A plume of ice particles, water vapor, and organic compounds shooting from Enceladus’s southern polar area
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The hidden oceans of liquid water beneath Enceladus’ icy exterior have long positioned Saturn’s moon as a prime candidate in the search for alien life, and the prospects appear even brighter. Recent findings revealing heat from the frozen northern pole indicate that the ocean is stable over geological periods, allowing the potential for life to thrive.
“For the first time, we can assert confidently that Enceladus is in a stable condition, which has significant implications for its habitability,” states Carly Howett from Oxford University. “While we already knew about the presence of liquid water, a variety of organic molecules, and heat, stability was the crucial missing element.”
Howett and her team utilized data from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, which orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, to analyze the heat leaking from Enceladus. The moon’s interior is warmed by tidal forces resulting from Saturn’s gravitational pull, but up to now, this heat had only been observed escaping from the south polar region.
A delicate balance is necessary for life to develop in Enceladus’s ocean. It’s essential for the ocean to emit as much heat as it receives. Although the recorded heat from the South Pole doesn’t account for all incoming heat, Howett and her colleagues discovered that the North Pole is approximately 7 degrees warmer than previously assumed. Together with the heat from the South Pole, the overall heat balance is nearly precise. Due to a thicker ice shell near the equator, a substantial amount of heat escapes primarily in the polar regions.
This indicates that the ocean must maintain stability over extended durations. “Quantifying this is challenging, but we don’t anticipate a freeze in the near future, nor have we seen one recently,” Howett explained. “We understand that life requires time to evolve, and now we can affirm that this stability exists.” Nevertheless, discovering life, if it indeed exists, presents its own challenges. Both NASA and ESA are planning missions aimed at unearthing such life for decades ahead.
A cosmic network is disrupting a galaxy’s star-forming abilities. Galaxies require gas to generate stars, and a distant dwarf galaxy, nearly 100 million light-years away, is being deprived of this essential material by an expansive web of cosmic constituents.
While one half of the galaxy known as AGC 727130 seems relatively normal, its opposite side shows gas stretching well beyond its perimeter, being torn apart by unseen forces. Researchers from Columbia University in New York identified this collapsing galaxy utilizing the Very Large Array, a radio observatory situated in New Mexico Nicholas Luber.
Even though AGC 727130 is in proximity to two other dwarf galaxies, the researchers concluded that it isn’t close enough to engage with them in a way that would create turbulent gas. Their findings imply that the gas is expelled through a mechanism known as ram pressure stripping. This occurs when a galaxy traverses an intragalactic cloud—in this case, part of the cosmic web—leaving behind its gas. Without this gas, galaxies become “quenched” and are unable to create new stars.
The filamentous structures in the cosmic web are so slender that it would likely take more than one filament to strip gas from a galaxy, yet AGC 727130 resides at the junction of multiple filaments. “The concept that a cosmic web could extract gas from galaxies through collisional pressure is not surprising and likely happens frequently, but it’s challenging to confirm,” states Luber. “We were fortunate to observe this phenomenon.”
Identifying such galaxies poses a challenge because the gas removal is a gradual process, and galaxies that have already lost their gas tend to be exceedingly faint. “What’s intriguing about this outcome is that low-mass extinguished dwarf galaxies are exceptionally rare; only a few, less than 0.06 percent, are believed to exist without a substantial host galaxy,” comments Julia Blue Bird, a radio astronomer based in New Mexico.
Even among that limited number of extinguished dwarf galaxies, only a scant few have had their gas stripped by the cosmic web rather than through interactions with other galaxies. “This might be… the first definitive case of such an occurrence,” remarks Jacqueline Van Gorcom from Columbia University. Several large radio telescopes are poised to unveil new gas maps across extensive regions of the universe, which could provide additional insights regarding these galaxies.
This discovery is crucial in addressing a cosmological dilemma known as the missing satellite problem. Current cosmological models suggest there should be significantly more dwarf galaxies orbiting larger ones than we currently observe. “We struggle to find many quenched dwarfs; is it because they’re hard to detect, or are they simply not present? This suggests that quenching may also be occurring far from larger galaxies,” states team member Sabrina Stierwalt from Occidental College in California. Uncovering additional galaxies quenched by the cosmic web could help reconcile discrepancies between model predictions and actual observations.
Paleontologists from China and Brazil have reported the discovery of 320 phytoliths (tiny mineral structures formed within plant cells) found in the fossilized stomach of a pterosaur species known as Synopterus atavismus.
Rebuilding the life of Synopterus atavismus. Image credit: Maurilio Oliveira / Science China Press.
Pterosaurs, a group of reptiles that went extinct during the Mesozoic Era, were the first vertebrates to develop powered flight.
However, their dietary habits remain largely enigmatic.
Various hypotheses have been proposed regarding pterosaur diets, including insectivorous, piscivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous, herbivorous/frugivorous, filter feeding, and generalized diets.
Though stomach contents provide compelling evidence, such finds are exceedingly rare.
In addition to scales associated with the thorax of Eudimorphodon, only five confirmed instances of pterosaur gastric contents have been documented since the Late Triassic in Italy, all related to Rhamphorhynchus from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen limestone in Germany.
These instances largely consist of remains like dead fish, along with some unidentified items.
In a recent study, Dr. Xiaolin Wang from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and colleagues investigated the contents of fossilized stomachs from Synopterus atavismus, which existed in China approximately 120 million years ago.
They identified numerous small gastroliths in the stomach contents, from which they extracted 320 phytoliths.
“Phytoliths are microscopic silica structures formed during plant growth, exhibiting diverse morphologies across different plant species and even within various parts of the same plant,” the paleontologists stated.
“This discovery marks the first extraction of phytoliths from a pterosaur and the second documented instance of a pterosaur featuring a gastrolith.”
Specimen of Synopterus atavismus. Image credit: Jiang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.040.
To determine whether Synopterus atavismus was indeed herbivorous, the researchers explored other possible interpretations.
“Initially, we confirmed that surrounding rocks did not contain the phytoliths found in the stomach, eliminating contamination as a factor,” the researchers commented.
“We also considered the possibility that the plant material could have originated from animals that consume plants.”
“However, Synopterus atavismus exhibited a rapid metabolism akin to that of birds. If it had consumed vertebrates or insects, traces like bones, scales, or hard insect shells would have been present in the stomach, but none were found.”
“The hypothesis of eating soft-bodied creatures like caterpillars was also insufficient. Why would it require so many gastroliths if hard food wasn’t part of its diet?”
“These stones typically assist in breaking down tough materials such as insect shells and plant matter, making them unneeded for softer prey.”
“Lastly, prior research suggested that Tapejara wellnhoferi, a close relative of Synopterus atavismus, had robust jaws adapted for consuming plants, reinforcing this conclusion.”
“Thus, phytoliths clearly indicate direct dietary intake, while gastroliths were utilized as tools for grinding plant material.”
The team’s paper is published in the October 15, 2025 issue of the journal Science Bulletin.
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Jiang Shunxin et al. 2025. First phytoliths discovered in pterosaurs – evidence of herbivory. Science Bulletin 70 (19): 3134-3138; doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.040
A newly released map and digital dataset called Itiner-e expands the known length of the Roman Empire’s road network by over 110,000 km.
Itiner-e is the most intricate and comprehensive open digital dataset of roads throughout the Roman Empire. Image credit: de Soto et al., doi: 10.1038/s41597-025-06140-z.
During its peak in the second century AD, the Roman Empire boasted a population exceeding 55 million and extended from present-day Britain to Egypt and Syria.
While the extensive road network facilitated development and maintenance, maps remain incomplete, and existing digitized versions are of low resolution.
“The study of Roman roads has a long-standing history,” remarked Tom Brumans, a researcher at Aarhus University, along with his colleagues.
“A plethora of information about roads has been confirmed through archaeological excavations, surveys, milestones placed regularly along Roman routes, and historical texts like the Antoninian Itinerary and the Poitingeriana Table, which offer a detailed regional overview of key connections between settlements and Roman roads.”
“However, the pursuit of identifying and locating this diverse body of research is complicated by a lack of comprehensive integration and digitization across the empire.”
Researchers employed archaeological and historical records, topographic maps, and satellite imagery to compile the Itiner-e dataset.
This dataset includes 299,171 km of roads, covering an area of approximately 4 million km, a marked increase from the prior estimate of 188,555 km.2.
The growth in road coverage is attributed to enhanced documentation in the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, and North Africa, as well as adjustments to existing road routes based on geographical realities.
This includes the provision for roads traversing mountains to follow winding paths, rather than straight lines.
Itiner-e encompasses 14,769 road segments, with 103,478 km (34.6%) classified as primary roads and 195,693 km (65.4%) as secondary roads.
Only 2.7% of the road locations are known with certainty, while 89.8% remain less precise, and 7.4% are based on hypotheses.
“Itiner-e is the most detailed and comprehensive open-access digitization of Roman roads, and it also highlights existing knowledge gaps in the road system,” the authors stated.
“They emphasize that Itiner-e does not reflect temporal changes in the road network, and further studies are necessary to explore this across the Roman Empire.”
“Itiner-e could serve as a valuable resource for future research on the impact of Roman roads on connectivity, governance, migration, and disease transmission within the empire.”
For maps and datasets, refer to the paper published in Scientific Data.
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P. De Soto et al. 2025. Itiner-e: A high-resolution dataset of roads in the Roman Empire. Scientific Data December 1731. doi: 10.1038/s41597-025-06140-z
A new expansive map of the Roman road system reveals that the empire’s land transport network has effectively grown by nearly 60% and is accessible to all. You can explore it online.
The initiative, named Itiner-e, combines topographical mapping, satellite images, and centuries of historical documentation, and claims to be the first publicly available dataset of this nature.
