systematic review conducted in 2013 found that melatonin effectively decreased sleep latency and enhanced total sleep duration compared to placebo in insomnia patients.
This supplement appears to have a strong safety profile, with existing reviews showing that high doses or prolonged use do not lead to drug dependence or severe adverse effects.
“Melatonin is already easily accessible, affordable, and recognized as safe,” stated Kanchao Wu, a medical student at the University of Sydney.
“Interestingly, melatonin may also assist in managing chronic pain, potentially reducing reliance on higher-risk medications.”
“We are applying an established medication to address a widespread issue affecting many individuals globally,” noted Professor Paulo Ferreira from the University of Sydney and Edith Cowan University.
In this study, data from 23 randomized controlled trials involving 2,028 participants were analyzed.
Participants included individuals with conditions such as lower back pain, osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia, and those recovering from surgeries like joint replacements and spinal operations.
Researchers found that melatonin decreased pain intensity by nearly 9 points on a 100-point scale in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain, comparable to the efficacy of common nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen.
Furthermore, researchers observed that melatonin significantly enhanced sleep quality in individuals with chronic musculoskeletal issues. This improvement may help explain some of the pain relief, given the established connection between sleep deprivation and heightened pain sensitivity.
The supplement was reported to be safe across the reviewed trials, with the most commonly documented side effects being mild, transitory symptoms such as nausea, dizziness, and headaches, comparable to placebo occurrences in some studies.
“Pain often coexists with sleep deprivation,” Wu highlighted.
“Melatonin seems to address both aspects, making it particularly beneficial for chronic pain sufferers.”
Doses of melatonin in trials varied based on conditions and environments.
For chronic musculoskeletal pain, the typical dosage ranged from 3 to 10 mg, with 3 mg being the most frequently used.
For postoperative pain management, dosages ranged from 1 to 10 mg, with 5 to 6 mg being the most common.
Melatonin was generally taken at bedtime or up to an hour prior to sleep.
The researchers found no evidence supporting a clear dose-response relationship, indicating that a single optimal dose cannot be identified based on the current evidence.
They advise that patients consult with healthcare providers before considering melatonin, particularly if taking other medications or managing underlying health conditions.
“Our recommendation is not to have melatonin replace all pain medications,” Wu said.
“Instead, after consulting a doctor, it can serve as an adjunctive treatment, especially for individuals struggling with sleep issues.”
“While the observed pain relief levels are similar to traditional treatments, it doesn’t imply melatonin should displace those options; rather, it may present a safer alternative in a comprehensive pain management strategy.”
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Kanchao Wu et al. Efficacy and Effectiveness of Melatonin in the Management of Musculoskeletal Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Placebo and Active-Controlled Trials. Pain, published online June 30, 2026. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000004045
Just 1.4 billion years after the Big Bang, the galaxy MXDFz4.4—one of the universe’s smallest galaxies at only 100 times the size of the Milky Way—emitted a powerful burst of ionizing light through the neutral hydrogen that enveloped it. This phenomenon provides astronomers with unprecedented insights into the reionization process of the universe.
This diagram depicts the galaxy MXDFz4.4 as it existed 1.4 billion years after the Big Bang. Image credit: NASA/ESA/Leah Hustak, STScI.
MXDFz4.4 thrived during the Reionization Era, a transformative period in cosmic evolution.
In the early stages post-Big Bang, the gas surrounding stars and galaxies obstructed high-energy ultraviolet light.
Gradually, this gas transitioned to a transparent or ionized state over hundreds of millions of years, rather than a sudden change.
“It was previously believed that observing galaxies like this would be impossible,” stated Dr. Ilias Guvarts, a postdoctoral researcher at the Space Telescope Science Institute.
“Researchers anticipated that the dense ‘fog’ of neutral hydrogen would obscure the ionizing light.”
“Hubble not only detected this light but also uncovered intriguing details about the galaxy’s features.”
Visible-light images from Hubble reveal that intense bursts of young stars have cleared MXDFz4.4 and its vicinity. Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / Ilias Goovaerts, STScI / Marc Rafelski, STScI & JHU / Anton Koekemoer, STScI / Alyssa Pagan, STScI.
“Although astronomers have identified many galaxies from this period in cosmic history, MXDFz4.4 is unique as it is the only one to have emitted ionizing photons,” Dr. Mark Rafelski from the Space Telescope Science Institute noted.
Long exposure observations by Hubble showed that a massive young star within MXDFz4.4 was responsible for the ultraviolet light filtering through the primordial universe.
These stars emerged simultaneously over the past few million years and are closely compacted together.
Interestingly, MXDFz4.4, though about 100 times smaller than the Milky Way, is forming stars at a rate 10 times greater.
“The presence of numerous young, hot, massive stars in a compact area aids in dispersing the opaque gas,” explained Dr. Guberts.
The research team’s paper was published on June 23, 2026, in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Elias Guvaarts et al. 2026. MXDFz4.4: First test of LyC emitters 250 million years after the epoch of reionization and the Lyα form as a tracer of LyC escape at high redshifts. APJ 1005, 34; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae75b0
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Visualization of Atlantic Ocean Flows from Satellite Images
Carsten Schneider/Science Photo Library
The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) may face weakening due to freshwater influx from Greenland’s snowmelt. However, cutting-edge climate models indicate this slowdown is likely to be gradual and reversible if global warming is curbed.
AMOC is a critical ocean current system that conveys warm, salty water from the tropics to the North Atlantic. There, it cools, sinks, and circulates back southward along the ocean floor. The influx of fresh meltwater from Greenland’s ice sheet appears to be mixing with denser seawater, slowing its downward flow.
<p>Recent estimates indicate Greenland is losing approximately <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06863-2">30 million tons of ice</a>. Some experts express concerns that AMOC could undergo a sudden and irreversible collapse, potentially plunging Europe into near-Arctic conditions. One <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adfa3b">study</a> suggests that AMOC might cross a crucial tipping point within decades.</p>
<p>However, modeling by <a href="https://research-portal.uu.nl/en/persons/oliver-mehling/">Oliver Mehring</a> and colleagues at Utrecht University revealed that while AMOC may weaken steadily under ongoing global warming, it is unlikely to reach a point of no return solely due to Greenland’s snowmelt.</p>
<p>“The prevailing notion that melting from the Greenland ice sheet could trigger an irreversible AMOC collapse is a significant oversimplification,” stated Mehring. “The snowmelt from Greenland alone is insufficient to push AMOC past its tipping point.”</p>
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<p>It is believed that atmospheric warming not only accelerates Greenland's melting but also directly undermines the AMOC by preventing brine in the North Atlantic from cooling adequately. This warming allows the ocean to hold more freshwater, which ultimately leads to increased rainfall, diluting saltwater, and reducing ocean mixing. This combination of warming and freshwater influx diminishes the sinking action crucial to AMOC.</p>
<p>While most predictive models of future climate change concentrate on atmospheric warming's impact on AMOC, <a href="https://research-portal.uu.nl/en/persons/oliver-mehling/">Mehring</a> and his team found that atmospheric warming could weaken AMOC by a staggering 60% by 2300. If the volume of Greenlandic snowmelt were to increase, the AMOC's strength could diminish by an additional 20%.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, their research indicates that if atmospheric CO2 levels were to decrease by 1% annually starting in 2250, AMOC could fully recover by around 2400. Although these models are not designed to predict the exact timeline or extent of AMOC changes, they imply that increased freshwater input from Greenland won't lead the AMOC over the tipping point.</p>
<p>A reduction of 80% in AMOC could still lead to crop failures in Western Europe, ice formation in the North Sea, and disruption of tropical monsoon patterns. Fortunately, the study indicates that such declines would be gradual, predictable, and reversible if humanity ceases fossil fuel combustion. As <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/profile/lsim/">Louise Sim</a> from the British Antarctic Survey commented, "While scenarios of AMOC crashing are conceivable, they are unlikely to occur. Instead, AMOC shows a strong linear relationship with cumulative CO2 emissions."</p>
<p>Despite these findings, the possibility of a tipping point cannot be completely dismissed. Previous research conducted by <a href="https://www.uu.nl/staff/RMvanWesten">René van Westen</a> and colleagues at Utrecht University, using a different model, suggested that significant melting from Greenland could lead to AMOC's irreversible collapse. However, this model applied meltwater at a constant rate rather than simulating the gradual increases observed in reality.</p>
<p>“Other climate models have predicted crossings of the tipping point under 21st-century climate change, illustrating that results can be model-dependent,” van Westen remarked.</p>
<p>In addition to Greenland’s melting, several other climate changes pose risks to the AMOC. For instance, freshwater from Antarctic snowmelt could disrupt global circulation dynamics, of which AMOC is a vital component. However, the impacts remain uncertain; depending on the timing of Antarctic melt, it could also help sustain the AMOC.</p>
<p>This new study does not eliminate the risk of an AMOC tipping point but contributes valuable insights to the ongoing climate discussion, highlighted <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Cn7wuysAAAAJ&hl=en">Jonathan Baker</a> from the UK’s Met Office.</p>
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Chris Barrie as Arnold Rimmer in Red Dwarf – fans can explore this character in a new novel released this month
Nobby Clark/Popper Photo via Getty Images
Exciting news for sci-fi lovers! This month, I’m heading on vacation and thrilled to pack a diverse selection of fascinating new sci-fi reads. I’m particularly eager to dive into Sheila Armstrong’s intriguing stories about mysterious ancient objects found in swamps. Additionally, I’m excited for a new release from one of my favorite authors, Paul Tremblay, despite its disturbing premise. Don’t miss our review of the first new Red Dwarf novel in 30 years! Fun awaits under the sun!
Looking for an ideal summer read? Check out Retirement Allowance, a thrilling narrative set in a near-future world where mental suffering can be outsourced through the biotech company Eudaimonia. While it seems blissful to offload negative emotions, the catch lies with the ‘carrier’—the unfortunate woman who bears the emotional burden. As Viv begins her job at Eudaimonia, she uncovers a darker secret.
I’m particularly excited about Paul Tremblay’s latest work. I fell in love with his writing after reading My Head is Full of Ghosts, reminiscent of Shirley Jackson. This time, he’s delving into AI horror, featuring Julia, a former pro gamer who is tasked with transporting a man in a vegetative state. But this man carries an embedded AI mind, trapped in a surreal, ever-changing hellscape. The title cleverly riffs on Philip K. Dick’s work.
Paul Tremblay presents his latest science fiction horror novel
The publisher describes this film as set at “the end of the world as we know it,” following two women who fall in love—one raised in a deep-sea research pod, and the other a bartender at a luxury resort (potentially a robot). Together, they strive to save the remnants of Earth.
Feeling that something is missing from her seemingly perfect life, Eris travels to the vibrant world of Happy. Nala, her chaperone, must ensure Eris finds joy during her journey, but when activists obstruct their path, they embark on a shared adventure.
One book I keep on my bedside table is about a dog discovering strange antlers in a restored bog, revealing that the peat was once the site of an extinct ancient Irish moose. This story uncovers recurring archaeological discoveries, including a prehistoric settlement and the remains of a woman from 2,000 years ago, showing the swamp’s eerie influence on lives.
Mysterious ancient antler discovered in ‘Red Mouth’
JMrocek/Getty Images
Azad is on the run, pursued by the Vitruvian Authority after unveiling the hidden truths of his home planet. To ignite a rebellion, he must collaborate with space pirates who have their own ulterior motives, compelling them to confront their past.
This first new Red Dwarf novel in 30 years is a prequel penned by co-creator Rob Grant alongside sitcom creator Andrew Marshall. Set aboard the mining ship Red Dwarf orbiting Saturn’s moon Titan, the crew—including Lister and Rimmer—plans their final landing, only to have their plans disrupted by an enigmatic message from the future.
This gripping blend of science fiction and horror revolves around Monica Cucinotta, a doctor fighting a lethal virus that causes spikes in victims’ bodies. Infected, she must leave the hospital and navigate a devastated world to reach her loved ones.
Although it’s spine-chilling, it also echoes The Handmaid’s Tale. Set in a Britain dominated by the Hope Party, where new laws lead to radical societal changes emphasizing rewilding and children’s rights. With fertility closely monitored and contraception banned, Kate is too frightened to protest until her daughter unexpectedly becomes pregnant, forcing her into action.
This cozy sci-fi narrative follows Torian as she acquires an antique, moss-covered spacecraft. When she attempts to escape her overbearing captain, Amelia, she discovers that the moss is actually Moss, the ship’s sentient organic computer.
Though it sounds whimsical, it’s captivating. The story centers on Hal, a game developer who’s spent years crafting “the most anticipated video game,” enabling players to immerse themselves in ultimate virtual reality. When a final off-the-record test involves his family, he finds himself incapable of leaving the game, prompting him to enter it to save them and restore their reality.
Air – Written by Christian Kracht, translated by Daniel Bowles
Kracht, a previous International Booker Prize nominee, offers a narrative likened to Ursula K. Le Guin and Jorge Luis Borges. It follows designer Paul in a Norwegian server farm until a blackout causes him to vanish. Meanwhile, in another time and setting, a man awakens in a forest, aided by a young girl towards an icy settlement. This captivating premise is sure to intrigue readers!
A Gothic sci-fi novella where the interplanetary transport craft Midonia is assigned to ferry Sister Irena to a planet revering a deity named Anguish. However, when a solar flare leaves them stranded, strange voices invade her mind during the night.
This story envelops both romance and science fiction as Lever, a junior supply officer, is called upon for peace negotiations due to his former relationship with an imperial baroness. It turns out his ex-lover, Astrid, is the Demon Emperor, yet their lingering emotions complicate matters.
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On June 21, global ocean temperatures outside the polar regions hit an unprecedented high, surpassing those recorded in 2023 and 2024, as reported by the Copernicus Climate Change Office and the Copernicus Oceanographic Office.
That day, temperatures soared to 20.86 degrees Celsius (69.54 degrees Fahrenheit), exceeding the 20.83 degrees Celsius (69.49 degrees Fahrenheit) documented in previous years, according to the Copernicus Climate Change Agency.
Additionally, the Copernicus Oceanographic Station noted a temperature spike to 21 degrees Celsius (69.8 degrees Fahrenheit), breaking the prior record from 2023 and 2024 by 0.1 degrees Celsius.
Richard Allan, a climate science professor at the University of Reading in the UK, stated during a phone interview, “This is consistent with our long-standing knowledge: the Earth’s warming is largely due to fossil fuel combustion, which releases significant greenhouse gases and impedes the planet’s ability to dissipate heat into space.”
Temperatures soared above 90 degrees in Chicago on Monday. Scott Olson/Getty Images
The oceans absorb over 90% of the Earth’s excess energy, primarily from fossil fuel combustion (oil, coal, gas), Allan notes. Rising ocean temperatures highlight urgent concerns regarding climate change and the intensified impact of El Niño.
This announcement coincides with a severe heat wave threatening parts of the United States as the Fourth of July weekend approaches. As of Wednesday, more than 46 million people were under heat warnings, according to the National Weather Service.
The National Weather Service cautioned that “dangerous heat” is intensifying across the eastern United States, with temperature highs expected to range from the mid-90s to over 100 degrees in certain areas.
Regions including the Ohio Valley, mid-Atlantic, and Northeast will experience record high temperatures through Thursday, with extreme heat expected to affect parts of Canada as well.
Visitors shield themselves from the sun at the Great American State Fair on the National Mall on Tuesday. Mark Schiefelbein/AP
Simultaneously, Europe has faced record-breaking heat, with more than 1,300 excess deaths reported since June 21 due to high temperatures, according to WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus. source
France’s health ministry reported approximately 1,000 additional deaths than expected over the past week amid its severe heat wave.
Tedros commented, “As a result of climate change and global warming, ‘once-in-a-generation’ heatwave events have become almost an annual occurrence.” He emphasized that Europe is “the warmest continent on earth, heating at double the global average,” and that the infrastructure in European homes, workplaces, and schools “is ill-equipped for these extreme temperatures.”
Are you dreaming of immortality? There’s a straightforward two-step strategy. First, amass billions in Silicon Valley. Second, invest those billions into unconventional longevity treatments and wait for the results.
This theory seems to circulate among some tech billionaires. Take Sam Altman, CEO of OpenAI, which is known for ChatGPT. He practices unique routines like staring at bright LED lights while texting in the morning, fasting for 15 hours daily, and taking metformin. This diabetes drug is thought to have potential anti-aging benefits but has rarely been tested on healthy individuals. (I asked ChatGPT, “Should I take metformin to live longer?” and it replied, “Simply put, it’s not a good idea.”)
Then there’s Peter Thiel, the billionaire co-founder of PayPal. He disclosed his involvement in “parabiosis-related research,” a controversial effort utilizing young blood to rejuvenate old animals—and possibly humans in the future. When questioned, Thiel jokingly remarked “I’m not a vampire.”
PayPal and Palantir co-founder Peter Thiel is also making plans to have funds frozen in case of legal death – Credit: Getty
Another player is Brian Johnson, who claims a net worth of around $200 million. Though not as wealthy as others, his extensive social media presence highlights everything from sauna “protocols” to unique gadgets for tracking health metrics. He espouses his “Blueprint” Protocol, which combines a strict diet, intense exercise, numerous supplements, and even gene therapy, claiming to have reversed his biological age and dubbed himself “the healthiest person on Earth.”
California’s wealthiest aren’t alone. LeBron James, a basketball billionaire, reportedly spends $1.5 million a year on health. His regimen includes sessions in a pressurized oxygen tank and cryotherapy at -160°C (-250°F).
Russian billionaire Dmitry Itskov promotes the 2045 Initiative, a project focused on uploading human consciousness to a computer.
Then there’s 97-year-old billionaire Li Ka-shing, who swears by nicotinamide riboside, an anti-aging supplement. He has invested $25 million into its production company.
What do these various longevity protocols and their ultra-wealthy advocates share? Evidence suggests that no extravagant treatment will extend life significantly beyond the average lifespan.
Fortunately, the proven methods for longer life—such as quitting smoking, improving diet, exercising more, managing stress, and accessing quality healthcare—are accessible and cost-effective.
The real breakthroughs in life extension are unlikely to stem from billionaires experimenting with their bodies; rather, they will emerge from robust scientific research. Unfortunately, many of the wealthy fail to invest in this crucial area.
Follow the Money
To lay out the facts: rich individuals generally do live longer—research demonstrates that the wealthiest 1% in the U.S. live 10-15 years longer than the poorest 1%. This isn’t due to high-tech treatments but rather the basic lifestyle choices mentioned earlier.
Even unlimited financial resources can’t dramatically extend life using existing medical intelligence.
There are numerous intriguing anti-aging investigations exploring treatments for worms, flies, and mice, but these have not advanced to clinical trials for humans yet.
So, while Sam Altman may or may not benefit from metformin, solid proof is still absent.
Additionally, the benefits of metformin remain unclear, while some treatments adopted by “biohackers” might be actively harmful. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a warning in 2019 regarding the dangers of blood transfusions—including potential infections and severe allergic reactions.
Brian Johnson undergoes frequent heart scans to monitor changes in his arteriosclerosis month by month. – Credit: Alamy
Extreme dietary restrictions can lead to complications later, including weakened bones and decreased immunity.
The notorious “supplement stack” comprising random pills, powders, and experimental nutrients, does not enhance lifespan and can lead to contaminants, liver damage, and harmful side effects.
Moreover, combining numerous treatments may produce unexpected interactions, exacerbating individual symptoms despite each ingredient being harmless on its own.
A classic case in healthcare is the interaction of Viagra and specific heart medications, which can result in dangerously low blood pressure, potentially leading to fatalities.
Human biology is notably complex, and it’s easier to disrupt than to repair, much like it’s simpler to impair a car’s engine performance than to enhance it by changing just one component.
Understanding what genuinely works involves not just funds but also rigorous human clinical testing.
The Cost of Immortality
If you’re anxious that billionaires are secretly procuring immortality while the rest of us focus on gym memberships and balanced diets, consider this: most ultra-wealthy individuals aren’t operating under the assumption that groundbreaking anti-aging treatments are just around the corner.
Despite a few notable billionaires partaking in eccentric health practices, their behaviors often indicate disbelief in imminent longevity breakthroughs. For example, thousands of wealthy individuals don’t have more widely circulated stories of unusual longevity interventions.
High-profile figures like Elon Musk have expressed skepticism about the benefits of extended life, even stating, “I have no investment in longevity.” He mentioned in 2024 that a lengthy life could lead to societal stagnation, reinforcing fears regarding extreme longevity.
Musk has noted that individuals typically do not change their perspectives as they age, implying that “no new ideas will succeed” unless people pass away. – Credit: Getty
Even if the ultra-rich (excluding Elon) were secretly accumulating longevity remedies, it’s unlikely they would bypass serious investment in longevity research if they genuinely believed in its potential.
Hiding sizable investments is nearly impossible, given the spotlight on funding rounds for biotech startups and the necessity of recruiting outstanding scientists from within academia.
So just how many billionaires are investing in longevity science? One noteworthy venture is the Altos Research Institute, a notable startup focusing on rejuvenating cells. With initial funding of $3 billion, estimates suggest that it is partly backed by Jeff Bezos. Altos gained attention when it enlisted Nobel Prize-winning scientist Shinya Yamanaka, known for pioneering work in reprogramming adult cells into a stem cell-like state.
Jeffrey Bezos’s investment in Altos Labs aims to rejuvenate cells and tackle aging’s root causes – Credit: Getty
While $3 billion is substantial, it’s only a fraction of Bezos’s net worth of approximately $270 billion in 2026. If he believed that longevity science would grant immortality, one would expect a higher percentage of his wealth to be redirected toward it.
True Aging Remedy
The irony is that billionaires aiming for longevity would likely achieve better results by funding expansive scientific trials instead of personally dabbling in unproven treatments.
Currently, research on aging lacks adequate funding, receiving merely about 20 times less governmental support than cancer research, even though aging is a primary cause of many cancers.
Despite high-profile investments in firms like Altos Labs, aging research constitutes a minor aspect of overall biotech funding.
This is especially surprising since surveys suggest that many billionaires would willingly give away a substantial part of their fortunes for an additional decade of health. One study estimates that the combined wealth of the world’s billionaires is about $20 trillion.
Research indicates metformin shows great promise for lifespan extension, but further study is essential to validate its efficacy – Credit: Getty
Half of that total amounts to $10 trillion, potentially exceeding the historical investment in health research. Ultimately, if just a fraction of the world’s billionaires invested in longevity science, both they and average citizens could see healthier, longer lives.
Returning to Sam Altman’s metformin habit, it’s a generic drug costing only a few cents per tablet, rather than an exorbitantly priced elixir. The reason it isn’t readily available isn’t financial but rather due to the lack of substantial trials—estimated at around $45-70 million—to determine its legitimacy as an anti-aging treatment.
This lack of trials partly results from the drug’s low cost; no one stands to profit significantly from inexpensive, mass-produced medications.
If governmental bodies or a select group of philanthropic billionaires could allocate funds, even a one-off investment of tens of millions could potentially extend the healthy life spans of billions globally—including the billionaires backing the research.
A single billion dollars could support 10 to 20 trials on drugs like metformin. Other promising candidates include rapamycin, diabetes medications like acarbose and canagliflozin, and “senolytic” drugs that eliminate aging cells. It seems highly probable that at least one of these will enhance health and longevity.
The U.S. intervention testing program, which has identified and tested many of these drugs in rodents, operates on an annual budget that is merely double what Brian Johnson spends each year on health.
So, if you’re a billionaire or even a centibillionaire reading this, consider stepping away from extravagance and opening your checkbook to fund the science capable of helping millions—including yourself—enjoy longer, healthier lives.
NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft has made a groundbreaking discovery: polymeric carbon detected in rocks from Jezero Crater’s Bright Angel Formation. This finding provides the most extensive evidence yet of complex organic molecules present on Mars. While this does not confirm extraterrestrial life, it bolsters the idea that the essential building blocks of life may have been prevalent on Mars billions of years ago.
Artist’s concept of NASA’s Mars rover Perseverance on the surface of Mars. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Utilizing the SHERLOC instrument on the spacecraft’s robotic arm, the Perseverance team has identified hundreds of organic detections across various rocks in the Bright Angel outcrop, a light-toned geological feature in the Neretva Gorge, an ancient river channel that once fed Jezero’s paleo-lake.
The detected substance is polymeric carbon (MMC), a vast network of carbon atoms that can be found in rocks and meteorites on Earth and may originate from either biological or abiotic sources.
Due to its resilience, MMC can endure the harsh conditions on Mars that would typically degrade simpler organic molecules.
“The Martian surface is subjected to harmful radiation and chemical oxidants that affect organic matter, and laboratory simulations suggest that the longevity of organic materials in Mars-like environments, especially near the surface, depends on factors such as organic molecule type and surrounding mineral composition,” explained Dr. Ashley Murphy, a postdoctoral fellow at the Planetary Science Institute.
“The MMC identified in the Bright Angel mudstone is either resistant to degradation or shielded by minerals like clay and iron-rich Martian soils, or perhaps both.”
Some rocks show MMC associated with secondary carbonate and sulfate minerals that form due to fluid alteration after rock deposition.
In other instances, the material is found within the silicate-rich primary matrix of the mudstone itself.
These various relationships imply that organic matter could have been incorporated through multiple methods at different times in the rock’s geological history.
“Although the specific formation process of the MMC discovered in the Bright Angel mudstone remains uncertain, this is among the most intriguing discoveries to date,” Dr. Murphy noted.
These findings also indicate the presence of organic-bearing mudstones located more than 3,500 km from where NASA’s Curiosity rover has detected similar materials at Gale Crater. This suggests that Mars’ potential for habitability and organic material availability may have been widespread billions of years ago.
“This is promising for the habitability of Mars,” Murphy stated.
“It indicates that billions of years ago, organic matter was not just locally present, but may have been more broadly available in the ancient lakes and rivers of Mars.”
The researchers have proposed several potential sources for the organic matter: it may have come from carbon-rich meteorites or interplanetary dust, formed through abiotic geochemical reactions involving water and rocks, or resulted from biological processes.
“Biological, geological, and meteorite origins of the observed organic matter are all plausible,” the researchers mentioned.
“A deeper understanding of the origins, distribution, and historical changes of organic carbon will require high-resolution analyses in ground-based laboratories, which could be achieved by returning these samples to Earth.”
These findings were published in the journal Scientific Progress.
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Ashley E. Murphy et al. 2026. Complex spatially distributed organic matter detected in an ancient river valley in Jezero Crater on Mars. Scientific Progress 12(26); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adx00
Panthera pardus burgtonnae, a newly discovered leopard subspecies, once inhabited Europe during the Eemian interglacial period. This ancient leopard had a much more robust structure compared to the modern leopard.
Panthera pardus burgtonnae had similar body length to the modern African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) but exhibited a stockier build. Image credit: Thomas Fuhrmann / CC BY-SA 4.0.
The species Panthera pardus burgtonnae thrived in what is now Germany during the Eemian Interglacial, a warm period lasting from approximately 130,000 to 115,000 years ago that preceded the last ice age.
The description of this subspecies is derived from fossil fragments, including parts of the lower jaw, upper cartilage teeth, and limb bones.
The original specimen was unearthed in 1993 by a private collector from the Burgtonna travertine deposits, a historically rich fossil site.
“The discovery of large mammal fossils from the Burgtonna Travertine in Thuringia, Germany, initiates our Quaternary paleontological research in Europe,” stated German paleontologists Helmut Hemmer of Mainz and Ralph Dietrich Kaalke of the Senckenberg Institute for Quaternary Paleontology.
“In 1696, Wilhelm Ernst Tenzel published one of the earliest scientific interpretations of Pleistocene elephant remains, establishing Pleistocene research as a key scientific focus.”
“Numerous fossils have been recovered from the Burgtonna limestone, with significant studies and comprehensive presentations devoted to these findings until felid species such as Panthera leo subspecies (see Spelea) and Felis sylvestris came into focus.”
“The explosion in travertine quarrying in Burgtonna during the early 1990s led to the discovery of new large fossil outcrops, allowing private collector Andreas Lindner to recover approximately 2,500 vertebrate fossils over the years.”