“It emerged from significant frustration,” states Tom Bluemans of Aarhus University, Denmark. “This is among the most enigmatic areas in Roman archaeology. There’s a saying: ‘All roads lead to Rome.’ So why can’t we access a download of all the roads in Rome? Where are they located?”
Brughmans and his team constructed a representation of the road network around 150 AD, utilizing extensive evidence from research and outlining more accurate paths of previously identified routes. They also assigned confidence ratings to each road segment based on the reliability of the source.
Their findings indicate that the total length of the road network in that period was around 299,171 kilometers, significantly surpassing the government’s previous estimate of 188,555 kilometers from the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World.
The dataset reveals that even though there is compelling evidence for starting and ending points of many roads, only 2.8% of the entire network can be pinpointed accurately (within 50 meters in mountainous regions and 200 meters in flatter areas).
Roman route through mountains to Delphi in Ancient Greece
itinerary-e
For the Blueman family, this highlights the challenges associated with securing resources to excavate an entire Roman road, resulting in many efforts remaining unfinished. Additionally, major roads have undergone numerous reconstructions throughout history, complicating efforts to uncover the original paths.
While Roman roads are renowned for their straightness, it’s a misconception that they were always constructed that way. Katherine Fletcher from Manchester Metropolitan University in the UK, who did not participate in the study, comments, “Straight paths weren’t always economical or practical, particularly through mountainous regions.” She adds, “In many instances, if a route already existed, the Romans adapted it instead of forging an entirely new one.”
Gaining a deeper understanding of the Roman road network could enhance our grasp of many pivotal events in European history. According to Blumans, developments like early Christianity, widespread migration, and continent-wide pandemics were all influenced by the Roman road system.
Despite their significance, roads are frequently overshadowed because they lack the allure of grand amphitheaters or gladiators, Fletcher notes. “It’s akin to that famous scene in Monty Python where they discuss what the Romans did for us, and they mention, ‘And roads…well, clearly roads! Not to mention roads.’
Explore Historic Herculaneum – Experience Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Ancient Naples
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Jacob was fitted with a tracking collar and lost his left hind leg in a poacher’s trap.
alex burakowski
A lion that suffered the loss of a leg due to a poacher’s trap has developed a remarkable new hunting technique, surprising conservation experts.
Last year, Jacob, an 11-year-old lion residing in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park, was observed swimming 1.5km (approximately 1 mile) through a river teeming with crocodiles, making this the longest recorded swim of its kind.
Typically, injured carnivores adapt by scavenging, stealing livestock, or, if fortunate, receiving assistance from their pride. However, Jacob, who has also lost an eye after an encounter with a buffalo, has only his younger brother Tib for support.
Many researchers believed he would eventually perish after losing his left hind leg in 2020. “However, he has demonstrated incredible resilience,” notes alexander braczkowski from the Cambra Lion Monitoring Project, supported by the Volcano Safari Partnership Trust, a Ugandan NGO dedicated to conservation and community progress.
Even Braczkowski, who has been observing Jacob since 2017, was astonished by his survival. Yet, the mystery has now been unraveled through thermal drone footage, revealing that this lion has begun to mimic the behavior of a leopard.
Unable to overpower his prey as a typical lion would, Jacob now ambushes them at short distances within dense foliage, employing stealth and agility.
According to Braczkowski, Jacob also hunts species typically avoided by other lions. The nocturnal footage has shown him hunting and successfully taking down 200kg wild pigs, either solo or in cooperation with his siblings.
“Jacob’s inability to sprint limits his ability to chase down prey,” Braczkowski noted. “It’s apparent that he has shifted his diet towards specific types of pigs. This adaptation further supports his leopard-like tactics and risk-taking behavior, but it’s essential for his survival, and it’s evidently working.”
Loss of limbs from traps is a “common” issue for big cats, according to Andrew Loveridge of Panthera, a non-profit organization focused on global wild cat conservation.
Jacob and his brother Tib wearing tracking collars
alex burakowski
Adaptation is also essential, he emphasized. Craig Packer from the University of Minnesota has studied lion behavior for decades, noting, “We’ve observed similar adaptive behavior in other lion populations, all of which had the advantage of four healthy limbs.”
However, as Braczkowski observes, the lions in Queen Elizabeth Park typically target large, agile prey like antelopes and buffalo.
“Sometimes, lions exhibit leopard-like behavior, such as climbing trees,” he remarks, referencing George Schaller and his groundbreaking fieldwork on Serengeti lions in the 1960s, which provided valuable insights into predator-prey dynamics.
Even the tree-climbing lions maintain distinct hunting modalities, Schaller adds, highlighting that lions referred to as tripods (those missing limbs) usually rely on their pride for survival.
Braczkowski has tracked Jacob during his swims across the Kazinga Strait multiple times over the past two years, noting an average daily distance of 1.73 kilometers, which, while less than a healthy lion, marks a significant achievement for an injured animal, potentially driven by an insufficiency of suitable prey or the quest for a mate.
Jacob’s novel hunting strategy could become a replicable behavior that might help combat declines in lion populations facing habitat loss, climate change, and human encroachment. Consequently, Jacob holds significant “symbolic and genetic” importance, according to Braczkowski.
Schaller remarked that Jacob represents a beacon of resilience: “He’s akin to a fighter jet in the natural world.”
Conservation and rewilding of the Central Apennines: Italy
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A recent study from Yonsei University in Seoul, South Korea, challenges the previously accepted notion that dark energy is causing the accelerated movement of distant galaxies away from us. The researchers found no evidence supporting the idea that the universe is currently accelerating. If validated, this finding could significantly alter our understanding of dark energy, address the “Hubble strain,” and provide insights into the universe’s past and future.
The expansion of the universe may be slowing down, not accelerating. Image credit: M. Weiss / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
For over three decades, astronomers have generally accepted that the universe is expanding at an increasing rate due to a hidden force dubbed dark energy, which functions as a sort of anti-gravity.
This conclusion, derived from distance measurements of far-off galaxies using Type Ia supernovae, earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2011.
However, Professor Yongwook Lee of Yonsei University and his team have introduced new evidence suggesting that Type Ia supernovae, once thought to be the universe’s “standard candle,” are significantly affected by the age of their progenitor stars.
“Our findings indicate that the universe is currently in a phase of decelerating expansion, and that dark energy is evolving at a much faster rate than previously assumed,” stated Professor Lee.
“If verified, these outcomes would signify the most substantial shift in cosmology since the identification of dark energy 27 years ago.”
Even after adjusting for brightness, supernovae from younger star populations seem systematically dimmer, while those from older populations appear brighter.
Utilizing a more extensive sample of 300 host galaxies, the researchers validated these findings with remarkable significance (99.999% confidence), indicating that the dimming of distant supernovae is influenced not only by cosmological factors but also by stellar astrophysical characteristics.
After correcting for this systematic bias, the supernova data no longer aligned with the classic ΛCDM cosmology model that includes a cosmological constant.
Instead, it aligns more closely with a new model backed by the Dark Energy Spectroscopy Instrument (DESI) project, based on Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) and Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) data.
Both the adjusted supernova data and the results from BAO+CMB demonstrate that dark energy diminishes and evolves significantly over time.
Importantly, when the corrected supernova data were integrated with BAO and CMB findings, the traditional ΛCDM model was decisively ruled out.
Most notably, this comprehensive analysis reveals that the universe is not accelerating as much as once believed, but has already transitioned into a state of slowing expansion.
“The DESI project has yielded significant results by merging unadjusted supernova data with baryon acoustic vibration measurements, concluding that while the universe will decelerate in the future, it is still accelerating at present,” remarked Professor Lee.
“Conversely, our analysis, which incorporates an age-bias correction, indicates that the universe is already entering a slowing phase today.”
“Surprisingly, this aligns with predictions made independently from BAO analyses, which has yet to receive much attention.”
To further validate their findings, the researchers are now conducting an evolution-free test using only supernovae from young, contemporaneous host galaxies across the entire redshift range.
Initial results already support their primary conclusion.
“With the Vera C. Rubin Observatory set to discover more than 20,000 new supernova host galaxies within the next five years, accurate age measurements will provide a more robust and conclusive examination of supernova cosmology,” stated Yonsei University professor Chul Chung.
The team’s paper published today in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Song Joon Hyuk et al. 2025. Strong founder age bias in supernova cosmology – II. Alignment of DESI BAO with signs of a non-accelerating universe. MNRAS 544 (1): 975-987; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1685
Amur tiger, also known as Siberian tiger, explores Russian waters
Tamim Ridlo/Shutterstock
tigers between empires Jonathan C. Slugt, Allen Lane (UK). Farrar, Strauss, Giroux (USA)
The Siberian tiger is an extraordinary creature, characterized by its “black and orange striped body.” It lets out a roar reminiscent of a “terrible tide,” especially during the harsh winters of Russia’s Far East. Specifically, we refer to the Amur tiger, whose habitat includes the Amur River basin, one of Asia’s most expansive basins. This river delineates the eastern boundary between Russia and China, and it is the dynamic interaction between these two empires and their Tiger’s Pot properties that constitutes the essence of Surat’s captivating new book, Tigers Between Empires: The journey to save the Siberian tiger from extinction.
Historically, more than 3,000 tigers roamed this vast area of northeast Asia. Facing numerous threats, the Soviet Union was pioneering in 1947 by being the first nation to enact legal protections for tigers. Though tiger populations initially rebounded, large carnivores uniquely reflect the dynamics of human politics. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to poverty in remote regions and a return to trapping for survival. By the close of the 20th century, tigers faced severe challenges on both sides of the border, as hunting, logging, and prey poaching decimated their numbers. Their existence was often equated with a sign of an underdeveloped civilization.
Amidst this landscape, New Englander Dale Mikel arrived to oversee the Siberian Tiger project. In 1992, he found himself in Russia’s Primorye region, bordering the Sea of Japan—a land filled with pristine forests and rich ecosystems. Mr. Surat, who has dedicated decades to this area, serves as a remarkable guide, offering detailed and emotive descriptions of this unique environment. As I read, I felt a surge of longing to experience it myself. There, cliffs adorned with Korean pines and oaks meet the sea, as tigers wander along the shores.
As a field biologist, Surat recognizes the resilience of those engaged in the project. Alongside dedicated Americans, many Russians willingly venture into the wilderness, often skiing for weeks while tracking tigers. The narrative interweaves human and tiger stories, drawing us into the lives of characters like the magnificent Olga, the courageous Severina, and the orphaned Zolushka. Changing perceptions can be just as vital as scientific endeavors. In a poignant moment, a farmer shares how he refrained from shooting Olga, inspired by the narrative he heard from Mikel, reflecting the possibility of coexistence when he viewed her as an individual.
In a climate of growing nationalism, this project and its accompanying book highlight the powerful outcomes that cross-border cooperation can yield. For three decades, Americans and Russians collaborated, motivated by a shared goal, achieving extraordinary results. At the time of its inception, little was known about the Amur tiger, yet their dedication and innovative approaches have rejuvenated chances for this majestic animal.
Years later, in 2022, Mikel departed from Russia after serving in the project for 30 years. Foreign-run NGOs are now unwelcome in the country. However, upon his departure, the protected Amur tiger habitat had expanded to six times its initial size, and the wild tiger population had reached 500—double the total from the mid-20th century. Stability is not guaranteed, and nothing can be taken for granted. Yet, such prospects offer a refreshing optimism for our current world.
Adam Weymouth is the author of lone wolf, shortlisted for the Baillie Gifford Award.
Feedback is new scientist A popular entity that keeps an eye on the latest developments in science and technology. To share your thoughts on articles you think might be of interest to our readers, please send an email to feedback@newscientist.com.
mechanical turk
Feedback can be quite cynical, so when faced with enforced entertainment, we tend to shy away. This might explain why purchasing ice cream in Türkiye can be a bit of a challenge. To buy ice cream, you must either truly enjoy it or tolerate an extended prank.
The Turkish ice cream shops are notorious for amusing their customers, often pulling tricks such as presenting cones filled with ice cream only to customers. They use sleight of hand to pull it away cleverly. These performances are astonishing and require years of practice. If feedback says we want ice cream, we’re really just after ice cream, not an immersive magic act.
When reporter Matthew Sparks tipped us off about a new preliminary paper on arXiv, we internally sighed. A robot that mimics the antics of a Turkish ice cream vendor caught our attention, as Matt noted, “all the essential research has been completed.”
The result is a robotic arm capable of twisting, turning, and swinging in various directions. Researchers programmed it to perform five entertaining tricks typical of Turkish ice cream vendors.
In one instance, the robot “bounces” the cone from side to side, giving the impression that it’s moving away from the user. In another scenario, it “evades” the user’s hand as they reach for the cone, creating a large arc before pulling back. And then there’s the “dance,” where it playfully levitates the cone in a circular motion just out of the user’s grasp.
Next, the robot was trialed on real individuals. This trick was rated as “more deceptive” compared to a control condition where the robot merely handed out ice cream without any theatrics. Notably, this approach “enhanced enjoyment-related responses (pleasure, engagement, challenge) and the robot’s perceived efficacy, while also potentially undermining performance reliability, perceived safety, and self-efficacy.”
In effect, “playful deception introduces a structural trade-off: it can delight and retain attention but often at the cost of predictability and trust.” The authors advise that “in safety-sensitive contexts, the resulting decline in trust and security may be intolerable.” Really? You think?
appropriate acronyms
When Feedback first solicited suggestions for the best and worst scientific acronyms, we had no inkling of the flood of responses to come. Our inboxes were overwhelmed with convoluted phrases reduced to mere strings of capital letters.
For instance, Stuart McGlashan shared information about a conservation initiative focused on “revitalizing the marine and coastal environment of the River Solway,” located at the border of England and Scotland. It was aptly named the “Solway Coast Marine Project” or SCAMP.
Stuart felt the project’s creators were shortchanging themselves. Given its focus on “marine life restoration,” wouldn’t it have been beneficial to include one more word to enhance the acronym? I concur with the feedback. The acronym should definitely reflect the Solway Coast Marine Conservation Initiative.
On the other side of the globe, Jamie Pittock and Jenny Marella from the Australian National University recently secured funding for a project examining the management of rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean. Creatively, they titled it “Management of Rivers Discharging to the Marine Domain (MORDOR).”
However, this serves as a cautionary lesson. Jamie recounted: “We posted a call for a Research Fellow, and Mr. Bilbo Baggins from the Shire applied. Thankfully, there were far more qualified candidates, and he was not selected.”
shakespeare shakes up
Feedback previously pointed out that two of William Shakespeare’s sonnets needed revisions to omit erroneous references to roses possessing thorns. Those sharp projections are more accurately termed spikes. Reader James Fradgley noted in a letter that Shakespeare’s scientific inaccuracies extend far beyond botany into astronomy.
In Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1, the titular dictator proclaims: “I am as unchangeable as the North Star / whose true nature of correction and rest / has no companion in the heavens.” Caesar is referring to the North Star, which is positioned so close to the celestial north pole that, while other stars orbit around it throughout the year, the north pole remains relatively stable in the sky.
However, as James points out, at the time of Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, “Polaris was not the North Star.” Instead, a star named Kotyab, or Beta Ursa Majoris, was nearest to the celestial north pole, yet it wasn’t sufficiently close to serve as a reliable navigation point.
“To complicate matters, Polaris is a Cepheid variable star,” James adds. This indicates that its brightness fluctuates regularly and it doesn’t shine with a stable intensity. “Honestly, I don’t understand why anyone bothers with Shakespeare,” James concludes.
Feedback tends to be more lenient. Our grasp of astronomical history isn’t solid enough to assert whether it was known in Europe that the North Star was shifting during Shakespeare’s era, but we believe he was busy enough that it makes sense he might have overlooked it. Cepheid variable stars, conversely, weren’t identified until 168 years posthumously, which seems like a valid excuse.
Have a story for feedback?
You can submit your article to Feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Please remember to include your home address. This week’s and past feedback can be accessed on our website.
The exploration of the dynamics within liberal democracies has typically emphasized economic, emotional, and educational influences. However, an additional field of neurology plays a critical role.
Liberal democracies engage our cognitive processes differently than authoritarian regimes. Dictatorships provide a sense of predictability, exemplified by Adolf Hitler’s envisioned timeline, while liberal democracies leave the future open to our choices, presenting it as a canvas we shape ourselves.
This is politically significant yet cognitively daunting. Historically, the future was dictated by a select few, prioritizing preservation over progress. The inherent ambiguity and adaptability of liberal democracy can challenge individuals neurologically, as uncertainty is a state the human mind often resists. Studies indicate that uncertainty triggers more anxiety than the anticipation of an electric shock, leading to various historical attempts to diminish uncertainty through mechanisms like insurance and weather forecasting.
Your position on the spectrum of uncertainty tolerance is influenced by cultural background, age, and gender, as well as neurological factors. Research in political neuroscience reveals that conservative brains lean towards security, generally steering clear of conclusions that lack clarity. This tendency is associated with a larger amygdala, the brain region linked to threat detection, resulting in a heightened discomfort when confronted with the unfamiliar.
On the other hand, a liberal brain exhibits greater gray matter in the anterior cingulate cortex, a region involved in processing ambiguity. This anatomical difference enables liberals to tolerate uncertainty and confrontation more effectively. Liberal democracies can provide space for both perspectives under less stressful conditions. Although conservatives and liberals may have distinct neural predispositions regarding their preferences for the future, evolutionarily, all humans share the ability to envision multiple futures.
However, increased uncertainty can push some individuals beyond their comfort zones, particularly as the future of pressing issues—like environmental change, technology, and social norms—becomes less predictable. To cope with this anxiety, some individuals gravitate towards populist and authoritarian political leaders, committing to rigid decision-making and a black-and-white perspective. They often seek certainty—howbeit a mere illusion—by rejecting innovations (such as medical advancements) or dismissing foreign cultures and religions, thus limiting uncertainty and suppressing potential futures. This obsession with ambiguity and anxiety can create a more tranquil mindset for those affected.
This doesn’t imply a total surrender to an illiberal mindset. Instead, it underscores the necessity for liberal democracies to candidly inform their constituents that embracing liberalism may not come intuitively. Educational initiatives, public discourse, and civil engagement must derive insights into overcoming illiberal tendencies at a brain-based level.
We must communicate the collective benefits of cooperation in various domains, including identity. Ultimately, only through collaboratively addressing the vulnerabilities inherent in our brains can we tackle the significant global challenges we face today.
Florence Gaub is the author of Future: Manual (Hurst, 2026). Riya Yu has authored Fragile Minds: The Neuropolitics of Divided Societies (Columbia UP).
“We are not just composed of human cells and microorganisms, but fragments from others as well…”
Lois Fordham/Millennium Images
Hidden Guests Translated by Lise Barnoud and Bronwyn Haslam, Greystone Books
Although my children were conceived using donated eggs, one might presume we lack any genetic connections. Yet, science confirms that this assumption is not entirely accurate.
Research reveals that during pregnancy, fetal cells traverse the placenta and integrate into the mother’s body, affecting various organs. Likewise, my mother’s cells—and even those transferred from her to me—can also reach my children. With an older sister, the cellular sharing could potentially be even more extensive. Her cells may have crossed into my mother, then to me, and subsequently transferred to my children.
This intriguing concept and its ramifications—that we are holobionts, consisting not just of human cells and microbes but also fragments of other cells—lie at the core of the book. Hidden Guests: How Cell Migration and the New Science of Microchimerism Are Redefining Human Identity by Liz Barneau.