In 1993, Lindner discovered fossils of the new leopard subspecies in the southernmost area of the Bergtonna South Pits.
Paleontologists identified the Bergtonna specimen as a slender-jawed, well-built female leopard with minimal tooth wear, indicating it was relatively young.
This leopard weighed approximately 35-40 kg, with a head height around 107-112 cm.
The authors propose that this leopard is part of a fossil group previously identified in Mosbach and Taubach, Germany, showcasing unique dental features that differentiate it from the more widely recognized leopards of the Last Ice Age in Europe.
The research team has reclassified these later leopards under the name Panthera pardus antiqua.
The findings reveal that Panthera pardus burgtonnae was first documented in central Europe during the late Middle Pleistocene cooling period, becoming widespread from central Europe to the Apennine Peninsula during the early Late Pleistocene, prior to the last Ice Age (MIS 2).
“The Weichselian glaciers, particularly in central and southern Europe, resulted in a landscape dominated by ice, marking the era of Panthera pardus antiqua,” researchers elaborated.
European leopards from both the Late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene were considerably large, boasting a high body mass index and robust physiques akin to jaguars, contrasting sharply with today’s representatives from Africa and Asia.
The comprehensive research findings have been published in the journal Paleobiodiversity and Paleoenvironment.
_____
H. Hemmer & R.-D. Kaalke. Panthera pardus burgtonnae Subspecies November (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae) From Eemian of Burgtonna (Thuringia, Germany) – A new perspective on the late Pleistocene European leopard. Paleobio Paleoembu, published online June 13, 2026. doi: 10.1007/s12549-026-00702-8
If NASA successfully executes its bold vision, the entire fleet of lunar landers and rovers will soon be on the moon’s surface within just a few years.
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NASA announced on Tuesday that it has entered yet another contract with a private space company for upcoming moon missions. This time, the lunar lander will transport scientific equipment to the moon’s surface by late 2028.
This announcement marks another step in NASA’s aggressive lunar flight program as it prepares to establish a permanent base on the moon. The various missions set to launch over the next two years aim to test technologies and explore key locations that will shape NASA’s moon construction initiative. Recently, NASA announced nearly $1 billion in funding for its initial unmanned missions aimed at building a moon base.
Recent updates indicate a clear commitment from NASA to establish a sustained presence on the moon, adhering to a tight timeline and heavily leveraging commercial partnerships.
Artist’s rendering of proposed lunar base development near the moon’s south pole. NASA
“Our recent grants to commercial partners total nearly $600 million for additional lunar missions carrying scientific payloads, accelerating our efforts to build a sustainable presence on the moon, and enhancing our capabilities for future missions,” stated Rory Glaze, Associate Administrator for NASA’s Human Spaceflight Mission Directorate in a statement.
Isaacman mentioned on Tuesday that a test version of NASA’s Mars rover could potentially be repurposed for the moon’s surface.
“If you’re familiar with our Mars rovers Curiosity and Perseverance, there is another model,” he said, noting that the test unit is named Promise. “We are seriously considering sending Promise to the moon.”
The three companies newly contracted for lunar modules include Pennsylvania-based Astrobotic, already collaborating with NASA to develop a lander capable of transporting over 1,000 pounds of cargo and a lunar rover to the moon’s surface later this year, along with Texas-based Firefly Aerospace and Intuitive Machines.
NASA reported that the winning bids were $144.2 million for Firefly and $148.3 million for Intuitive Machines.
Astrobotic has received a fresh contract valued at $297.9 million to construct two additional landers for the 2028 mission, meaning NASA has invested over $600 million in lunar hardware research over the last six years.
Firefly has also been awarded $75 million from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory to create four drones to scout locations of interest at the moon’s south pole.
No company is creating a lander from scratch. Instead, NASA indicates that modifications are being made to a spacecraft already flown into space.
Conceptual illustration of astronauts, habitats, rovers, and power systems supporting sustained operations at a lunar base. NASA
Regarding the Promise rover at California’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Isaacman indicated that discussions are underway to dispatch a probe aimed at exploring the resources available at the moon’s south pole.
“We’ve made several modifications and equipped it with different instruments, making it a very capable vehicle for the lunar south pole,” Isaacman explained. “This will enable us to rapidly develop new projects.”
Isaacman also updated reports on Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin’s expected involvement. NASA had selected Blue Origin and Astrobotic for an unmanned mission to the moon this year; however, an explosion occurred during a recent engine test, damaging the launch pad and raising concerns about meeting NASA’s schedule.
As a result of Blue Origin’s setback, the Moon mission may be postponed until next year.
Astrobotic’s lander is expected to launch as early as this year, according to Carlos García-Galan, NASA’s lunar base program manager.
Isaacman noted that NASA plans to provide monthly updates on lunar missions and will soon solicit proposals for scientific and technological payloads for upcoming lunar expeditions. Potential experiments might focus on the Moon’s energy infrastructure and improve communication systems between the Earth and the Moon.
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Black holes are colossal entities in the universe, even the smallest among them boasting a mass many times that of our Sun. However, one particular black hole is capturing considerable attention: the Supermassive Large Astrophysical Black hole (SLAB). These enigmatic objects can rival entire galaxies in size, or even exceed them.
The concept of SLAB originated from astronomers striving to unlock the mysteries of dark matter, a substance that constitutes approximately 85 percent of the universe’s mass. Researchers are testing various methods to find SLAB, including attempts to detect the light they emit, or observe their effects on spacetime. Recently, astronomer Brian Lackey proposed a new approach through the Breakthrough Listen project at the University of Oxford: seeking the shadow SLAB casts on the cosmic microwave background (CMB)—the residual light from the Big Bang.
We engaged in an enlightening conversation with Brian Lackey to discuss his pioneering ideas around these immense black holes, their potential discovery, and the implications for cosmology. Interestingly, Lackey’s journey into this field began through his main work focused on the search for extraterrestrial intelligent life.
<p><strong>Matt von Hippel: Your primary focus is not on black holes, but on the search for aliens through the Breakthrough Listen initiative. Let's start from there.</strong></p>
<p>
Brian Lackey: Breakthrough Listen represents the most extensive effort to conduct SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), exploring technosignatures or signs of alien technology. Our primary approach involves analyzing radio waves; for instance, we search for unique radio transmissions within narrow frequency ranges, which we believe are challenging to create naturally. If detected and not attributed to human interference, these signals could indicate extraterrestrial technological activity.
</p>
<p>
Aside from radio waves, we also look for ultra-short laser pulses. Few cosmic phenomena produce flash events lasting mere nanoseconds. Our collaborations with global observatories enable us to survey various technosignatures. We are among the leading groups involved in this search.
</p>
<p><strong>How does the quest for extraterrestrial intelligence intertwine with the fascinating concept of SLAB?</strong></p>
<p>
As a theorist, I ponder what exists beyond our understanding, shaping our search for life. It is theorized that extraterrestrial intelligence may not only reside on Earth; they could construct vast structures greater than our solar system. One such concept, known as a Dyson swarm, comprises an array of light-absorbing elements encircling a star to harness its energy for their needs, whether for living spaces or computational power.
</p>
<p>
A decade ago, speculation escalated regarding how advanced societies might operate at a galactic level. I proposed that instead of surrounding stars, these civilizations could deploy engineered dust particles in the interstellar medium, each containing a miniature computer. These dust particles would still capture starlight but remain cooler due to their distance, potentially around 3 or 4 Kelvin. The efficiency of colder environments increases computational performance.
</p>
<p>
I further contended that, hypothetically, if one were to utilize a massive black hole—one exceeding 1000 trillion solar masses—they could effectively cool a vast array of small computers clustered nearby. This notion is speculative, yet it suggests that should such a colossal black hole exist, it might be detectable.
</p>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Brian Lackey investigates methods to unveil traces of advanced alien civilizations.</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Jeff Kravitz/FilmMagic/Getty</p>
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<p><strong>It's astounding to consider alien societies employing immense black holes as energy sinks, akin to cooling systems in vehicles.</strong></p>
<p>
Yes, that is indeed one possible application. Another hypothesis suggests that heat could flow into a black hole from surrounding cosmic microwave background radiation, functioning as a cosmic heat engine. This energy could harness heat flows to generate electricity on a galactic scale.
</p>
<p><strong>But doesn't the existence of SLAB conflict with our established understanding of the cosmos?</strong></p>
<p>
Currently, we recognize two main types of black holes: stellar black holes, generally up to about 100 solar masses, and supermassive black holes found at galaxy centers, said to range from 1 million to tens of billions of solar masses.
</p>
<p>
The prevailing belief is that supermassive black holes are indeed the universe's largest. As matter approaches a black hole, it generates significant radiation, potentially producing jets or winds that could counteract further growth. Consequently, it was assumed that a black hole exceeding 100 billion solar masses couldn't exist. However, this remains an open question.
</p>
<p><strong>You weren't the first to theorize about SLAB. Who initially considered their existence, and how could they grow so large?</strong></p>
<p>
The idea was systematically developed by Bernard Carr, an astronomer from Queen Mary University of London, and his collaborators in 2020. They speculated that SLABs may have formed shortly after the Big Bang, occurring from fluctuations in the universe's density that could collapse into black holes. These hypothesized primordial black holes could manifest if such fluctuations spanned extensive cosmic regions.
</p>
<p>
Carr pondered whether a population of black holes exceeding a trillion solar masses could ever be detected, suggesting it was feasible under the laws of physics—an avenue previously unexplored.
</p>
<p><strong>Primordial black holes also intrigue physicists as potential candidates for dark matter.</strong></p>
<p>
The search for various dark matter types, such as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), continues, as they have yet to be found in particle experiments. As researchers consider other alternatives, primordial black holes emerge as a compelling option.
</p>
<p><strong>Could SLAB itself constitute a significant portion of dark matter?</strong></p>
<p>
Not within our galaxy, as they are intergalactic. However, diffuse dark matter may exist in the cosmos, potentially playing a role in the broader cosmic web that links galaxies, even if they don't influence individual galaxy rotations.
</p>
<p><strong>Is there any hope of discovering SLAB?</strong></p>
<p>
Carr and his team have proposed methodologies to search for them. One potential indication of their presence might be their gravitational influence on nearby galaxies, drawing them together. If such black holes exist within intergalactic space, matter falling into them would heat up and emit radiation. So far, however, no signatures confirming this hypothesis have been found.
</p>
<p>
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alt="The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) collaboration's polarized view of the M87 black hole."
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">M87*: The black hole at the core of a neighboring galaxy, captured by the Event Horizon Telescope collaboration in 2019.</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">EHT collaboration</p>
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</p>
<p><strong>Your recent research seeks different forms of evidence for SLAB within the cosmic microwave background. How do you pursue this?</strong></p>
<p>
I aim to identify the shadow SLAB may cast. Images of Sagittarius A* and M87* reveal black holes appearing as "holes" surrounded by glowing halos. In principle, if a black hole were to possess the mass of a thousand suns, it could manifest as a sunspot against the cosmic microwave background.
</p>
<p><strong>So, did you uncover anything significant?</strong></p>
<p>
We utilized existing CMB surveys with highly sensitive telescopes to search for subtle temperature variations. Although no such phenomena have been observed, it does not rule out the existence of SLAB, suggesting they are extremely rare or possibly nonexistent in our observable universe.
</p>
<p><strong>What implications would arise from discovering evidence of SLAB?</strong></p>
<p>
Finding them would yield insights into events shortly after the Big Bang, possibly revealing unknown physical processes responsible for the formation of these gigantic black holes. This could herald exciting new physics previously unconsidered in our explorations.
</p>
<p><strong>Considering SETI and SLAB, what intrigues you most in current astronomical research?</strong></p>
<p>
The oldest galaxies observable today date back approximately 13.5 billion years. However, there remains a gap leading to the cosmic microwave background, the earliest detectable radiation emitted shortly after the Big Bang, around 300 million years before the formation of the oldest galaxies. This period, known as the "Dark Age of the Universe," is crucial, yet largely unexplored. While we use tools like the James Webb Space Telescope to observe ancient galaxies, this crucial era remains elusive to us.
</p>
<p>
It’s thrilling to ponder what treasures might lie within this unexplored era of cosmic history. SLAB is one possibility, but many other remnants of the Big Bang could await discovery.
</p>
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Christopher Clemente/University of the Sunshine Coast
The newly identified Jungle Huntsman Spider from Queensland, Australia, has earned the title of the world’s fastest spider, achieving an astonishing speed of nearly 3.6 meters per second, as revealed by a comprehensive global study examining the running capabilities of various arachnids.
Currently, the official world record is held by Flick Flak spiders in Morocco (Cebrenus rechenbergi), which can reach speeds of 1.7 meters per second when startled, utilizing a unique rolling and tumbling technique. However, many experts challenge this claim.
Dr. Jonas Wolff from the University of Greifswald, Germany, notes, “Flick Flak is a specialized locomotion method; it’s not genuine running and is only effective on downhill surfaces.”
To establish a detailed understanding of spider locomotion, Shreyas Kuchibhotla from Imperial College London, along with a team that includes Wolff, analyzed 162 live spider species, gathering numerous samples from pet shops and conducting fieldwork across the UK, North America, southern Europe, and Australia.
Each spider’s speed was meticulously evaluated on A4 or A3 graph paper after being carefully weighed. Most spiders were relaxed enough to run when gently prodded with a paintbrush, although a few were less amenable. Kuchibhotla humorously remarked, “If spiders spoke English, this research would have been finished in a month.” He added, “Tarantulas aren’t built for speed; they prefer grounding, requiring us to use compressed air to get them moving.”
Kuchibhotla and his team also compiled speed measurements from 96 additional species studied by other research groups. Notably, the 3g Jungle Huntsman Spider (Heteropoda possumidae) was recorded running at 3.59 meters per second by Christopher Clemente and his team at the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia.
Jungle Huntsman: The World’s Fastest Spider
Christopher Clemente, University of the Sunshine Coast
The remarkable speed of these spiders is attributed to their size; they are relatively large for spiders but not so heavy that their abdomens hinder their leg movement, stated Clemente. Generally, larger spiders exhibit faster speeds, but there are exceptions. One fascinating finding was the orange goblin spider (Unops pulcher), which weighs only 0.1 milligrams yet moves at over 20 centimeters per second. “I was unprepared for the way it seemed to teleport across the arena,” Kuchibhotla remarked.