Barneau not only documents the serendipitous discovery of these microchimeric cells but also discusses how cultural and political factors have shaped their interpretation. The notion that pieces of a parent, sibling, or even a fetus reside within our bodies or minds can elicit a spectrum of emotions.
“Some find solace in feeling connected to deceased loved ones, while others worry about renewed control exerted by men,” she notes, referencing claims by some anti-abortion advocates that fetal cells “haunt” women post-abortion, causing illnesses and punishing them.
Fortunately, Barneau primarily focuses on scientific evidence. She chronicles the journeys of researchers through their errors, inquiries, and breakthroughs, illustrating how cells derived from fetuses can have both beneficial and detrimental effects. While these cells might facilitate tissue repair and combat tumors, they are also implicated in autoimmune disorders. Barneau handles the more sensitive topics with care, describing how the cells of an aborted fetus can persist in a woman’s body for decades.
Additionally, she explores how their presence can disrupt traditional genetic inheritance patterns, unveiling remarkable biological enigmas. For instance, a woman may use her own eggs to conceive all her sons, yet only a third of her sons may exhibit shared genetic features. Alternatively, a woman with hepatitis C might possess numerous liver cells that correspond to DNA from two former partners, potentially linked to an aborted pregnancy years before. There’s also the case of an Olympic cyclist who tried to explain a suspicious blood type mix by claiming “vanishing twins,” referring to fraternal twins whose DNA merges in utero.
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The existence of microchimeric cells could create extraordinary biological mysteries “
Hidden Guests is clearly articulated and full of insightful analogies. Journalist Barneau likens microchimeric cells in our bodies to stars in distant galaxies that “bear molecular signatures distinct from ours.” She draws parallels stating that blaming a cell for a tumor’s growth is akin to assigning fault for a fire to a firefighter.
Many revelations await readers. Spoiler alert: Barneau encourages contemplation on the fact that, just as donor cells migrate from a transplanted organ to various parts of a recipient’s body, cells containing a partner’s genetic material can enter blood and lymphatic vessels surrounding the vagina, embedding themselves across the body or brain.
This genetic ambiguity, wherein cells journey back through familial lines, can indeed be perplexing. Nevertheless, Barneau excels at elucidating the current landscape of this nascent field and its significant implications for both medicine and human identity without veering into speculation. She adeptly unravels the long-standing perspective of “one individual, one genome” in an engaging manner.
As a mother who once believed I lacked any biological link to my children, I now realize: Hidden Guests is scientifically enthralling and profoundly reassuring. Barneau enlightens us that we carry traces of others within us. Thanks to her insights, I eagerly anticipate the future developments in this field.
Helen Thomson, a writer based in London, columnist for New Scientist
Coffee trees can be propagated by grafting the shoots onto the rootstock of another plant
Sirichai Asawarapsakul/Getty Images
The time-honored method of grafting plants may hold contemporary relevance. This technique allows genetic modifications in species that are typically challenging or unfeasible to alter.
“Though it’s still in its formative stages, this technology shows immense promise,” says Hugo Logo from the University of Pisa, Italy.
Enhancing the yield and nutritional content of crops is vital to address the significant damages caused by farming practices and curbing skyrocketing food prices amid a rising global population and climate change’s impact on production. Utilizing CRISPR gene editing for precise enhancements is the most efficient approach.
However, plants present unique challenges due to their rigid cell walls, necessitating a cautious approach to gene editing. Traditional methods of plant genetic engineering involve techniques like biolistics, which shoot DNA-coated particles into plant cells, alongside employing naturally occurring genetically altered microorganisms like Agrobacterium.
These techniques typically require generating entire plants from modified cells, which is often impractical for various species, including trees such as cocoa, coffee, sunflower, cassava, avocado, etc.
Even if this method functions well, there lies another significant hurdle. When gene editing induces subtle mutations analogous to those that frequently occur in nature, regulatory bodies in certain regions may classify these plants as standard varieties, allowing them to proceed without the extensive and costly examinations required for conventional genetically modified crops. In contrast, biolistic and Agrobacterium-mediated methods often incorporate extra DNA into the plant’s genome, thus necessitating full regulatory scrutiny.
Researchers are exploring ways to refine plants without introducing superfluous DNA segments into the genome. One possibility involves utilizing viruses to deliver RNA carrying parts of the CRISPR toolkit to plant cells. However, a challenge arises since the Cas9 protein, widely used in gene editing, is substantial, making it difficult for most viruses to accommodate RNA that encodes it.
In 2023, Friedrich Kragler at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Germany, unveiled an innovative approach. He discovered that plant roots generate a specific type of RNA capable of moving throughout the plant and infiltrating cells in the shoots and leaves.
His team modified plants to produce RNA encoding two essential components of CRISPR: a Cas protein for editing and a guide RNA that directs the editing process. They then grafted shoots from unaltered plants onto the roots of the engineered plants, demonstrating that some of the shoots and seeds underwent gene editing.
Rogo and his team regard this technique as so promising that they published a paper advocating for its further development. “Grafting enables us to harness the CRISPR system in species like trees and sunflowers,” Rogo states.
A notable advantage of grafting is its ability to unite relatively distantly related plants. For example, a tomato bud can be grafted onto a potato root. Therefore, while genetically engineering sunflower rootstocks for gene editing might not be feasible, it is plausible to engineer closely related plants to form compatible rootstocks.
Once you develop a rootstock that produces the required RNA, it can facilitate gene editing across various plants. “We can utilize the roots to supply Cas9 and editing guides to numerous elite varieties,” asserts Julian Hibbard at Cambridge University.
“Creating genetically modified rootstocks is not overly laborious since they only need to be developed once and can serve multiple species indefinitely,” he notes. Ralph Bock, also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute but not part of Kragler’s team, adds that this efficient method has wide applications.
For instance, only a limited number of grape varieties, such as Chardonnay, can be regenerated from an individual cell, making modification feasible. However, once a gene-edited rootstock is established that offers disease resistance, it will benefit all grape varieties and potentially more.
Rogo also foresees the possibility of integrating the transplant and viral techniques, where the rhizome can deliver the large mRNA of Cas9 while the virus provides the guide RNA. This way, he claims, the same rootstock could carry out various gene edits.
Claire North is a well-established author, known for writing under multiple names, but this is their inaugural foray into traditional science fiction that includes spaceships. I found the title slow gods intriguing, and the cover art appealing. I entered the narrative with elevated expectations.
It kicks off with: “My name is Maukana na Vdnadze, I am a very poor copy of myself.” A fantastic beginning.
However, I felt a bit lost after about 60 pages. While the story is crafted in a grand space opera style filled with timelines, cultures, and names—typical of the genre—I hadn’t formed a connection with the protagonist yet. The main character is an exceptional deep space pilot but struggles with a troubling history of causing fatalities. Perhaps my mood affected my reading experience. I persisted a little longer, and when the main character, Mau, encountered another figure named Gebre, I started to feel more engaged.
I’m inclined to take a leap here: please read this book. If science fiction is your thing, you’ll likely appreciate it. If you’re unsure initially, as I was, feel free to move on.
I actually have some space to elaborate on my thoughts. It’s been ages since I’ve enjoyed a science fiction piece so thoroughly. Yet, it’s more than just amusement; it’s also deeply emotional and impactful—well articulated.
North shines in creating characters with depth, along with intricate world-building and expansive plots that span galaxies. There’s humor woven throughout, and in the tradition of Ian M. Banks, there are delightful AI entities and drones that contribute to the comedic elements.
“ slow gods presents formidable villains with malicious intent and lethal weapons, including the “Black Ships” that raze cities. “
Maw is a remarkable protagonist. As a reader, it’s refreshing to have no clear idea of what the protagonist might be capable of, contemplating that it could be quite dramatic. In a pivotal moment during his first mission as a pilot, Maw dies and continues to resurrect multiple times, provided that no one witnesses or mourns his remains. It raises questions about whether Maw retains humanity or has transformed into something different.
Returning to the encounter with Gebre… Maw accepts the mission to pilot a vessel to Ajmir, a planet poised for destruction due to the impending collapse of its binary star system, LK-08091881.
A mysterious, god-like machine known as Slow had been issuing warnings about the imminent collapse of the star system, with shockwaves traveling at light speed, endangering all life within an 83 light-year radius. Unfortunately, the affected populace’s reactions were inconsistent at best. By the time Mau landed on Ajmir on its final day, countless individuals remained, hoping to win a lottery for a chance at escape.
Upon his arrival, Mau meets Gebre Netyu Chatitymska Bajwala. Currently, Gebre is somewhat “innumerable,” yet they focus less on that and more on preserving significant artifacts for future generations to understand Ajmir’s true history.
Gebre is an intriguing character, and Maw finds himself attracted to them. What steps can he take to protect Gebre? Or will he seek revenge? The groundwork has been laid.
It’s pertinent to mention that “Shines” exist as formidable villains with hostile dispositions and lethal weaponry, including “black ships” and super soldiers capable of nearly invisible city destruction.
Slow Gods often reminded me of Banks’ culture series, making it a natural “also recommended” option. I typically recommend The Player of Games to newcomers to the culture series, as it serves as an accessible starting point, being the first of Banks’ works in this universe. It follows a character named Horza, who possesses the ability to transform into perfect replicas of others. What else is there to wish for?
Emily H. Wilson is a former editor of New Scientist and the author of the Sumerian trilogy, set in ancient Mesopotamia. The concluding novel, Ninshubar, has been released. You can find her at emilywilson.com, on X @emilyhwilson, and on Instagram @emilyhwilson1
The skull has now been identified as Béla of Macsó
Borbéry Noemi/Tamas Hajdu et al. 2025
Over 700 years ago, a Hungarian duke was brutally murdered in a frontal assault at a monastery. Recent studies of ancient human remains uncovered in Budapest have confirmed their identity as the duke, unveiling shocking insights into his assassination.
“The injuries sustained were far more severe than what would typically be required to kill someone,” remarked Martin Trautmann from the University of Helsinki, Finland.
During a 1915 archaeological excavation at a Dominican monastery on Margaret Island in the mid-Danube River in Budapest, the body of a man was discovered in fragments on the monastery floor. Researchers suspected the remains belonged to 29-year-old Béla of Macsó, grandson of King Béla IV, the monastery’s founder.
Records from 13th-century Austria indicate that Béla was assassinated on the island in November 1272 due to a dispute over the Hungarian throne. The bones exhibited multiple signs of trauma, although earlier scientists lacked the capabilities to confirm their initial theories.
The skeleton appeared to be lost during World War II, as noted by Tamas Hajdu, but was rediscovered at Eötvös Lorand University in Hungary in a wooden box at the Hungarian Museum of Natural History in 2018. This rediscovery has spurred investigations utilizing the latest techniques, including a facial reconstruction conducted last year.
Hajdu reported that the skeleton bore nine wounds on the head and face, along with 17 additional wounds across the rest of the body, all inflicted around the time of death. To understand the nature of the assault, Trautman and his team replicated the same injuries on a model skeleton and examined various scenarios. “We analyzed it like a frame-by-frame motion picture, observing injury after injury,” he explained.
Based on the scars, Trautman concluded that two or three assailants attacked the duke from both the front and sides, and the duke attempted to defend himself by blocking the blows with his arms. “They targeted his flanks, leaving him with little chance to escape.”
Eventually, he fell and sustained a skull fracture but continued to fight with his left leg while lying on his side until a stab to his spine ceased his struggle. The attackers then inflicted multiple strikes to his head and face.
While these injuries could have been lethal, it’s also possible he succumbed to excessive bleeding. “There was significant blood loss,” noted Trautman.
Radiocarbon dating confirmed that the remains dated back to the mid-13th century. Plaque analysis indicated a rich diet, including cooked wheat semolina and baked wheat bread.
DNA analysis revealed he was a fourth-generation descendant of King Béla III of Hungary and an eighth-generation relative of Dmitry Alexandrovich, a 13th-century Russian prince, aligning with historical records of the duke’s lineage.
Further genetic studies indicated he had Eastern Mediterranean ancestry on his mother’s side and Scandinavian heritage via his father, consistent with known information on the duke’s ancestry, suggesting he likely possessed dark skin, curly dark hair, and light brown eyes.
This study illuminates a historically significant event with scant details and limited understanding, according to Tamas Kadar, an independent medieval historian in Budapest. Without eyewitness accounts, the Austrian texts primarily record that the duke “met a grisly end on an island near Buda,” with accounts claiming his limbs were “chopped off” and collected by a sister and aunt.
Recent scientific evidence suggests a passionate motive behind the murder, Kadar emphasizes. Biography of Béla of Macsó. “The mutilation of his body, and possibly further disfigurement post-mortem, illustrates profound animosity and hostility,” Kadar asserts. “The prime goal was his swift and certain death.”
Historic Herculaneum – discover Vesuvius, Pompeii and ancient Naples
Embark on a captivating journey through the ruins of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, where history and archaeology merge.
Many believe that our universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. However, a team of South Korean researchers has posited a different perspective, leading other scientists to raise significant concerns about their claims.
Since the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, the universe has been in a state of expansion. Evidence from distant dying stars known as type 1a supernovae supports the idea that this expansion is accelerating. The theory behind this acceleration is often attributed to a mysterious force dubbed dark energy, which earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2011.
Lee Young Wook and colleagues at Yonsei University argue against this widely accepted explanation. Type 1a supernovae occur when the remnants of a Sun-like star, termed a white dwarf, explode in a binary star system. These supernovae are classified as “standard candles,” as they provide consistent measurements for cosmic distances due to their uniform brightness.
However, Li and his team assert that based on an analysis of 300 host galaxies, the brightness of these supernovae significantly varies with the age of the star. They propose that this “age bias” leads distant supernovae to appear dimmer due to the universe’s accelerating expansion, suggesting that accounting for this could negate the perceived acceleration of the universe.
Professor Lee indicates that their findings imply the universe’s expansion began to decelerate 1.5 billion years ago and could ultimately reverse—an event astronomers describe as a “big crunch,” potentially culminating in an inverted big bang. “Previously, the notion of a major crisis was dismissed, but now it has become a possibility,” he remarked.
Adam Rees, a researcher at the Space Telescope Science Institute in the US and a 2011 Nobel laureate, refutes these claims, noting that earlier investigations from the same team in 2020 contradicted their current argument. He remarked, “A new study from the same group reiterates this viewpoint with minimal changes,” pointing out the difficulty in measuring stellar ages of type 1a supernovae across vast distances. He emphasized that Li’s team used average stellar ages derived from the host galaxy, which he believes weakens their theory due to uncertainties in stellar formation.
Researchers have acknowledged existing questions regarding the influence of stellar age on the brightness of Type 1A supernovae throughout the universe. Mark Sullivan from the University of Southampton expressed skepticism about the notion of a slowing universe, citing ongoing discussions about dark energy measurements.
Future observations from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile are anticipated to greatly enhance our catalog of type 1a supernovae, expanding from several thousand to tens of thousands. This influx of data could enable researchers to chart the universe’s expansion history far back in time, potentially discrediting the claims made by Lee’s team.
Nevertheless, the precise nature of dark energy remains elusive. Recent findings from the Dark Energy Spectroscopy Instrument (DESI) hinted at the possibility that dark energy is not a constant force and may evolve over time. While this does not imply the universe is currently decelerating, it does suggest variations in the expansion rate over cosmic history.
“Current evidence points towards dark energy being more complex than a cosmological constant—suggesting it may be some dynamic entity,” states Ed Macaulay at Queen Mary University of London. “This raises intriguing questions about its true nature.”
Paleontologists from the Institute of Paleontology of the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Autonomous University of Barcelona have identified a new species within the genus Turtle, known as Manuria. This discovery is based on fossilized remains found in the Czech Republic.
Life restoration of Manulia morula. Image credit: Rudolf Hima.
Manulia morula thrived in the wetlands of what is now the Czech Republic during the early Miocene epoch, roughly 20 to 17 million years ago.
This species is recognized as the oldest member of Manuria, which currently exists solely in Southeast Asia and comprises four extinct species along with two living ones: Manulia Emmis and the impressed turtle (Manulia Impreza).
“Tortoise paleontologist Dr. Milan Kraust from the Institute of Paleontology of the Polish Academy of Sciences remarked, ‘Turtles of the family Testudinidae are a clade highly specialized for terrestrial environments, predominantly inhabiting semi-arid conditions.’
“Members of the Testudinidae family, with carapace lengths ranging from 35 to 75 cm (14 to 30 inches), are categorized as medium to large-sized turtles, while those exceeding 75 cm are classified as giant-sized turtles.”
“Extant species of the Testudinidae can be divided into three main groups: gophers and Manuria (which appears as a basal genus or continuous branch), geokerona clade, and test duna clade, with the latter two forming the subfamily Testudininae.”
The fossil remains of Manulia morula include parts of the carapace and plastron, along with numerous unidentified shell fragments, which were uncovered at the Arnikov I fossil site in the Most Basin of Bohemia.
The length of the turtle’s shell is estimated to have been around 50 cm (20 inches).
“The Anikov I area has long been recognized as a region where wetlands featuring flooded rivers and shallow lakes have been documented,” the paleontologists stated.
“The wetland habitat near the coast was also inferred from the abundance of juvenile crocodiles and potentially the presence of Coristodere.”
“However, based on research findings regarding this genus, Manuria suggests a humid forest of evergreen broad-leaved trees situated near water, characterized by a rainy season and a distinct drier, cooler season, reminiscent of the current Kaeng Krachan National Park in Thailand.”
The discovery of Manulia morula broadens the paleobiogeographical distribution of this genus, Manuria, extending its range from Asia into the heart of Europe.
“According to our findings, the genus Manuria originated in Europe just prior to the Miocene climate optimum, subsequently spreading to Asia, where it continues to thrive today,” the researchers elaborated.
These findings were published on October 3, 2025, in the Swiss Journal of Paleontology.
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M. Kraust et al. 2025. Manulia morula sp. Nov.: An ancient large turtle from a Miocene swamp in Anikov, Czech Republic. Swiss Journal of Paleontology 144, 63; doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00400-6
During the concluding phase of their main sequence life, stars with mass comparable to the Sun experience a transformative evolution. This evolutionary process is likely to affect the surrounding planetary systems. As the star expands in its post-main-sequence stage, astronomers anticipate that most exoplanets detected to date may be engulfed by the growing star.
An artist’s impression of a sun-like star engulfing a giant exoplanet. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / M. Garlick / M. Zamani
Utilizing data from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), astronomers Edward Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen studied 456,941 stars that have just commenced their post-main sequence phase.
By employing a computer algorithm, they targeted giant planets with short orbital periods (those that complete an orbit in less than 12 days) and searched for consistent dips in brightness that would indicate these planets transiting in front of their host stars.
They discovered 130 planets and planet candidates, including 33 previously unknown, closely orbiting these stars.
The researchers observed that such planets are less likely to exist around stars that have expanded and cooled sufficiently to be categorized as red giants (more evolved stars), implying that many of these planets might have already been destroyed.
Dr. Bryant, an astronomer at University College London and the University of Warwick, stated: “This provides compelling evidence that as stars progress beyond the main sequence, planets can rapidly spiral out of existence.”
“This topic has been debated and theorized for some time, but we can now observe this phenomenon directly and quantify it at the level of stellar populations.”
“We expected to observe this phenomenon, but we were still astonished by how effectively these stars can consume nearby planets.”