According to David Labonte and the team at Imperial College, speed is fundamentally governed by physics. However, lifestyle factors, like hunting strategies, significantly influence evolutionary adaptations. “For instance, a cheetah can easily outrun most similar-sized dogs due to its evolutionary adaptations focused on speed,” Labonte illustrated.
After analyzing body size and ancestry, researchers found that not only long legs but also specific anatomical structures contributed to a spider’s running capability. Surprisingly, leg thickness or whether the spider lived inverted didn’t correlate with speed.
Dr. Leanda Mason from Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia, clarified, “Long legs serve as the spider’s ‘speed gears.’ While hunters garner records, the true insight is that spider speed relies heavily on leg structure and evolutionary history, rather than mere size or web-spinning capabilities.”
Stars in the Constellation Lupus Captured by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory
Credit: NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory/NOIRLab/SLAC/AURA
Chile’s Vera C. Rubin Observatory has officially commenced a groundbreaking exploration of the universe. After a year of extensive testing and calibration, the space-time legacy survey is beginning—marking the start of the most detailed photographic record of the universe ever.
“Today, we embark on the greatest space movie ever made,” stated Brian Stone of the National Science Foundation in a press release.
Over the next decade, the Rubin Observatory will collect approximately 10 terabytes of data each night, capturing hundreds of high-resolution images of the southern sky. Each image will cover an area about 40 times larger than the full moon, enabling the survey to encompass nearly the entire sky visible from the southern hemisphere.
This vast array of data serves multiple purposes. The first initiative is already underway, notifying researchers of dynamic changes in the night sky, including the emergence of supernovae or the movement of asteroids and comets.
“In just a few months, we recorded millions of alerts, with Rubin operating as a robust detection machine,” noted Phil Marshall, a member of the Rubin team at Stanford University in California. “We’re currently organizing all the findings.”
These alerts have already led to the identification of over 11,000 new asteroids and are poised to create the most comprehensive catalog of Solar System objects ever compiled.
In addition to its solar system research, Rubin will provide insights into more distant celestial objects, create intricate maps of the Milky Way galaxy, and delve deeper into the cosmos.
The first image displayed above reveals a stunning ocean of stars, interstellar gas, and even distant galaxies. These highly detailed images, captured repeatedly over a decade, will allow researchers to investigate rare cosmic events, as well as gain insight into dark matter, dark energy, and the overall expansion of the universe.
Recent research from the University of Bristol indicates that pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to master powered flight, likely exhibited a broader variety of wing shapes and flight styles than what current fossil reconstructions suggest.
Walters et al. examined the diversity of pterosaur wing shapes through rigorous testing of theoretical and reconstructed wings. Their findings indicate previous reconstructions misrepresent the actual flight capabilities of these ancient reptiles. Image credit: Mark P. Witton.
Pterosaurs thrived from approximately 210 million to 65 million years ago, until an asteroid impact led to their extinction, along with that of non-avian dinosaurs.
These remarkable reptiles are noteworthy for independently evolving flight and setting new records for maximum size among flying vertebrates throughout their evolutionary journey.
However, the precise shapes of pterosaur wings remain largely elusive.
According to lead author Dr. Benton Walters and his team, “Wing shape is crucially connected to flight performance and functionality in living animals.”
“Examining this relationship in pterosaurs is complex due to the incomplete fossil record and the variability in wing membrane dimensions.”
“In the absence of fully preserved pterosaur wing fossils, reconstructing the pterosaur bauplan provides a viable alternative for analysis.”
“Nevertheless, the shape of these wings is influenced by conflicting scientific interpretations and the artistic styles of researchers and illustrators involved in their reconstruction.”
In their recent study, the authors analyzed 79 wing reconstructions spanning eight genera including Pteranodon and Quetzalcoatlus.
Utilizing a method known as theoretical morphospace, they created a comprehensive map of potential wing shapes.
This allowed them to evaluate the aerodynamic capabilities of these reconfigured wings to ascertain their suitability for flight.
Results revealed that current illustrations tend to oversimplify wing shapes and aerodynamic performance, irrespective of the depicted animals’ size, age, or ecological niche.
A small insect peddler and a large sea soarer—organisms that would have differed significantly in wing structure—appear nearly identical in existing representations.
The main challenge, according to the researchers, lies in the ongoing lack of consensus regarding the attachment points of pterosaur wing membranes.
“In modern flying animals like birds and bats, distinct lifestyles correlate with unique wing designs and aerodynamic abilities,” Dr. Walters noted.
“The current limitations in pterosaur reconstructions highlight a significant gap in the understanding of their diversity.”
“Pterosaur wing reconstructions typically rely on measurements of skeletal structures and insights from a limited number of notable fossils, leaving many uncertainties unresolved.”
Considering these creatures existed for more than 100 million years and encompassed both small and large forms, a greater diversity of wing shapes is expected.
However, regardless of the specific pterosaur depicted, the wing shapes presented in illustrations are strikingly similar.
This study serves as a valuable reference point, indicating where scientific knowledge on pterosaur wings remains insufficient and will inform future reconstructions as our understanding evolves.
A detailed research paper outlining this study was published on June 23 in the journal Paleontology.
_____
Benton Walters et al. Exploring the limits of pterosaur wing design. Paleontology. Published online June 23, 2026. doi: 10.1017/pab.2026.10103
Alyssa Tapley: A Journey Through Life-Saving CRISPR Treatment
Photo Credit: Alyssa Tapley
When my bone marrow transplant failed to treat my leukemia, I thought, “This is it.” Doctors reassured my parents that it was only a short-term issue, but weeks turned into a long and challenging journey.
Having just turned 13, I was overwhelmed by thoughts of missing out on growing up, having a family, and living a normal life.
Then, we heard about a groundbreaking trial at Great Ormond Street Hospital in London that felt straight out of science fiction. The doctors described how they would enhance my CAR T cells to fight and eliminate the cancer cells in my body.
Everything began after Easter in 2021. Upon returning to school after the COVID-19 lockdown, I struggled with fatigue. My energy levels plummeted, and I eventually developed pneumonia, leading to my hospitalization.
During a particularly concerning morning, my father took me to the A&E hospital. My condition worsened, and I found myself in intensive care, unaware that I was beginning chemotherapy for my leukemia—characterized by malignant immune cells.
Doctors faced challenges diagnosing my ailment, likely due to my rare T-cell leukemia. Following an ineffective month of chemotherapy, I underwent a bone marrow transplant in Sheffield, which aimed to replace cancerous stem cells with healthy ones.
Expecting to be home for Christmas, I instead faced unanticipated complications and returned to the hospital. It was a devastating realization that the transplant hadn’t worked.
With no further options available, my family was devastated. My mother described the immeasurable pain of losing hope.
In their search for alternatives, they learned about CAR T-cell therapy, which transforms T cells to effectively target cancer cells. However, they soon discovered its limited effectiveness in treating T-cell leukemia.
Then, my consultant introduced us to Professor Waseem Qasim, who was pioneering the use of CRISPR base editing to enhance CAR T cells for patients like me. This innovative treatment offered renewed hope.
Despite my parents’ reservations about the trial, they ultimately supported my decision, recognizing my desire to contribute positively, even if it didn’t benefit me directly.
Before the CAR T cell collection, I underwent rigorous pre-treatment for two weeks in the hospital. It was exciting to see the treatment take effect, and I felt a wave of relief when the doctors confirmed the cells were multiplying.
The staff at Great Ormond Street were exceptional. Even in isolation, I forged connections with other patients and staff, finding support in our shared struggles. Unfortunately, I lost a friend who didn’t survive the bone marrow transplant.
Four weeks later, I received the incredible news that my bone marrow was cancer-free. Follow-up tests continually confirmed the absence of detectable cancer cells, leading to a second transplant to reinforce my healing.
The hardest transition came after returning home. No longer surrounded by a supportive medical team, I faced strict isolation to prevent infection while trying to adjust to life outside the hospital.
Today, I am in remission but continue to manage the side effects of my treatment. While my thyroid is underactive due to chemotherapy, I am committed to ongoing treatment. I dream of a future where CAR T therapy could provide immediate relief without extensive chemotherapy.
Now 17 and pursuing my A-levels, I am excited about my future in biomedical science. My goal is to help others as much as I have been helped.
I actively participate in conferences to share my journey, and I had the honor to meet Professor David Liu, the innovator behind base editing. It was an emotional experience for me.
I cherish the opportunity to advocate for the importance of scientific research. Without the advancements borne from this work, I wouldn’t be here today.
Our Innate Ability to Understand Numbers: An Evolutionary Advantage
Marc Calleja / Alamy
Research indicates that newborns have an inherent sense of numbers, with brain mechanisms now identified for the first time. Studies show that infants, just hours after birth, can differentiate between groups of 4 and 12 stimuli, demonstrating the early establishment of this basic number sense.
According to Brian Butterworth from University College London, who was not involved in the study, “Extracting numerical information is akin to seeing the world in color for most people.” This innate numerical ability is considered a crucial part of our fundamental skill set, allowing us to perceive quantities instinctively, similar to recognizing the color of an object.
Marco Buiatti and researchers from the University of Trento focused on understanding the brain mechanisms that underpin this intrinsic numerical sense, which develops independent of language or cultural influences. They monitored 21 newborns, aged 0 to 3 days, using EEG caps to gauge brain activity.
Studying the cognitive capabilities of infants is challenging, Buiatti mentions. “They only open their eyes intermittently, making it complex and time-consuming. However, the results are incredibly rewarding.”
Throughout their awake periods, the babies listened to a 90-second sequence of repeated sounds presented in either 4 or 12 syllables, while visual stimuli containing corresponding dot groups were displayed for up to 50 seconds.
The research revealed that infants showed decreased electrical activity in their parietotemporal cortex when the number of visual dots corresponded with the spoken syllables. Conversely, neural activity increased with mismatched stimuli.
This pattern aligns with adult brain behavior; our brain lessens its response to repeated stimuli through a process called repetition inhibition, optimizing efficiency by not treating familiar input as new.
When presented with different numbers of dots, the increase in neural activity suggests that the brain is engaged in processing new information about quantities. “For the first time, we expose the neural mechanisms behind this innate number sense,” Buiatti states.
This intrinsic capability offers significant evolutionary benefits, such as swiftly distinguishing between singular versus multiple predators or food sources, which would have been vital for survival.
Notably, children demonstrate a solid number sense by age one, which can help predict their future mathematical skills, as seen in research (Predict their math skills years from now). Understanding these neural bases can aid researchers in identifying children at risk for dyscalculia, a learning disability affecting numerical comprehension.
“Investigating the neural foundations of number sense at birth is crucial, as it lays the groundwork for later advanced mathematical abilities. Future research could lead to the development of early biomarkers for dyscalculia risk,” Buiatti concludes.
Fossils uncovered in New Mexico’s Jose Creek Formation provide groundbreaking evidence that angiosperms (flowering plants) established dense, fruit-bearing forests around 75 million years ago—9 million years prior to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction that eradicated the dinosaurs. This discovery challenges longstanding evolutionary theories regarding the rise of angiosperms as the dominant plant group on Earth.
Reconstruction of a 74.6 million-year-old Dori tuff flora forest floor showcasing hypothetical angiosperm-dispersal interactions, with plants depicted in life-size forms based on fossil evidence. The mammalian and dinosaur seed dispersers illustrated are based on the known fauna of the Late Cretaceous Campanian period. Image credit: Brian Engh livingrelicproductions.com.
“Our findings reveal that 10 million years before the extinction threshold, angiosperms were amplifying their investment in individual diasporids, forming dense forests in hot, humid environments during the Late Cretaceous,” stated Jaemin Lee, a doctoral student at the University of California, Berkeley.
Flowering plants are believed to have originated during the Early Cretaceous Period, approximately 135 million years ago, initially appearing as small, inconspicuous plants producing tiny seeds that were easily dispersed by the wind.
By the Late Cretaceous, angiosperms had diversified significantly in size, leaves, and flowers, although it was thought that their seed dispersal methods remained unchanged amidst the dominance of dinosaurs.
Contrary to this belief, fossil evidence from Late Cretaceous Doli tuff deposits in the Jose Creek Formation in New Mexico showcases a diverse array of flowering plants, including large-trunked trees from the laurel family and palms, alongside older fern and sequoia lineages.
In stark contrast to other Cretaceous floral patterns, where angiosperms averaged diasporid sizes similar to poppy seeds, the average diasporid size in this fossil forest was comparable to a large blueberry, suggesting an extraordinary increase in volume by more than 100-fold.
“Although it may not seem significant, the larger fruits we consume today are the result of centuries of selective breeding,” remarked Lee.
“For instance, wild watermelons were only 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter.”
“The New Mexico site is unique as it preserves an ancient environment, buried by ash that fell on an inland forest,” added Cindy Louie, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley.
“Unlike most fossil plant sites, which often consist of a mix of materials from various epochs and habitats, this site provides a pure snapshot of a specific moment in time, preserved through rapid ash fall.”
“Ground cover plants remain visible beneath the hardened ash layer, and higher up, leaves that fell during the ash deposit are pointing in all directions.”
“This phenomenon can be likened to a kind of ‘Pompeii for plants,’ where ash deposits meticulously preserve everything in place, allowing researchers to reconstruct forest structures accurately,” explained Lee.
“These deposits carry remnants from the tree canopy to the forest floor, preserving a variety of leaves and flowers.”
“This forest represents the earliest known angiosperm-dominated ecosystem with significantly larger spores and showcases one of the most diverse Cretaceous leaf floras documented to date.”
“The minimized movement within the forest canopy allows for instantaneous preservation, facilitating detailed recreations of these ancient landscapes.”
“This research sheds new light on the complexity of ecological interactions in ancient plant populations that no longer exist.”
For further details, refer to the findings published in the June 25 edition of Science.
_____
Lee Jae Min et al. 2026. The diversification of reproductive strategies in angiosperms preceded their extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Science 392 (6805): 1380-1383; doi: 10.1126/science.adw9457
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Australian scientists have uncovered that what was previously considered a single widespread species of Planigal is actually four distinct species, including a newly identified species that thrives exclusively on the rocky slopes of Kakadu National Park.