“This destruction is believed to stem from a gravitational tug-of-war between the planet and the star, known as tidal interactions.”
“As the star evolves and expands, these interactions intensify.”
“Just as the moon influences the Earth’s oceans, creating tides, planets also exert a pull on their stars.”
“These interactions decelerate the planet, reducing its orbit and causing it to spiral inward, ultimately resulting in its disintegration or absorption by the star.”
“In the coming billions of years, our sun will expand and transform into a red giant,” mentioned Dr. Van Eylen, an astronomer at University College London.
“Will the planets in our solar system endure this transformation? Our findings suggest that, in some instances, planets do not survive.”
“Earth may be better off than the giant planets much closer to the stars we examine.”
“However, we only analyzed the initial part of the post-main-sequence phase, spanning the first one or two million years. There is still ample opportunity for stellar evolution.”
“Unlike the giant planets lost in our investigation, Earth has the potential to endure the Sun’s red giant phase. However, life on Earth is likely to be extinguished.”
The team’s paper was published on October 15, 2025, in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Edward M. Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen. 2025. Determine the impact of post-main sequence stellar evolution on the population of passing giant planets. MNRAS 544 (1): 1186-1214; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1771
What occurs when two black holes share an unbreakable quantum connection? Research indicates this may lead to a textured space-time passage referred to as an “Einstein-Rosen caterpillar.”
Albert Einstein’s name links two distinct physical anomalies. The first is the Einstein-Rosen bridge (a wormhole that links distant regions in space and time), and the second is the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen pair, characterized by an inseparable property called quantum entanglement. In a 2013 study, physicists Juan Maldacena from Princeton University and Leonard Susskind of Stanford University proposed that these phenomena may be similar concerning black holes.
Now, Brian Swingle and a team at Brandeis University in Massachusetts have found that this equivalence might only hold under certain conditions. They conducted a mathematical analysis of entangled black holes and discovered that the situation is more intricate and less straightforward than previously assumed.
Swingle stated that exploring the wormholes linking quantum entangled black holes could ultimately aid scientists in gaining deeper insights into black hole interiors. Black holes are enigmatic entities that remain poorly understood due to their immense gravitational fields. Mathematical theories suggest that the size of a black hole’s interior corresponds to its complexity, linked to its fundamental quantum components. The researchers pondered whether a similar principle could apply to wormholes joining black hole pairs.
This presents a significant challenge because a comprehensive understanding of black hole entanglement necessitates a thorough theory of quantum gravity, which has yet to be established. Instead, the team utilized a model that imperfectly combines quantum physics and gravity, but still offers relevant insights, according to Swingle.
The researchers found a mathematical relationship between the level of microscopic quantum randomness within a wormhole and its geometric length. Their results indicated that typical wormholes tend to be more bumpy and less smooth, leading to their comparison with caterpillars. Swingle noted that this contrasts with earlier findings from 2013 and may pertain to special, less common instances where the entangled state of the black holes generates a smooth wormhole between them.
Donald Marolf from the University of California, Santa Barbara, remarked that while the study sheds light on black hole entanglement, it has not yet clarified the most frequent scenarios of such entanglement. He pointed out that the set of all theoretically possible black hole states is vast, exceeding the total number of black holes in our universe, thus requiring further theoretical exploration to definitively determine the typical connected states of a pair of black holes.
Future studies could involve utilizing quantum computers to simulate cosmic black holes and caterpillar wormholes, Swingle suggested. His team’s methodology linked simplified quantum theory with gravitational theory, so as quantum computing advances become more powerful and reliable, it may offer new understandings of both quantum theory and gravitational concepts. Since their calculations already incorporate elements of quantum information theory, Swingle foresees potential breakthroughs in quantum computing algorithms inspired by research into gravitational mysteries.
At Quantinuum, researchers have harnessed the capabilities of the Helios-1 quantum computer to simulate a mathematical model traditionally used to analyze superconductivity. While classical computers can perform these simulations, this breakthrough indicates that quantum technology may soon become invaluable in the realm of materials science.
Superconductors can transmit electricity flawlessly, yet they only operate at exceedingly low temperatures, rendering them impractical. For decades, physicists have sought to modify the structural characteristics of superconductors to enable functionality at room temperature, and many believe the solution lies within a mathematical framework known as the Fermi-Hubbard model. This model is regarded by Quantinuum researchers as a significant component of condensed matter physics. For additional insights, see Henrik Dreyer.
While traditional computers excel at simulating the Fermi-Hubbard model, they struggle with large samples and fluctuating material properties. In comparison, quantum computers like Helios-1 are poised to excel in these areas. Dreyer and colleagues achieved a milestone by conducting the most extensive simulation of the Fermi-Hubbard model on a quantum platform.
The team employed the Helios-1, which operates with 98 qubits derived from barium ions. These qubits are manipulated using lasers and electromagnetic fields to execute the simulations. By adjusting the qubits through various quantum states, they collected data on their properties. Their simulation encompassed 36 fermions, the exact particles typical in superconductors, represented mathematically by the Fermi-Hubbard model.
Past experiments show that fermions must form pairs for superconductors to function, an effect that can be induced by laser light. The Quantinuum team modeled this scenario, applying laser pulses to the qubits and measuring the resulting states to detect signs of particle pairing. Although the simulation didn’t replicate the experiment precisely, it captured key dynamic processes that are often challenging to model using traditional computational methods with larger particle numbers.
Dreyer mentioned that while the experiment does not definitively establish an advantage for Helios-1 over classical computing, it gives the team assurance in the competitiveness of quantum computers compared to traditional simulation techniques. “Utilizing our methods, we found it practically impossible to reproduce the results consistently on classical systems, whereas it only takes hours with a quantum computer,” he stated. Essentially, the time estimates for classical calculations were so extended that determining equivalence with Helios’ performance became challenging.
The Trapped Ions Function as Qubits in the Helios-1 Chip
Quantinum
No other quantum computer has yet endeavored to simulate fermion pairs for superconductivity, with the researchers attributing their achievement to Helios’ advanced hardware. David Hayes from Quantinuum remarked on Helios’ qubits being exceptionally reliable and their proficiency in industry-standard benchmarking tasks. Preliminary experiments yielded maintenance of error-free qubits, including a feat of entangling 94 specialized qubits—setting a new record across all quantum platforms. The utilization of such qubits in subsequent simulations could enhance their precision.
Eduardo Ibarra Garcia Padilla, a researcher at California’s Harvey Mudd University, indicated that the new findings hold promise but require careful benchmarks against leading classical computer simulations. The Fermi-Hubbard model has intrigued physicists since the 1960s, so he’s eager for advanced tools to further its study.
Uncertainty surrounds the timeline for approaches like Helios-1 to rival the leading conventional computers, according to Steve White from the University of California, Irvine. He noted that many essential details remain unresolved, particularly ensuring that quantum simulations commence with the appropriate qubit properties. Nevertheless, White posits that quantum simulations could complement classical methods, particularly in exploring the dynamic behaviors of materials.
“They are progressing toward being valuable simulation tools for condensed matter physics,” he stated, but added, “It remains early days, and computational challenges persist.”
Research indicates that men may need to engage in exercise for twice as long as women to obtain equivalent health benefits, according to a significant new study involving 85,000 participants.
Findings revealed that women performing approximately four hours of moderate to vigorous exercise weekly, such as brisk jogging, swimming, or dancing, could lower their risk of coronary heart disease by 30 percent. In contrast, men required nearly nine hours of physical activity per week to achieve the same risk reduction.
“In comparison to men, women allocate half the time to exercise for similar health outcomes,” the researchers noted in their publication. Nature cardiovascular research.
While the research team did not explore the reasons for this notable difference, they proposed several physiological explanations.
Women possess higher estrogen levels, a hormone linked to bone and muscle health along with fat metabolism rates.
Additionally, men and women have different types of skeletal muscles, which may make women more adept at endurance training.
“Heart disease is the primary cause of premature death in both genders, though men typically develop heart disease earlier, and women tend to ‘catch up’ later in life after menopause,” stated Professor Riyaz Patel, a cardiologist at University College London, who was not part of the study. BBC Science Focus.
“The takeaway is that everyone can benefit from exercise. Increased physical activity is advantageous for all.”
Anything that gets your heart pumping, like jogging, dancing, or swimming, can help improve your heart health – Credit: Getty
The study, led by Jiajin Chen from Xiamen University in China, monitored participants aged 37 to 73 using wrist-worn fitness trackers over an eight-year period.
For individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions, women required just 51 minutes of exercise weekly to reduce their risk of death by 30 percent, compared to 85 minutes for men.
Heart disease remains the leading cause of early death globally. In the United States alone, about 100 out of every 100,000 women are anticipated to die from cardiovascular disease in 2023, while the figure for men is 60% higher.
The World Health Organization, along with the American Heart Association and NHS, advises individuals aged 16 to 64, regardless of gender, to engage in 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week.
Algal Bloom Devastates Fish Populations in South Australia
Australian Associated Press/Alamy
A vast and lethal algal bloom has wreaked havoc in South Australia over the past eight months, impacting over 20,000 square kilometers of marine habitat. An estimated 1 million animals from more than 550 species have perished, significantly affecting human health as well.
Researchers have recently pinpointed the species responsible for this ecological calamity, cautioning that it represents a “new international threat with unpredictable outcomes.”
The alarming agent is a type of algae known as Karenia cristata. Previously, it was documented only in two locales near South Africa, where it resulted in fish die-offs in 1989 and the mid-1990s, as well as off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada.
The research team has also identified a novel toxin released by K. cristata, which belongs to a group of compounds called brevetoxins. These toxins can inflict neurological harm on marine creatures, damage fish gills, and lead to fatalities in various species, including sea dragons, great white sharks, and dolphins. Brevetoxins pose a risk to humans via inhalation or ingestion.
Team member Shona Murray, a professor at the University of Technology Sydney, expressed concern among international colleagues regarding the implications of a new toxin-producing species potentially appearing in their waters.
“We are aware that this algal bloom has the capacity to proliferate in other parts of the world,” she cautions. “Previously, we underestimated its ability to create extensive and destructive blooms that could persist for eight months.
“Now we have confirmation, and it’s evident that it’s already occurring in other global regions; thus, I consider it an international threat.”
Satellite Image from August 13: High Concentrations of Yellow-Green Chlorophyll Indicate Algal Blooms Along South Australia’s Coastline
ESA
Murray and her research team noted that nearly 850 instances of harmful marine algal blooms have been documented worldwide from 1985 to 2025, with the recent South Australian event considered “one of the most severe and widespread” ever recorded globally.
The researchers have yet to determine the reason for such a vast and lethal bloom. The rising frequency of harmful blooms globally has been linked to increasing ocean temperatures, and the outbreak coincided with a significant marine heatwave, where water temperatures soared up to 3 degrees Celsius above normal. Nevertheless, the unexpected expansion of the blooms occurred after May 2025 when ocean temperatures began to decline.
K. cristata researchers emphasize the urgent need to comprehend the triggers for the bloom, noting that, given the right circumstances, it could impact numerous countries.
Christopher Keneally from the University of Adelaide points out that the dominant Karenia species previously identified, Karenia mikimotoi, is not known for producing brevetoxins. “There are numerous uncertainties regarding how the specific toxins produced by this species influence humans,” he states.
He concurs that the discovery raises concerns about potential new threats arising beyond Australia. “Given this species’ wide global distribution, it’s likely already present in small quantities in various coastal areas worldwide,” he adds. “As nutrient levels rise in many urbanized coastal regions and sea surface temperatures escalate, we can rightly predict that a variety of bloom-forming organisms will become increasingly prevalent.”
Solar power plants in South Africa – discussions on clean energy support at COP30
Emmanuel Crozet/AFP via Getty Images
This year’s COP, commencing on November 10 in Belém, Brazil, is not expected to yield a substantial new global agreement for addressing climate change. The emphasis will be on clarifying the operational details of existing agreements.
Prior to the summit, nations were tasked with submitting revised pledges to lower emissions, called Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). However, only 67 out of 195 signatories of the Paris Agreement have done so. Countries have until the end of October to revise their plans; ones to watch are the European Union, which has set targets as a consortium, and India, which is currently lagging. Additionally, President Donald Trump’s exit from the Paris Agreement effectively rendered the United States’ commitments void. Goals submitted under President Joe Biden’s administration are expected in December 2024.
On a more optimistic note, China has committed to reducing net greenhouse gas emissions by 7 to 10 percent from their peak by 2035. While this falls short of curbing global warming to 2°C, it marks a progress towards the country’s initial absolute emissions reduction target. “This is a significant advance compared to what we’ve witnessed in the past, and it’s essential to view it positively,” remarked Manuel Pulgar Vidal, WWF’s global leader for climate and energy.
Adapting to climate change
Two agenda items may play critical roles in both mitigating and adapting to climate change.
Brazil is championing the Belém Action Mechanism for a Just Transition, a fresh approach that repositions the global shift to clean energy as an avenue for job creation and growth rather than just economic hardship. The initiative aims to aid nations in transforming key sectors such as energy, mining, and agriculture, anticipating pledges and systems to revamp industries while supporting communities impacted by these transitions.
However, in light of the severe backdrop of climate change, COP’s agenda seems to be transitioning from preventing climate change to adapting to its impacts. “COPs 1 through 29 unfolded under one climate paradigm; we now face a different climate reality, necessitating efforts to enhance safety for people,” noted Laurie Rayborn, a member of the climate think tank “Strategic Climate Risk Initiative.”
Another significant initiative is the Global Goals on Adaptation (GGA), which aims to quantify and compare the vulnerability of nations to climate change. It is set to include approximately 100 indicators like flood risk and food security. The GGA will facilitate global decisions on which nations should receive financial support and is a critical step toward financing those most affected.
However, world leaders must avoid becoming overly fixated on adaptation at the expense of mitigation, cautioned Leyborn. “There are scenarios where mitigation takes a backseat, but that leads to nowhere. Less mitigation translates to more adaptation, and we could be caught in a destructive cycle.”
Addressing fiscal disparities
As affluent nations fall short in providing the necessary financing for developing countries to adapt and combat climate change, Brazil aims to maintain funding aligned with the Baku to Belém roadmap. The target is to escalate global climate finance to $1.3 trillion annually by 2035.
Low-income nations are looking to their wealthier counterparts for subsidies while they struggle with the impacts of significant emissions that harm their agriculture. Wealthy nations are exploring funding avenues via private investments, debt exchanges, development bank support, and innovative financing strategies such as Tropical Forest Forever Facilities (TFFFs).
The TFFF is anticipated to launch formally at COP30 to finance forest conservation through private investment. Brazil and other nations will secure initial investments into the fund, which can then borrow nearly $100 billion from major private investors at favorable interest rates. The TFFF will reinvest these borrowed funds into sustainable initiatives that yield higher returns, with profits directly benefiting nations that safeguard their forests.
Brazil is already committing a billion dollars while the World Bank has agreed to host the fund by the end of October. The TFFF has the potential to create a sustainable conservation model that could generate $4 billion each year for the preservation of the world’s diminishing forests.
With few ambitious declarations anticipated at the COP, the pressure on the TFFF to succeed is rising, necessitating substantial investments from many nations in the billions.
“The TFFF’s launch is likely to be a highlight amid the struggles faced in international climate negotiations. Its success will serve as a crucial indicator for the future we face with significant climate shifts,” stated Simon Zadek from Morphosys, a Swiss climate finance consulting firm.
While historical accounts claim that Ingólfr Arnarson was the first Norse settler to reach Iceland in the 870s, this assertion might not hold true.
Public domain
Norsemen may have arrived in Iceland as much as 70 years earlier than previously believed, and their arrival might not have been the environmental catastrophe often depicted.
Traditionally, it’s stated that Iceland saw its first settlement in the 870s. This early migration is frequently viewed as an ecological calamity brought on by Viking raiders and Norse settlers who cleared the forests for fuel, construction materials, and arable land. Today, less than 2 percent of the country is still forested.
Finding concrete evidence regarding the arrival of these early settlers has been challenging. Archaeologists have discovered an ancient wooden longhouse, estimated to be from around 874 AD, located near Stódvarfjordur in eastern Iceland. This old longhouse is thought to have been a summer dwelling established in the 800s, though this finding has yet to be documented in scientific journals.
Currently, Eske Willerslev, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, and his team examined environmental DNA (eDNA) gathered from sediment cores drilled in Lake Tjörnin, an area in central Reykjavík, one of Iceland’s earliest and continuously inhabited locations, to identify which species existed and their timestamps. They analyzed volcanic ash layers, alongside radiocarbon dating and plutonium isotope assessments, to develop a timeline from about 200 AD up to contemporary times, integrating known historical events.
A significant marker in their research is the Randonham tephra layer, formed from volcanic ash deposited during eruptions around 877 AD. The bulk of evidence indicating human habitation in Iceland is found above this layer, indicating subsequent settlement.
“The signs beneath the tephra provide compelling evidence for earlier human activity,” Comments Chris Callow from the University of Birmingham, UK, who did not participate in the research.
Willerslev and his colleagues postulate that humans may have arrived as early as 810 AD. This inference is based on an observed rise in levoglucosan, a compound linked to biomass burning, and a subsequent increase in sewage-related viruses.
“If it were 850, I wouldn’t have been so surprised, but 810 represents rapid Viking expansion in the North Atlantic,” Callow remarks. “Overall, this aligns with our suspicions, but a date as early as 810 remains contentious.”
While piecing together a thorough environmental history of the region is noteworthy, the evidence supporting such an early arrival remains questionable. Kathryn Catlin from Jacksonville State University in Alabama stated, “The sewage biomarkers only show a slight increase around 800, nothing until 1900. Where are the indicators of sewage and human activity in between?” She also pointed out that while biomass burning could imply human presence, natural occurrences like lightning could also ignite fires.
Willerslev and his colleagues opted not to conduct interviews. New Scientist also noted that the settlers’ arrival corresponded with an uptick in local biodiversity. Genetic data imply they brought grazing animals, cultivated hay, and grew barley on a small scale for brewing purposes.
In contrast to the widespread narrative of swift deforestation, eDNA from pollen samples revealed that birch and willow trees expanded during the settlement era. Notably, birch pollen grains rose fivefold between 900 and 1200 AD, a shift researchers believe may have been influenced by settlers managing the area to protect timber and fuel sources.
“This significantly contradicts earlier claims that Vikings arrived in Iceland and immediately caused environmental destruction,” Katrin stated.
Although sheep, cattle, pigs, and horses do not appear in considerable numbers until decades after the initial settlement, Willerslev and his colleagues propose this lag may stem from the 20-year period required to build up detectable herds in eDNA records.
Callow posits another explanation: the first inhabitants may have only visited during the summer months for walrus ivory, possibly arriving without many animals. “They could have intended to hunt a few walruses and return home,” he suggested.
eDNA indicators imply the significant loss of biodiversity, including birch and willow trees, didn’t transpire until after 1200. Willerslev and his team associate this decline with the cooler climate associated with the Little Ice Age, rather than direct effects from settlers. This marked a period of colder temperatures from approximately 1250 to around 1860, compounded by volcanic eruptions and storm surges.
Few websites are as essential to the internet as Wikipedia.
This digital encyclopedia was established by Jimmy Wales roughly 25 years ago while he was involved with the expert-driven initiative “Nupedia.”