Revised distribution of the four Planigale species complex previously classified as Planigale ingrami. Image credit: Umbrello et al., doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlag082.
Planigals, small marsupials primarily feeding on insects, are known for their flat skulls which allow them to fit into narrow crevices in their habitats.
These unique creatures inhabit various terrestrial environments across Australia and New Guinea, with nine species now recognized.
Among them, Planigale ingrami holds the title of the world’s smallest marsupial, weighing an average of just 4.2 g (as little as 2.6 g) and measuring 5.7 cm from head to body.
A recent study by researchers from the Western Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology, led by Dr. Lynette Umbrello, utilized genetic analysis and museum specimens to reveal the complex Planigale ingrami species classification, introducing Planigale tea ray and unveiling two unclassified lineages.
The team analyzed DNA samples from over 220 individuals combined with detailed measurements of skull and body proportions, derived from collections in natural history museums across Australia.
“This study leveraged historical samples to identify species that might never be documented in contemporary settings,” Dr. Umbrello noted.
“We undertook thorough genetic sampling and morphological analysis of Planigal specimens from museum collections throughout Australia.
“Our data integration approach, termed integrative taxonomy, enabled us to identify species previously grouped under a single classification.”
The researchers delineated three distinct lineages among the studied samples, including Planigale ingrami.
“We re-listed Planigale subtilissima, previously thought to belong to: Planigale ingrami, as a separate species,” Dr. Umbrello remarked.
“Furthermore, the subspecies Planigale ingrami brunea was reassigned to its original classification.”
“We also discovered a completely new species: Planigale petrophila.
Planigale petrophila (commonly known as the Arnhem Plateau Planigal) is distinguished from its relatives by several characteristics.
While most Planigal species prefer lowland clay soils, this species is adapted to rocky cliff environments.
Significantly larger than its closest relatives, it boasts the longest tail recorded for any Planigal, surpassing its body length.
“Planigale petrophila is a medium-sized Planigal with a notably flat skull and an exceptionally long tail,” the scientists explained.
“It uniquely features the longest tail of any genus member (8.05-9.19cm), outstripping even the larger Planigale novaeguineae specimens (from New Guinea) that reach 8 cm.”
Currently, only three specimens of Planigale petrophila are known, all collected within a close range of 12 km in Kakadu National Park, with the latest one documented in 2004 — none have been observed since.
The researchers highlighted the concerning decline of native mammal populations in Kakadu, urging an immediate conservation assessment.
“Planigale petrophila is undoubtedly rare among Australian Planigals, with just three specimens identified and its known habitat limited to a small area of the sandstone plateau and rocky slopes in Kakadu National Park,” Dr. Umbrello stated.
The only other Planigal recorded in Kakadu National Park is Planigale maculata, which occupies lowlands and basins rather than sandstone plateaus.
“Planigale petrophila is distinctive for its notably longer tail compared to other Planigal species, and exhibits larger body-to-skull ratios than its genetically closest relatives.”
“Our findings suggest Planigale petrophila may be threatened,” added Dr. Andrew Baker from Queensland University of Technology and Queensland Museum.
“Given the limited geographical area where Planigale petrophila has been identified, along with the alarming declines observed in other mammal species in Northern Australia, we strongly recommend an urgent conservation assessment.”
“This species is known from only three specimens collected within 12 km and has not been encountered since 2004.”
“Accurate classification and taxonomy are vital for conservation efforts to ensure appropriate management strategies are implemented.”
“This information plays a crucial role in establishing the conservation status of this new mammal, especially considering the broader decline in Kakadu and other native species in Australia.”
The team’s results will be published in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.
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Lynette S. Umbrello et al. 2026. Disentangling the Onagaplanigale (Dassuriidae: Planigale ingrami) Species Complex: Four Species Revealed Using Integrated Taxonomy. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 207 (2): zlag082; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlag082
NASA is gearing up for an exciting mission set to launch this Tuesday aimed at rescuing one of its flagship space telescopes.
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The Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, launched over two decades ago, has been essential in studying gamma-ray bursts—some of the universe’s most powerful explosions. These phenomena occur during events such as black hole formations or when dense stars collide at the end of their life cycles.
Currently, Swift is facing serious threats, as NASA’s models indicate a potential orbital drop to dangerously low altitudes by October, below 185 miles, risking re-entry and disintegration.
Dr. Sean Domagal Goldman, head of NASA’s astrophysics division, emphasized the importance of Swift at a June 17 press conference. “This observatory excels at quickly identifying transient events in the night sky, making it unique. Thus, we’ve concluded that it deserves to be saved.”
In a bid to rescue the observatory, NASA is slated to launch a robotic spacecraft designed to elevate Swift’s orbit. Last year, the agency allocated $30 million to Arizona-based Catalyst Space Technologies for spacecraft development, while Northrop Grumman will supply the aircraft and rockets for launch.
The operation aims to have Northrop Grumman’s Stargazer aircraft lift off from the Marshall Islands around 6:23 a.m. Tuesday. Once at 40,000 feet, the Stargazer will release the Pegasus XL rocket carrying the LINK spacecraft, which stands 6 feet tall and weighs 880 pounds.
Following its launch, the LINK spacecraft will enter orbit, where it will capture the Swift Observatory and work to increase its altitude over several months.
All satellites in low Earth orbit gradually descend due to atmospheric drag. Swift is currently affected by this, compounded by an intense solar cycle experienced in 2024, known as solar maximum, which increases drag as the atmosphere heats up during heightened solar activity.
Digital illustration of NASA’s Swift Observatory.Conceptual Imagery Lab at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center
John Nosek, an astronomy and astrophysics professor at Penn State University, noted that salvaging Swift could offer broader benefits beyond just extending observation capabilities.
“The capability of recovering satellites that weren’t intended for in-orbit servicing could revolutionize NASA’s approach to spacecraft management,” Nousek stated. “If the LINK mission succeeds, it will only cost about $30 million (in 2026 dollars) to restore the functionality of a $300 million (2004 dollars) satellite.”
Kieran Wilson, vice president of technology at Catalyst Space Technologies, expressed optimism that the Swift Boost mission will reshape astronomers’ perspectives on satellite longevity.
“Traditionally, satellites are launched, complete their missions, and then are either discarded, re-entered, or put into graveyard orbits,” he stated at a June 17 press conference. “We need to be able to refuel, reposition, and upgrade satellites, even if they weren’t designed for such tasks.”
Since its launch in 2004, Swift Observatory has significantly contributed to our understanding of over 1,400 gamma-ray bursts and other high-energy cosmic phenomena, including the farthest known object detected, originating from an exploding star nearly 13 billion light-years away.
NASA has entrusted Katalyst Space Technologies with the task of building and launching the LINK spacecraft, slated for September 2025. Although the timeline appears feasible, Wilson warned that successfully rendezvousing with Swift in orbit and stabilizing its altitude remains a daunting challenge. Swift wasn’t designed for orbital operations and lacks thrusters to adjust its own position or accompany other spacecraft.
“Operational success in space is notoriously difficult,” Wilson acknowledged. “Rendezvousing with Swift will be particularly challenging, but we are prepared for the task ahead.”
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A nearly complete skull discovered in Arizona decades ago has provided paleontologists with their clearest insight into Adelphyllus cansensis, a mysterious feline species that roamed North America over 5 million years ago. This animal represents an early branch of the saber-toothed cat lineage.
Reconstruction of Adelphyllus cansensis. Image credit: Jesus Gamarra.
Adelphyllus cansensis is an early feline of the order Machairodontia, inhabiting North America approximately 7 to 5 million years ago.
The species was first described in 1934, based on a jaw fragment discovered in Kansas.
Since then, additional fossils were suspected to belong to Adelphyllus cansensis, but the anatomy remained poorly understood until now.
Paleontologists Narimane Chater and Z. Jack Tseng from the University of California, Berkeley stated, “Felids of the order Machairodontia, such as Adelphyllus cansensis, were approximately the size of modern pumas and were originally described from late Hemphirian (late Miocene) deposits at the Edson Quarry, Kansas.”
“The holotype consists of the left and right maxilla bones with nearly complete dentition.”
“Since then, additional materials have been referenced for this species.”
“In 1983, paleontologists identified postcranial remains from fauna in the Wikiup area (Mojave County, Arizona), housed at the American Museum of Natural History, yet did not describe the complete fossil set from the area, which included a nearly complete skull with canine teeth and jaw fragments.”
In their recent study, Chater and Tseng thoroughly examined the material from the American Museum of Natural History.
The specimen includes a nearly complete skull, adjacent jaw fragments, and an isolated upper canine tooth.
According to their findings, the skull belonged to a feline about the size of a cougar but displayed several traits indicative of later saber-toothed predators.
The upper canines were flat and serrated, but significantly less pronounced than those of well-known saber-toothed species like Smilodon.
“The upper canine teeth of the ancestral species of saber-tooths were short; Adelphyllus cansensis confirms our theory that once these hypercarnivores began evolving longer fangs, they could not revert to shorter forms,” the researchers explained.
The animal’s narrow snout closely resembles that of Metailurus, the earliest saber-toothed cat known from Eurasia, although its rounded skull outline is more akin to that of Yoshi, another primitive saber-toothed genus.
However, Adelphyllus cansensis differs from them with its exceptionally thin cheekbones and distinct dental features.
“We’ve never encountered a lineage where long upper canine teeth developed and then reverted to a less specialized form. Once a group forms, their adaptations accelerate and lead to extinction,” Dr. Chater noted.
“Saber-toothed carnivores exemplify a macroevolutionary ratchet, where specialized forms evolve for efficiency. When environmental changes make these adaptations less effective, extinction becomes more likely.”
This analysis also highlights numerous taxonomic issues, with some fossils previously assigned to Shudaelrus now being categorized under Adelphyllus cansensis, a comprehensive group of primitive felid fossils.
“Shudaellus is regarded as a genus of average-sized Miocene felines, previously dubbed the ‘trash can genus,'” the scientists remarked.
The research findings contribute to a broader understanding of the origin and early diversification of saber-toothed cats.
During the late Miocene, carnivores migrated between Eurasia and North America via the Bering Land Bridge.
The authors propose that Adelphyllus cansensis suggests a separate migration of primitive saber-toothed cats into North America, distinct from the dispersal of early felids.
“While we have not fully determined the timing and number of dispersal events in the North American fossil record, our review indicates that the Adelphyllus cansensis skull material exhibits an intermediate morphology between Yoshi and Metailurus,” they concluded. “This suggests a placement near the base of macrodontid diversification.”
The team’s paper has been published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
_____
Narimane Chatter & Z. Jack Tseng. New material of Adelphyllus cansensis shedding light on the cranial anatomy of early-diverging felids of the order Machairodontales. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online June 19, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2667939
Unique Childbirth Method Among Golden Lion Tamarins
Credit: Edwin Giesbers/naturepl.com
Childbirth poses significant challenges across the primate family, notably for humans. Recent research into primate anatomy reveals that many species contend with narrow pelvises that hinder birthing larger-headed infants. This issue dates back to the earliest primates over 50 million years ago.
Traditionally, it was believed that the unique birthing challenges faced by humans emerged from evolution, particularly following the adoption of bipedal locomotion, which constrained pelvic width. As human brains evolved larger, so did infant head sizes, creating a mismatch with pelvis dimensions that couldn’t sufficiently accommodate safe delivery.
Earlier studies suggested that other primates had it easier. Anthropologist Adolf Schulz’s influential research in the 1940s claimed that infants in most primate species fit comfortably within the maternal pelvis.
However, Schulz’s analysis may have contained errors, according to Nicole Torres Tamayo at University College London. “The flaw lay in applying human pelvic measurements across all primate species,” she explains.
Schulz identified certain anatomical landmarks on the human pelvis, hypothesizing they could correspond to those in other primates. However, the human pelvis is uniquely shaped. His landmarks inaccurately defined an inclined plane above the actual birth canal, leading to an overestimation of its size.
In a groundbreaking re-examination, Torres-Tamayo and her research team analyzed the birth canals of 29 primate species while also assessing newborn skull sizes. Their findings indicated that some primate pelvises are ill-suited for childbirth, especially in smaller species like bushbabies and tamarins, where newborn heads can be nearly double the size of the birth canal.
“We were surprised by the high incidence of these size discrepancies across many primate species,” states research team member Leah Betti.
This challenge may even extend back to our primate ancestors, particularly given the small size of early primates, as noted by Betty.
“It’s fascinating to analyze such a diverse dataset,” adds Nicole Webb from the University of Zurich, Switzerland. “These species exhibit varied lifestyles, habitats, and anatomical diversity.”
Different primate species have developed adaptive strategies to cope with these complications. For instance, bush babies and tamarins can dislocate their pelvic bones, temporarily enlarging the birth canal. However, humans are unable to perform this adaptation, as it would make bipedal movement excruciatingly painful.
Interestingly, Torres-Tamayo, Betti, and their colleagues observed that larger great apes experience fewer birthing challenges. This might be due to their size compared to smaller tree-dwelling primates. As such, humans are further distinguished by their unique birth difficulties, making them the only great apes encountering these issues, as Betty noted.
Nonetheless, Webb casts doubt on this conclusion. A study she and her colleagues published in 2024 concluded that even chimpanzees face tight matches between birth canal dimensions and newborn head sizes. “This mismatch is curious and could indicate methodological flaws,” Webb states. “The findings from this new study provide compelling reasons to reassess our assumptions.”
The Core of the Quantum Computer Developed by Infleqtion
Infleqtion
The U.S. government aims to develop a powerful quantum computer within the next two years to catalyze significant advancements in scientific research. This initiative seeks to fast-track innovations in materials, pharmaceuticals, and agro-manufacturing.
Quantum computing, once merely a theoretical concept among physicists, is now a tangible reality. However, widespread commercial viability and clear practical applications remain elusive. The efficacy of these quantum systems relies on their size—measured by the number of qubits—and their overall reliability. Presently, available quantum devices are still too limited and prone to inaccuracies.
The U.S. Department of Energy’s Quantum Genesis Initiative aims to change this by 2028 through a competitive framework that will establish a national quantum supercomputing facility and support advancing quantum research.
By 2028, the DoE aspires for quantum computers to tackle significant challenges in chemistry, materials science, plasma physics, and high-energy physics. “I am confident that the foundational components are in place… we don’t require a groundbreaking discovery,” states Dario Gil, Undersecretary for Science at the Department of Energy.
Gil’s optimism is fueled by recent breakthroughs in quantum technology, including enhanced qubit fabrication and advanced algorithms that allow quantum systems to self-correct errors. Moreover, the integration of AI is anticipated to assist researchers in refining quantum control methods, contributing to the 2028 target.
“While 2028 is an ambitious goal, it is achievable,” asserts Juliette Peirone of quantum computing company Alice & Bob. Paul Stimers notes that multiple quantum firms have committed to delivering functional, error-free quantum computers by 2028 or shortly thereafter, as highlighted by the Quantum Industry Coalition.
This announcement from the DoE follows two executive orders from President Trump aimed at enhancing quantum technology, including a substantial $2 billion investment in various quantum computing firms by the U.S. Department of Commerce.
Quantum Technologies Noted in Executive Order highlight that practical applications for quantum sensors are already being realized, with plans for their deployment in partnership with NASA in space exploration. Interest in quantum computing is growing, partly due to its potential as powerful code-breaking tools; however, significant challenges remain ahead of the 2028 deadline.
Gill acknowledges that transitioning from current quantum technologies to future ones will involve substantial learning curves. “Realistically, we will be confronted with complexities.” Additionally, many components necessary for next-gen quantum systems are rare, posing risks to an already fragile supply chain, according to Stimers.
The U.S. is not the only nation pursuing accelerated quantum technology advancements. The U.K. plans to integrate large-scale quantum systems post-2030 and introduced a procurement program. Quantum computing, alongside artificial intelligence, is pivotal to global technological leadership, as evidenced by China’s latest five-year development strategy. Setting 2028 as a target would present the most aggressive timeline globally, as noted by Gill.
For millions of people adhering to the keto diet, fat is not the enemy; it’s the main component of their meals.
This low-carb, high-fat diet was initially developed in the 1920s to treat children with epilepsy. Over the decades, it has gained popularity in the wellness community, attracting yoga enthusiasts, gym-goers, and weight-loss seekers alike.
By 2024, the ketogenic market is projected to be worth £9.2 billion ($12.5 billion) and continues to experience exponential growth.
The fundamental premise of the keto diet is to utilize fat as the primary energy source. This contrasts sharply with conventional diets primarily reliant on glucose, the simple sugar produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates.
On a ketogenic diet, individuals consume a minimal amount of carbohydrates, resulting in reduced glucose production. Instead, approximately 80% of caloric intake comes from fat, which the liver converts into an alternative energy source known as ketones—hence the term “ketogenic.”
Keto enthusiasts often report weight loss without the pangs of hunger. They claim it enhances energy levels, mental focus, and clarity. Additionally, this diet is believed to reduce inflammation, stabilize blood sugar levels, decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes, and improve skin conditions.
While these benefits sound enticing, there are caveats. Consuming high levels of fat daily can lead to side effects, notably elevated cholesterol levels in some individuals following the ketogenic diet.
“Many [keto dieters] consume such high amounts of saturated fat that while they may see positive changes such as weight loss, their cholesterol levels could skyrocket,” warns Professor Kosh Ray, a leading cardiologist at Imperial College London.
“If I didn’t know they were eating this way, I would suspect a genetic disorder affecting cholesterol metabolism.”
This cholesterol issue often arises in those claiming to have lost weight and feel fantastic on a keto diet. So, the pressing question is: should individuals on a keto diet who appear healthy on the outside—with their cholesterol levels soaring—be concerned about their heart health?
The ketogenic diet emphasizes low carbohydrates, moderate protein, and high fat, as seen in this chicken and avocado salad—Credit: filadendron via Getty
Why Medical Professionals Are Concerned
For most cardiologists, the connection between LDL cholesterol (the “bad” cholesterol) and heart disease risk is clear.
“Numerous studies indicate that lower LDL cholesterol levels correlate with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease,” explains Ray.
To grasp the significance of LDL, it helps to understand its function. Cholesterol acts as a fatty substance necessary for bodily functions, akin to a taxi transporting proteins to and from the liver through the bloodstream.
LDL carries cholesterol away from the liver, whereas HDL returns it. A proper balance between the two is crucial for effective cholesterol transport.
However, LDL can adhere to artery walls and become problematic, particularly when the wall is damaged (due to age, smoking, or inflammation).
This can result in a condition known as plaque buildup, which hardens over time. If this plaque ruptures, it can obstruct blood flow and lead to a heart attack.
Read More:
Lean Mass Hyper Responder Theory
Conventional views suggest that high LDL cholesterol among keto dieters indicates an increased heart disease risk. But some self-proclaimed “citizen scientists” argue otherwise.
They believe high cholesterol levels may not pose a threat on a keto diet.
Some even assert that levels exceeding the standard healthy limit (100 mg/dL or 2.6 mmol/L) are permissible, suggesting that dietary fat protects heart health.
This term is often referred to as lean mass hyper responder—a classification that most medical experts question.
Low-density lipoproteins (LDL), often labeled as “bad” cholesterol, function as carrier proteins, similar to high-density lipoproteins (HDL), regarded as “good” cholesterol—Credit: Nemes Laszlo via Getty
“The term ‘lean mass hyper responder’ lacks medical validation,” cautions Dr. Scott Murray of the Venturi Cardiology Clinic.
This term originated from a computer scientist who explored the cholesterol spikes in keto dieters and sought to understand them.
Although the idea is novel, it lacks substantial scientific support. This group has initiated studies to analyze high-cholesterol keto dieters better.
Their initial findings linked spikes in LDL cholesterol to thinness among participants, suggesting that such cholesterol levels might not be harmful for “hyperresponders.”
“The theory suggests that increased dependence on fat as an energy source leads to higher fat transport,” explains nutritional therapist Moira Newis, a self-identified hyperresponder.
If you are metabolically healthy, transporting more fat within the body might not be a concern.
Proponents also point to the anti-inflammatory properties of a ketogenic diet. Since both high cholesterol and inflammation contribute to plaque formation, the idea is that reducing inflammation could render cholesterol benign.
However, inflammation levels vary among individuals, and it’s impossible to eliminate it entirely, regardless of dietary choices.
Currently, there’s no evidence supporting the notion that excess cholesterol is beneficial on a keto diet.
High LDL cholesterol levels can lead to plaque buildup in arteries, increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke—Credit: anusorn nakdee via Getty
Read More:
The Keto Controversy
In an effort to substantiate their claims, citizen scientists published a paper in April 2025 arguing that hyperresponders on keto diets face no increased heart disease risk, countering established cardiologist viewpoints.
However, the scientific community is taking a firm stance against these claims.
This study analyzed arterial plaque in 100 hyperresponders over one year, finding that those with elevated LDL cholesterol levels showed no significant plaque development compared to those with lower yet still high cholesterol levels.
“LDL levels alone do not predict heart risk accurately,” states Dr. Adrian Sotomota, the leading author and clinical researcher.
Nonetheless, this study has significant flaws, notably the absence of a control group, making it difficult to compare results against normal diets with healthy cholesterol levels.
Heart disease encompasses various ailments affecting the heart and vascular system, leading as the leading cause of death worldwide as reported by WHO—Credit: SCIEPRO/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY via Getty
Among the 100 hyperresponders studied, 99 experienced plaque worsening.
Sotomota explains that plaque progression is common and can be influenced by various factors, including blood pressure and diet, not solely cholesterol levels.
Professor Ray criticizes the study’s findings, stating they contradict established scientific principles and asserting that the prevalence of plaque growth is much higher than observed in typical healthy populations, pointing to an increased heart attack risk.
Current Evidence on Cholesterol and the Keto Diet
While much remains unclear about cholesterol and the ketogenic diet, current evidence suggests that high LDL cholesterol levels are a significant risk factor for heart disease, not just for hyperresponders but for all.
Dr. Murray recommends CT scans for patients on a keto diet exhibiting very high LDL cholesterol to assess arterial plaque.
If their results show healthy arteries, he suggests modifications to their diet, integrating healthy carbohydrates and lowering saturated fat and cholesterol intake.
If plaque or advanced coronary artery disease is detected, he insists on dietary changes and medication to manage plaque regression.
Murray emphasizes the risks associated with extreme dietary practices, warning against being excessively lean while only consuming fats and proteins.
“The body thrives on balance, and existing in the extremes of a keto diet doesn’t serve health in the long run,” he highlights.
The NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope has unveiled approximately 16.5 million stars within the edge-on spiral galaxy Messier 82 (M82, NGC 3034, or Cigar Galaxy), offering astronomers an extraordinary opportunity to examine the galaxy’s intense star formation activities.
An image of the edge-on spiral galaxy Messier 82. Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / Adam Smercina, STScI, Tufts / Thomas Williams, University of Manchester / Alyssa Pagan, STScI.
Located about 12 million light-years away in the northern constellation of Ursa Major, Messier 82 is a fascinating astronomical object.
First identified by German astronomer Johann Elert Bode in 1774, this galaxy spans approximately 40,000 light-years in diameter.
Messier 82, colloquially known as the Cigar Galaxy due to its elongated elliptical shape, presents a unique profile caused by the tilt of its star-rich disk from our perspective.
Celebrated for its accelerated star formation rate, Messier 82 creates stars at a pace 10 times greater than that of the Milky Way.
“Messier 82 is chaotic, yet it embodies a stunning disorder,” commented Dr. Adam Smersina, an astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute and Tufts University.
“Our understanding of its evolutionary history remains incomplete.”
“What fuels this heightened star formation? How long has this galaxy been expelling material from its core?”
“Messier 82 serves as an unparalleled laboratory for galaxy evolution, enabling us to explore core astrophysical processes, including star formation in extreme conditions and the resulting outflows.”
“No other galaxy in the local universe can simultaneously address many astrophysical inquiries like Messier 82 does.”
Astronomers harnessed Webb’s NIRCam (near-infrared camera) to reveal unprecedented details of Messier 82, showcasing its expansive structure and millions of individual stars.
The observed Webb image features around 16.5 million distinct stars scattered throughout the galaxy.
Light from these stellar sources appears as luminous blue grains.
This represents only a fraction of the estimated total stars thought to exist in galaxies like Messier 82, as many remain too faint for detection.
“The sheer number of stars revealed by Webb is astonishing,” stated Dr. Benjamin Williams, an astronomer at the University of Washington.
“We’ve entered a realm previously hidden from our sights with other telescopes.”
“Each star collectively unveils a detailed fossil record of Messier 82’s formation and evolution.”
“While Webb can penetrate through dust, the galaxy’s disk might not appear strikingly eye-catching at first,” explained Dr. Eric Bell, an astronomer at the University of Michigan.
“Yet Messier 82 constitutes a highly intricate system, and Webb’s insights will help elucidate ongoing mysteries, such as the dynamics of star formation across the past several billion years.”
A side-by-side comparison of Messier 82 as viewed by the Hubble Space Telescope (left) and the Webb Space Telescope (right). Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / Adam Smercina, STScI, Tufts / Thomas Williams, University of Manchester / Alyssa Pagan, STScI.
The extreme star formation in Messier 82 occurs at a rate 10 times faster than in our Milky Way, leading to eventual limitations in star birth.
The galaxy’s vibrant stellar activity is ejecting bipolar plumes of material both above and below its disk.
Although it seems chaotic, this hourglass-shaped outflow displays a structured layering.
Yellow tendrils of material nearest the galaxy’s disk signify ionized gas, while the orange-hued material further out represents tiny dust particles.
These particles, known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, assist astronomers in tracing material within the interstellar medium of galaxies.
“Galaxies function as complex ecosystems, so a comprehensive understanding requires integrating data from various missions,” remarked Dr. Kristen McQuinn, an astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute.
“No single mission can fully resolve all the mysteries surrounding Messier 82.”
“Merging data from different telescopes, like Webb and Hubble, is incredibly potent.”
“This synthesis broadens the scope of our investigation, allowing for more intricate questions and answers.”
Understanding How the Menstrual Cycle Affects Vaccine Response
Marcos del Mazo/LightRocket, Getty Images
The effectiveness of vaccines in women may be influenced significantly by the timing of their menstrual cycle. While the trending concept of #cyclesyncing promotes dietary and lifestyle changes based on menstrual phases, robust research is lacking. Nonetheless, increasing evidence indicates that hormonal fluctuations throughout the cycle can play a crucial role in influencing a woman’s immune response and may affect susceptibility to infections post-vaccination, particularly for the COVID-19 vaccine.
"Historically, the menstrual cycle has been overlooked in health research," states Poppy Cooper from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. "This initiative reflects a paradigm shift, acknowledging that the menstrual cycle impacts health beyond just reproductive aspects."
Following the rollout of the COVID-19 vaccine in 2021, anecdotal reports noted changes in women’s menstrual cycles, including heavier and earlier periods. A later study concluded that while these changes were observed, they were generally minor and temporary.
Cooper and her research team have since explored how menstrual cycles may affect vaccine efficacy. By analyzing data from 1,474 women utilizing the menstrual tracking app, Clue, in 2021, who reported their vaccination outcomes through an in-app survey, they uncovered key insights.
Out of the participants, many experienced COVID-19 breakthrough infections, primarily among those who received either the Pfizer or Moderna vaccines. Notably, infections occurred 35 days earlier in women vaccinated during the luteal phase (characterized by high progesterone and pre-implantation of eggs) compared to those vaccinated during the follicular phase (marked by high estrogen and maturation of egg follicles).
This variation might be linked to how sex hormones affect immune cell responses. A 2022 meta-analysis noted a decline in immune-related proteins like antibodies during the luteal phase. "Progesterone prepares the body for potential pregnancy, often by suppressing active immune responses, which isn’t ideal when trying to optimize reaction to a vaccine," explains Dr. Julia Craggs, a women’s health specialist.
Despite its limitations—such as a relatively small number of confirmed coronavirus cases and not accounting for the menstrual cycle’s menstrual and ovulatory stages—the study offers a fresh perspective. It encourages further exploration of how sex hormones may influence women’s health outcomes. "This research recognizes menstrual cycles as a significant factor rather than merely a variable to control for," says Craggs. "Addressing this may uncover vital factors affecting how women respond to healthcare interventions." Recent findings also indicate that estrogen fluctuations can alter drug absorption in women.
Professor Cooper stresses the continuing importance of vaccinations in disease prevention, regardless of menstrual cycle timing. However, he advocates for greater consideration of these factors in healthcare discussions. "I hope similar inquiries will surface regarding other vaccines and treatments," notes Professor Cooper, who is also studying the potential impacts of hormonal contraceptives on vaccine effectiveness.
Strange and Dangerous Flotsam Washes Up at the ‘End of All Things’
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The top science fiction books of this year have just been unveiled. Check out The End of Everything by M. John Harrison. While it’s approximately half the length of a typical novel, its impactful narrative leaves no room for shortcomings. I eagerly devoured it in one sitting.
In this compelling narrative, our hero, Philip, and his grandmother, Marnie, navigate life along the southern coast of England following a catastrophic alien invasion. With the phenomenon of iGhetti causing mainland Europe to vanish, the boundary between reality and illusion becomes blurred. Strange artifacts emerge from the sea, while “bad spots” disrupt people’s behavior, leading to uncertainty.
Philip searches for alien artifacts to sell, while Marnie is an artist. Their journey, contrary to expectations, reveals their unpredictable behavior.
This story resonates with themes from Roadside Picnic, a 1972 classic by Arcadia and Boris Strugatsky, which portrays indifferent alien visitors leaving hazardous debris on Earth. Similar to John Wyndham’s 1957 novel Midwich Cuckoos, which explores unconventional alien invasion, Harrison’s work remains refreshingly original—an absolute gem of a story.
Two additional noteworthy releases this June include The Traveler by Joseph Eckert.
In this thrilling tale, Scott Trader leaps through time each morning at 7:52 a.m. For the first time, he leaps a day earlier, with each subsequent jump exponentially more daunting. His son Lyle calculates how far into the future they could end up, revealing science fiction brilliance as they confront profound questions of existence.
Additionally, be sure to explore Green City Wars by Adrian Tchaikovsky, released this month. Tchaikovsky’s fourth installment of the Children of Time series is also receiving acclaim.
Tchaikovsky’s Green City Wars is a whimsical and politically motivated tale, featuring a brilliant raccoon detective navigating a future where enhanced animals toil to support the human elite. If you’re drawn to unique narratives with a dose of whimsy, this book could be your next favorite.
Looking back, standout titles from earlier this year include Radiant Star by Anne Leckie. While not my top pick from her Imperial Radch universe, it’s a delightful addition.
Read Bright by Silvia Park, which is brimmed with thought-provoking ideas on the future of AI, making it a compelling read. George Saunders’ Vigil features an enigmatic protagonist, Jill Blaine, who captivates even as she tries to redeem a flawed oil tycoon.
Emily H. Wilson, author of the “Sumerian” series and former editor at New Scientist, is currently working on her first science fiction novel.
Note: Your purchases through the links on this page may earn us a commission.
Our brains naturally favor shortcuts, often leading to subconscious decisions. This is part of the brain’s tendency to minimize energy consumption. This inclination may explain our deep interest in categorizing brain states despite their inherent complexities.
Consider the varying legal ages of adulthood worldwide, ranging from 16 to 21 years. This distinction is crucial, as it influences societal expectations for children versus adults. Some advocate for a paradigm shift, urging lawmakers to account for typical brain maturation, assessed through methods like brain imaging, when addressing matters such as criminal sentencing and driving privileges. While many believe that brain development isn’t complete until age 25, our analysis in the dedicated feature on brain changes reveals that this notion is misleading. Brain maturation occurs at diverse rates, and numerous assessment methods exist.
Neuroscience is also being harnessed to shape policies before the science is fully validated. For instance, the introduction of “severe autism” aims to identify individuals requiring the most support by evaluating IQ, language abilities, and care needs. While this can enhance resource allocation, it risks marginalizing those who don’t meet stringent criteria. It is important to consider the distinct profiles of individuals with language and cognitive impairments, as these neurological differences necessitate tailored support.
“ Neuroscience is often called upon to shape policy before the science is adequately established “
Our collective urge to neatly categorize the brain is understandable, and a future where neuroscience effectively helps us decipher cognitive states is conceivable. However, that future has not yet materialized.
Innovative research on cyborg insects shows that swarms of remotely controlled cockroaches can survive underwater with the help of specially designed diving suits, potentially paving the way for exploration on Mars.
Hirotaka Sato and his team at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore have successfully demonstrated that hissing cockroaches (Glomphadrina Portentosa) can be remotely controlled through electrical implants in their sensory organs. Their research in 2021 showcased the feasibility, while 2024 saw a breakthrough with a swarm of 20 cooperating insects.
The primary goal was to create biological robots with infrared sensors to assist in search and rescue operations following natural disasters. Cockroaches offer effective locomotion, built-in reflexes, and the potential for energy efficiency, making them ideal candidates for such tasks.
Despite their versatility, the researchers faced challenges with the insects’ ability to explore flooded environments, common during disasters. To overcome this, they developed an aquatic suit enabling underwater operations.
Cockroaches breathe through spiracles located in their abdomen and thorax. The team created a waterproof suit using 3D printed resin, safeguarding the abdominal spiracles from water. A small hose connects the suit to the thoracic spiracle, allowing oxygen absorption.
Instead of traditional scuba gear, the suit uses a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and manganese dioxide, producing oxygen through a chemical reaction that the cockroaches can utilize.
While wearing the suit, the cockroaches were capable of submerging up to 50 centimeters for three hours, demonstrating resilience and health after the experiment.
The suit enabled the cyborg insects to swim naturally, achieving a forward speed of 87.5 millimeters per second on land, and just slightly slower at 78.4 millimeters underwater.
Sato envisions that this technology could aid search and rescue missions and possibly one day be adapted for extraterrestrial environments where oxygen is scarce, such as Mars.
The research team plans to further test the cockroach suits under severe conditions found in space, including extreme temperatures, vacuum, and radiation. However, concerns regarding contamination with Earth-based microorganisms remain a hurdle for potential space missions.
According to Alan Winfield, a professor at the University of the West of England, the applications for underwater-cyborg bio-robots extend to environmental monitoring and other crucial tasks.
While small robots struggle with battery life, cockroaches can operate efficiently for extended periods without the need for refueling, highlighting the advantages of biological systems over mechanical ones.
Each year, approximately 170 billion tons of ice melts from the Greenland Ice Sheet, yet the exact processes behind this melting remain unclear. Previous studies have indicated that surface meltwater accumulates on glaciers due to warm air and sunlight, flowing through cracks in the glacier and out to sea.
However, some scientists argue that this model oversimplifies the situation by assuming that water only flows downward, neglecting the impact of temperature on water movement. They suggest that such simplified models are inadequate for accurately predicting future ice sheet behavior.
To address this, a group of researchers investigated how subglacial lakes beneath the ice sheet control water movement across Greenland. They monitored a newly discovered subglacial lake using high-resolution satellite images from 2012 to 2019, along with 3D surface maps. Their focus was on the period between July 22 and August 1, 2014, during a suspected drainage event of the subglacial lake, similar to a water balloon bursting under pressure.
They analyzed images from the Greenland Ice Sheet, including data from Landsat-8, 3D surface maps from Polar Geospatial Center, and information from ICESat and ICESat-2. They identified a 2-square-kilometer (0.8-square-mile) area of ice that had risen 10 to 15 meters (about 30 to 50 feet) in height, forming a dome on the ice sheet surface. This dome likely developed as a large lake formed underneath the ice, pushing it upwards.
The researchers noted that the dome began to collapse on July 22, 2014, falling 85 meters (about 280 feet) over the next 10 days to form a basin. From the dome’s dimensions, they estimated that about 90 million cubic meters (or roughly 3 billion cubic feet) of water drained from the lake, averaging 100 cubic meters (around 3,500 cubic feet) per second—equivalent to draining 36,000 Olympic swimming pools at a rate of one pool every 25 seconds.
Additionally, they discovered a 40-meter-high (130-foot) block of ice that was displaced about 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) downstream during the collapse, alongside 6 square kilometers (about 2 square miles) of smooth ice. These features likely formed when water surged through the ice, flowed over the surface, and re-entered the ice sheet.
The researchers then utilized data from Landsat 5, Landsat 9, National Snow and Ice Data Center, and United States Geological Survey to show that the drainage event also influenced the surrounding environment. Once the water re-entered the ice sheet, it flowed downstream beneath Harding Glacier. This rapid influx of water lowered the pressure at the glacier’s base, slowing its movement and causing 500 to 600 meters (approximately 1,600 to 2,000 feet) of ice to shear off its edge.
Researchers hypothesized that as the ice sheet froze, subglacial water rose to the surface instead of sinking into the bedrock. To explore this, they employed a computer-generated thermal model to simulate the temperature at the base of the ice sheet, entering various anticipated rock temperatures and ice thicknesses. The results showed that all simulations maintained the base temperature below -5°C (23°F). At such frigid temperatures, the ice would freeze to the bedrock before subglacial water could flow out, necessitating upward movement of the water.
These findings led researchers to develop a new conceptual model for meltwater movement in glaciers. Initially, surface ice melts and flows into the subglacial lake. As the meltwater collects, pressure at the ice sheet’s base builds, creating a dome. A drainage event results in the dome’s collapse. As water descends through the glacier, the ice freezes to bedrock, preventing water from reaching the glacier’s bottom, causing it to move upward, break the surface, and eventually re-enter the glacier and flow toward the ocean.
In conclusion, the interconnected nature of water movement above, through, and below glaciers can weaken ice sheet structures and alter glacier dynamics downstream. This study underscores the importance of considering the processes contributing to glacier ice loss.
Human laughter, characterized by rapid and rhythmically timed bursts, is not exclusive to humans. Recent research from the University of Warwick and the University of Portsmouth reveals that all great apes, including orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees, share the same fundamental timing structure for laughter. This finding indicates that our common ancestor with these great apes was capable of recognizable smiling at least 15 million years ago.
Analysis of laughter tempo in five great ape species: orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans. Points represent individual observations, with color coding for evolutionary distance. Image credit: De Gregorio et al., 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z.
Chiara de Gregorio, a researcher at the University of Warwick, stated, “Sounds do not fossilize, complicating the traceability of song sounds, spoken words, and languages.”
She added, “Comparative studies of the behaviors of our closest living relatives, the (non-human) great apes, serve as the only extant model for the vocal abilities and adaptive features that our ancestors may have lost.”
“Although every major hominid lineage has developed unique vocalization repertoires shaped by their specific social ecologies, laughter remains a conserved vocalization across species and age-sex categories.”
This study recorded laughter in various tickle play and social play scenarios involving 17 individuals from all five great ape species.
The research comprised four orangutans, two gorillas, three bonobos, four chimpanzees, and four humans, including children aged 6 months to 7 years.
Analysis showed that laughter across all species is isochronous, meaning it occurs at regular, evenly spaced intervals. This rhythm mirrors those found in music and speech.
Scientists have confirmed that this fundamental rhythmic structure was already present in our common ancestor 15 million years ago and continues to be remarkably conserved across modern great apes.
However, they identified noteworthy differences along the evolutionary line. The closer a species is to humans on the evolutionary tree, the faster and more variable their laughter becomes, with increased sensitivity to social contexts.
Humans were unique in adjusting the tempo of their laughter depending on whether they were engaged in tickling or free play.
The researchers noted that variations in human laughter tempo are perceived as more emotionally warm and socially positive, indicating that rhythmic flexibility holds significant social implications.
Dr. Adriano Lamelia from the University of Warwick remarked, “Assessing the vocal forms of extinct ancestors directly is impossible.”
“Laughter is an evolutionarily ancient trait shared by all extant great apes, providing a valuable evolutionary perspective on vocal changes that occurred throughout human evolution leading to the emergence of the first humans.”
“This research counters the classical view that the first humans suddenly acquired distinct vocal control abilities; instead, the evolution of laughter illustrates the continuum of vocal control capabilities that developed cumulatively over 15 million years.”
For further details, refer to the findings published in the Journal on June 25, 2026, in Communication Biology.
_____
C. De Gregorio et al. 2026. The rhythm and timing of laughter reveal that human vocal plasticity is part of the hominid continuum. Comm Biol 9,824; doi: 10.1038/s42003-026-10499-z
Female small brown bats engage in mating during the fall season, yet do not achieve fertilization or pregnancy until the spring, resulting in a half-year gap where sperm is stored within the female’s reproductive system.
This phenomenon, known as sperm storage, occurs when female animals keep sperm alive in their reproductive tracts for extended periods, allowing for fertilization at a more opportune moment.
Various species, including insects, fish, birds, and mammals, utilize this strategy. For instance, female dogs can store sperm for about a week, while female chickens can retain sperm for nearly a year up to a month. Interestingly, female western rattlesnakes exhibit the remarkable ability to store sperm for up to six years.
Sperm are retained within specialized structures of the reproductive tract. In insects, for example, sperm are often found in the seminal vesicles. Conversely, birds and reptiles utilize sperm storage tubules, which are grooves located at the ends of their reproductive systems.
Even in humans, sperm storage occurs, with viable sperm able to survive for up to five days in a cervical pocket known as a cervical crypt.
The surrounding environment plays a critical role in keeping stored sperm viable. Epithelial cells that line these storage structures provide antioxidant-rich proteins that neutralize free radicals and prolong the lifespan of sperm.
Additionally, the local immune system effectively targets invading microorganisms while allowing the stored sperm to remain unharmed, which helps them remain viable until fertilization is required.
Small brown bats usually give birth to one pup – Credit: Getty
This strategy is prevalent across numerous species, indicating its evolutionary significance. For instance, if a little brown bat were to give birth in the harsh winter, it would face dire consequences due to food scarcity and cold temperatures.
By mating in the fall and entering hibernation, the female optimizes the timing of her pregnancy to ensure the best conditions for nurturing her young.
In humans, the evolution of sperm storage appears to enhance fertilization probabilities. Even intercourse occurring days before ovulation can lead to pregnancy, as the sperm remain primed for fertilization.
Moreover, in certain species, sperm storage may allow females to influence the sex ratio of their offspring.
For example, the queen bee of Western honey bees mates with multiple males and stores sperm, never mating again. Consequently, unfertilized eggs form males while fertilized eggs produce females.
In a more complex strategy, female yellow dung flies can “choose” which sperm to utilize from storage. When environmental conditions are harsh, they may opt for sperm from males with genes better suited for survival in challenging climates.
This adaptive behavior increases the likelihood of offspring survival, though the exact mechanisms behind sperm selection remain a mystery.
This article answers the question posed by Angela Jaiswal via email: “How do female animals store sperm long-term?”
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When observing orangutans munching on leaves, one might assume they choose the nearest plants. However, recent research reveals that orangutans actively seek out plants with medicinal properties.
This groundbreaking study, based on 20 years of research on wild orangutans in the Sebangau peat swamp forest of Borneo, indicates that these primates can “self-medicate” by consuming specific plant combinations in a prescribed sequence.
The research team meticulously documented the dietary habits of orangutans to uncover non-random eating patterns among the species. The findings showed that orangutans frequently consumed plants known for their medicinal benefits, surpassing initial expectations.
Notably, these plants contained compounds that demonstrated antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and wound healing effects. “At this stage, we cannot definitively state that orangutans consciously ‘diagnose’ themselves like humans,” explains Georgia Allen, the lead researcher and master’s student in conservation and biodiversity at the University of Exeter. The research results were published in Scientific Reports.
Allen notes, “However, our findings suggest that orangutans selectively consume certain medicinal plants in ways that extend beyond mere nutritional needs.”
Orangutans are a critically endangered species residing only in Indonesia and Malaysia. They share over 96% of their DNA with humans. – Credit: Getty
Interestingly, many of the specified plants do not form a major part of an orangutan’s regular diet, suggesting they are consumed for specific health benefits rather than as standard fare.
It remains uncertain whether this behavior is a natural instinct or a learned practice passed down through generations.
Chimpanzees display similar “self-medication” behaviors, consuming plants to combat internal parasitic infections, and similar actions have been observed in other primates like bonobos, gibbons, and gorillas.
This study, conducted by Allen under the guidance of Dr. Kimberly Hockings and supported by Dr. Elodie Fryman, underscores the significance of some plants, which are also utilized for healing by local indigenous communities.
The research team emphasized the need to preserve indigenous knowledge for effective biodiversity conservation.
Kissing is one of the most intimate acts between humans, yet its origins remain surprisingly enigmatic. When we discuss kissing, we often refer to the romantic lip-to-lip contact that involves suction and pressure, but that description lacks the allure often associated with this act.
But what drives humans to kiss?
Throughout history, the significance of kissing has varied across cultures. The earliest documented kiss can be traced back to ancient Mesopotamian texts from 2500 BC.
In ancient Rome, three distinct types of kisses existed: the palate, a friendly kiss on the cheek; the Basium, a platonic kiss shared between family and close friends; and the Sabium, a passionate kiss exchanged by lovers.
Clearly, kissing transcends mere romantic expression.
Despite its prevalence, kissing is not a universal practice. A 2015 study of 168 cultures published in American Anthropologist revealed that only 46% of people engage in romantic lip kissing. Cultures that do not incorporate kissing have alternative ways of expressing intimacy.
Despite appearing to be universal, less than half of global cultures actually practice romantic kissing – Photo credit: Getty
On the Trobriand Islands near Papua New Guinea, a couple may nibble each other’s eyelashes. Interestingly, during his explorations, Charles Darwin noted a particular Malayan kiss in which individuals squat and smell each other, implying that scent plays an important role in human intimacy.
Can biology provide insights into the reason we kiss? Research suggests that kissing serves a biological bonding function and facilitates emotional release through the release of oxytocin, hormones linked to trust and attachment.
Oxytocin reduces stress, fosters intimacy, and strengthens the bond between romantic partners, suggesting that you kiss because it feels good.
According to evolutionary theory, the origins of lip-to-lip kissing may stem from early maternal behaviors such as breastfeeding and pre-chewing food to feed infants directly.
This behavior is still observable among primates like chimpanzees, potentially laying the foundation for lip contact as a signal of care and bonding.
Human infants are biologically inclined towards lip contact, associating it with comfort and safety. This may have evolved into broader social behaviors linked to caregiving and emotional bonds.
However, theories emphasizing maternal lip-to-lip behavior may fail to fully explain romantic kissing.
A provocative recent theory by evolutionary psychologist Dr. Adriano Lameira of the University of Warwick proposes that kissing evolved from grooming behaviors.
In primates, grooming often culminates in oral contact, such as removing fur from one another. Lameira’s hypothesis suggests that as humans lost body hair, grooming became less feasible, leading to shorter grooming sessions and the enduring practice of kissing as a form of affection.
Indeed, kissing is a complex behavior, potentially shaped by the actions of our ancient ancestors. Whether it be the passionate Sabium or the simple pleasure of closeness, kissing addresses a profound human need for connection.
This article answers the question, “Why do we kiss?” as posed by Dani Castillo through email.
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Masturbation shame in parrots and birds is becoming outdated, according to new research.
While many theories surrounding sexual behavior focus on environmental issues, masturbation has puzzled wildlife experts. Why expend energy, time, and, in the case of males, sperm for an act that once seemed unnecessary?
A recent study titled “Evolution of Avian Masturbation”, published in Ecology and Evolution, reveals that masturbation is more frequently observed in wild birds compared to those in captivity.
Historically, masturbation was considered an abnormal behavior arising from solitary confinement, leading bird keepers to discourage this behavior in their pets.
Masturbation is a natural behavior in many bird species, both in the wild and in captivity – Credit: Getty
As a result, these birds may face discouragement, punishment, or even medical interventions. However, the study suggests that this perspective is merely a case of “folklore breeding.”
Researchers examined a dataset of 120 bird species and found that masturbation occurs in both sexes. This behavior typically involves rubbing the cloaca against various objects like twigs or toys, and is often accompanied by vocalizations and flapping.
Although more prevalent in males, the presence of this behavior in females indicates that sustaining fresh sperm is not the sole reason behind it.
Masturbation has been shown to enhance female reproductive success in various animal species. For instance, in primates, sexual arousal increases vaginal pH, creating a more favorable environment for sperm.
No developmental differences were noted between juvenile and adult birds. However, species with non-monogamous mating systems exhibited higher rates of masturbation compared to socially monogamous species with long-term pair bonds.
Hence, masturbation may serve as a means to boost sexual arousal and prepare the body for successful fertilization.
In conclusion, this behavior is natural and should not be discouraged or punished.
Discover fascinating insights about wild chimpanzees in Africa! These incredible primates have been documented creating rhythmic sounds using their hands and feet on trees.
By striking the massive roots—known as “buttresses”—at the base of trees, chimpanzees generate a deep, resonant sound that can travel over one kilometer (0.6 miles) through dense forest.
This unique drumming is a form of long-distance communication. A 2022 study discovered that chimpanzees in Uganda exhibit distinct drumming styles to communicate their locations within their social groups.
A recent follow-up survey analyzing over 370 drumming patterns from six chimpanzees revealed regional variations. West African chimpanzees prefer evenly spaced beats, reminiscent of a techno rhythm, while their East African counterparts opt for more varied intervals.
Some chimpanzees even enhance their drumming by using tools, like throwing stones against tree trunks to produce a gratifying thud, often coinciding with their trademark “pang-pang” call.
This form of “rock music” has recently been documented in the Chimpanzees of Guinea-Bissau, suggesting the emergence of a complex chimpanzee culture where young members imitate the rock-throwing of older individuals.
These rhythmic behaviors highlight that the human capacity for creating and enjoying rhythmic music may trace back to our evolutionary ancestors.
However, chimpanzees aren’t the only creatures with a sense of rhythm. The striking palm cockatoo, with its punk-rock hairstyle, uses sticks and seed pods to rhythmically tap on trees.
This unique behavior is utilized by male palm cockatoos for attracting mates and marking their territory. They even take time to craft their own musical instruments, meticulously shaping sticks or seed pods to meet their rhythmic needs.
This article answers the question (from Sha’Quan Ward of London): “Can any animal play a musical instrument?”
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The belief that washing laundry at higher temperatures is more effective has changed. Thanks to innovations in washing machine and detergent technology, most fabrics can now be thoroughly cleaned at lower, consistent temperatures—typically starting at minimum 15°C (59°F).
Modern washing machines are specifically designed for low-temperature operations, featuring advanced drum designs and refined tumble sequences that effectively agitate clothes. This ensures that dirt and stains are lifted without the need for high heat.
Additionally, contemporary laundry detergents have significantly advanced. They include a blend of cleaning agents, such as surfactants and enzymes.
Surfactants effectively capture dirt and oil from fabrics, pulling them into the wash water. Research shows that short surfactant molecules are more effective in cold water, leading many brands to formulate their products accordingly.
Anti-redeposition agents complement surfactants by suspending stains in the wash water, preventing them from settling back onto other garments during the cycle.
Since dirt particles tend to be less soluble at lower temperatures, modern formulations often include additional anti-redeposition ingredients. Many of these new detergents also feature enzymes derived from bacteria found in colder regions, such as Iceland, which clean clothes most effectively at around 15°C to 20°C (59°F to 68°F).
The advantages of washing at lower temperatures are notable. Hot water typically accounts for about 90% of the energy consumption of a washing machine, so switching to cooler washes can lead to significant savings on your electricity bills.
Moreover, washing in hot water can lead to fabric abrasion, meaning cooler temperatures can extend the life of your clothing while also reducing microplastic release.
Nevertheless, there are exceptions. Items that require disinfection, such as cloth diapers or medical scrubs, are still best washed in boiling water.
This article addresses the question, “What is the best temperature to wash laundry?” as posed by Theo Hayes from Leeds.
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Paleontologists in Brazil have discovered a previously unknown archosauroid species that thrived approximately 240 million years ago. This intriguing species may belong to a little-understood group of ancient reptiles reminiscent of the ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs.
Reconstruction of Silescerida acristatata. Image credit: Mateus Fernández Gadelha.
Silescerida acristatata resided in what is now Brazil during the Middle Triassic Period, a crucial time when life on Earth was diversifying following the mass extinction at the end of the Permian Period.
During this era, archosaurs—a diverse group of reptiles that eventually evolved into dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodiles—began to dominate terrestrial ecosystems.
The newly discovered species is likely linked to a rare and poorly understood group known as Euparkeriidae.
Among the most recognized species of Euparkeriidae is Eupacheria capensis, first described in South Africa in 1913 and remains the sole definitive member of this intriguing group.
“The Euparkeriidae are primarily noted for their distinctive stalked archosaurs. Eupacheria capensis existed during the Early to Middle Triassic in South Africa and is the only established member of this clade,” stated lead author Mauricio García from the Federal University of Santa Maria and his colleagues.
“Other presumed euparckerids have been found in regions across China and Europe.”
“Eupacheria capensis and Euparkeriidae rank just outside of archosaurs in all major phylogenetic analyses, highlighting their significance in understanding archosaur origins.”
“This species, along with other potential euparkerids, holds substantial implications for understanding the evolutionary trajectory of archosaurs, as it closely resembles the body plan of archosaur ancestors.”
The skeletal remains of Silescerida acristatata, including its left shoulder blade, right hip bone, and a left femur measuring around 17.3 cm in length, were discovered at a site in Doña Francisca, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
Based on examinations with related species, the new find likely resembled a long-limbed, agile lizard-like predator.
The discovery of Silescerida acristatata broadens the known geographical range of the Euparkeriidae lineage, and reaffirms South America’s vital role in the early evolution of archosaurs.
“This discovery not only provides insight into the temporal and paleogeographical distribution of Euparkeriidae but also illuminates the origin and early evolution of this family. Eucrocopodan represents the first record of this archosaur in the Brazilian Triassic,” concluded the paleontologists.
“More broadly, this new species underscores the significance of South American Triassic deposits in the evolutionary history of archosaurs.”
The team’s research paper was published in the journal Scientific Reports on June 10th.
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García, M. S., et al. 2026. A new euparkeriid form from the mid-Triassic period of southern Brazil, a member of the family Euparkeriidae. Scientific Reports 16, 16585; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-53740-9
This stunning image of the Milky Way’s core was captured by ESA’s Euclid Space Telescope on March 23, 2025. Image credits: ESA / Euclid / Euclid Consortium / NASA / CFHT / J.-C. Cuillandre & E. Bertin, CEA Paris-Saclay.
The Euclid telescope is expertly designed to observe billions of distant galaxies. Its advanced visible-light camera can differentiate individual stars within the densely packed galactic bulge without losing clarity,” stated Euclid team members.
This remarkable capability is crucial for scientists aiming to study exoplanets around other stars through a technique known as microlensing.
In merely 26 hours on March 23 and 24, 2025, Euclid produced this extensive image.
Beyond 60 million stars, the telescope also documented nebulae and star clusters.
“This mosaic comprises nine directional views from visible-light cameras, each encompassing an area greater than the full moon,” the astronomers explained.
“When compared to Hubble’s wide-field camera, Euclid’s sharpness and sensitivity in visible light are remarkably impressive,” they added.
“Each point captured by Euclid in just hours represents an area 270 times larger than Hubble’s field of vision.”
To replicate the detailed mosaics created by Euclid would require approximately 2,000 hours at the Keck Observatory,” they noted.
“With its speed and ability to detect faint stars, Euclid reveals details that ground-based observations may overlook.”
“This marks a unique occasion where Euclid momentarily set aside its standard cosmological sky surveys,” remarked Dr. Jason Rose, astronomer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“Such endeavors require significant effort and planning, underscoring their substantial scientific impact.”
“Integrating Euclid’s snapshots with Roman’s future surveys will enable a more precise mapping of the galaxy and enhance our chances of discovering elusive cosmic treasures like orphaned black holes and rogue planets.”
Dr. Matthew Penny, an astronomer at Louisiana State University and co-leader of the Euclidean Exoplanet Science Working Group, emphasized: “The Euclidean observations present an exciting opportunity to refine and test our Milky Way model.”
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