Although Nupedia didn’t gain traction, its successor evolved into one of the most significant platforms online. Currently, there are over 7 million articles available in English alone.
So, where does Wikipedia stand as distinguishing fact from fiction becomes increasingly challenging and artificial intelligence (AI) transforms how we generate and access knowledge?
To explore this, BBC Science Focus held a discussion with Wales. He shared insights on the evolution of platforms over the last two decades, the challenge of sustaining trust and neutrality amidst misinformation, and how AI might shape the future.
SF: You’ve mentioned that social media contributes to a decline in trust. Can Wikipedia still thrive in such an environment?
JW: I believe we can certainly hold our own. I don’t necessarily view it as a competition, akin to business rivalries or transportation competition.
There’s a growing sentiment advocating for a shift from cultural conflicts to more thoughtful and respectful interactions, embracing differences, and promoting dialogue across divides.
Yet, division is an inherent aspect of human nature. For instance, when people discuss today’s youth, they often claim they lack attention spans and are perpetually glued to their phones. However, it’s evident that while they enjoy captivating short-form content, they can also binge-watch intricate TV series for extended hours.
Both represent facets of the human experience and can exist simultaneously—light-hearted social media and serious inquiry. Much like our dietary habits, we should ensure a balance, avoiding just junk food while incorporating nutritious options.
SF: How has Wikipedia managed to foster a relatively constructive culture while the rest of the internet seems to decline?
JW: I appreciate your use of “relatively constructive,” which recognizes that we face internal disputes and occasional anger—it’s part of being human.
It’s fundamentally about design—both in terms of software and what I term community design. It’s a blend of various factors.
When a business model relies heavily on ad revenue and user engagement, it becomes tempting to promote content that elicits longer viewing times, anger, or arguments, rather than happiness. This approach can be unhealthy in the long term.
Conversely, Wikipedia operates without ads and is funded by public donations. Thus, our model positions us as a charity, which means we aim to minimize clicks and keep users engaged without overwhelming them.
This necessitates a divergent approach to site design and community guidelines.
Civilized discussion is crucial. Without it, Wikipedia could become rampant with misinformation. I believe numerous foundational elements contribute to our success.
SF: Recently, Wikipedia has encountered increased criticism—Elon Musk even referred to it as “Walkpedia.” How do you feel about that?
JW: That’s unfortunate. When Elon labels us “Walkpedia,” he’s mistaken and misinformed. That assertion is baseless.
For instance, regarding transgender topics, there’s a common “gotcha” question: “What is a woman?” Wikipedia’s entry for “female” defines it as “an adult female human being.” This is indisputable, isn’t it?
Furthermore, the entry also addresses more nuanced discussions surrounding gender in society, which add depth.
Elon Musk recently introduced Grokipedia, an AI-powered competitor to Wikipedia – Credit: Getty
Claiming that we’ve turned into some sort of radical leftist organization is simply misguided. Of course, there are areas worthy of refinement. At times, you may examine an article and feel it’s unjust towards one party, and these instances require critical reflection and effort.
The solution lies in engaging more individuals. I would welcome more compassionate and thoughtful individuals who recognize bias in Wikipedia articles to realize that contributions stem from source material, rather than assuming it’s the work of some radical activist ready to block dissenters.
While certain perspectives may lack representation, we can incorporate them and work toward a more balanced viewpoint.
read more:
SF: As reliance on AI for information grows, could Wikipedia face obsolescence?
JW: I hesitate to say “never,” as the future of technology is unpredictable. However, at present, we don’t foresee a significant impact in that regard.
A Pew Research study indicates that Wikipedia appears in about 3% of the top 10 results in standard Google searches, whereas Google’s AI summaries link to Wikipedia approximately 6% of the time.
This dynamic means Wikipedia is frequently referenced in Google AI summaries, although fewer users are inclined to click those links. We’re not overly concerned about clicks, but it remains a trend to monitor.
Personally, I utilize AI extensively and have discovered that its strengths lie in scenarios that wouldn’t typically generate interest on Wikipedia.
Forty years ago, I would have assumed that the first AI able to write in English would be dull and purely factual, merely regurgitating information. Surprisingly, I find that AI excels in creative brainstorming. It’s impressively effective.
Jimmy Wales was the first individual to edit Wikipedia, writing “Hello, World!” right after its launch in 2001. – Credit: Getty
SF: Are you concerned that Wikipedia’s biases could influence the AI models trained on its extensive content?
JW: Absolutely. This is a crucial focus, particularly for those developing AI models.
From what I’ve observed, the largest data sources for most advanced language models (LLMs) are Wikipedia and Reddit. While both are valuable, they have inherent limitations, particularly since both are predominantly male-dominated.
We are striving for awareness, as Wikipedia prioritizes neutrality. Yet, if we’re not vigilant, we risk unintentionally reinforcing existing biases.
At the same time, LLMs can be trained and directed, making it feasible to envision an AI continuously navigating through Wikipedia, identifying biases, and flagging articles in need of revision.
If utilized appropriately, this process could highlight instances where, for example, articles about male Nobel Prize-winning economists mention their families, while articles about female winners do not. Such insights are intriguing and may go unnoticed.
This conversation has been condensed for brevity and clarity.
Archaeologists have unearthed Oldowan stone tools across three distinct archaeological layers at the Namorotuknan site, dated to roughly 300,000 years (2.75 million to 2.44 million years ago) within the Koobifora Formation in northeastern Turkana Basin, Marsabit District, Kenya. This discovery, indicating careful selection of rock materials, points to the sustained practice of toolmaking across epochs.
A 2.58 million year old stone tool excavated from the Namorotuknan ruins in Kenya. Image credit: Brown others., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-64244-x.
The initial phases of toolmaking, which date back over 3 million years, emphasize percussion techniques that are prevalent in the human lineage and shared with other primates.
The practice of tool use associated with extractive foraging continues to be a notable aspect of certain modern primate species.
The earliest structured creation of sharp stone tools, referred to as Oldowan, has been documented at hominin sites in eastern Africa: Lady Gerar and Gona in the Afar Basin (2.6 million years ago), Ethiopia, and Nyayanga in western Kenya (2.6 to 2.9 million years ago).
Professor David R. Brown, an anthropologist at George Washington University and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, along with his team, discovered stone tools across three archaeological horizons at the Namorotuknan site, estimated to be 2.75 million years ago, 2.58 million years ago, and 2.44 million years ago.
“This site tells an extraordinary story of cultural continuity,” Professor Brown remarked.
“What we observe is a long-standing tradition of technology rather than a singular innovation.”
“Our findings imply that tool usage might have been a more widespread adaptation among our primate ancestors,” stated Dr. Susana Carvalho, science director at Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique.
“Namorotsukunan offers a unique perspective into a transforming world: flowing rivers, fierce fires, expanding arid regions, and resilient tools.”
Stone tools discovered at the Three Horizons site at the Namorotuknan site in Kenya. Image credit: Brown others., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-64244-x.
“For 300,000 years, the same tools have endured, possibly revealing the origins of our fundamental habit of using technology to adapt to change,” remarked Dr. Dan V. Parc Laurier, a researcher at GeoEcoMar, Utrecht University, and the University of São Paulo.
“Early humans showed remarkable consistency in creating sharp stone tools, reflecting advanced technology and knowledge handed down through numerous generations.”
Researchers have utilized volcanic ash dating, ancient sediment magnetic signals, chemical signatures in rocks, and microscopic plant remains to construct a broad narrative of climate change, providing context for the influence of technology on human evolution.
These toolmakers managed to persevere through significant environmental transformations. Their innovative technology facilitated new dietary practices, including the consumption of meat, transforming challenges into survival advantages.
“These discoveries indicate that humans had already mastered the creation of sharp stone tools by approximately 2.75 million years ago, suggesting that the inception of Oldowan technology is older than previously believed,” stated Dr. Nigas Baraki, a researcher at George Washington University.
Dr. Francis Forrest, a researcher at Fairfield University, added: “At Namorotuknan, cut marks connect stone tools with carnivory, indicating a diverse diet that thrived amidst shifting landscapes.”
“The record of plant fossils narrates a fascinating tale: the landscape transitioned from rich wetlands to fire-prone arid grasslands and semi-deserts,” noted Dr. Rahab N. Kinyanjui, a researcher at the National Museum of Kenya and the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology.
“Despite changes in vegetation, the production of tools remained consistent. This reflects resilience.”
of result Posted in today’s diary nature communications.
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Dr. Brown others. 2025. Early Oldowan technology flourished during Pliocene environmental change in the Turkana Basin of Kenya. Nat Commun 16, 9401;doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-64244-x
A newly identified species of hermit crab-associated sea anemone, Paracalliactis, has been described by a group of marine biologists from Japan and Australia. This crab creates and maintains a distinctive shell-like structure known as a carcinodecium, which enhances the living space for its hermit crab host.
Paracalliactis. Image credit: Yoshikawa et al., doi: 10.1098/rsos.250789.
Paracalliactis is the ninth recognized species within its genus, Paracalliactis.
The genus previously included eight species, one of which was unverified; Involves Paracalliactis and one yet-to-be-described species inhabit shells occupied by hermit crabs.
Most Paracalliactis species thrive on the deep-sea floor (at depths of approximately 200 to 4,700 meters), while Paracalliactis rosea and Paracalliactis sinica are noted at varying depths from shallow to deep (50–3,000 m and shallow depths of 39–40 m, respectively).
“Our findings indicate that even simple organisms like sea anemones can exhibit unexpectedly complex behaviors,” stated the first author, Dr. Akihiro Yoshikawa, a researcher at Kumamoto University.
“The capacity of animals to construct shell-like structures offers intriguing insights into how they navigate and perceive their environment.”
The Paracalliactis hermit crabs have been found inhabiting the shells of Oncopagurus monstrosus, which resides at depths ranging from 200 to 500 meters along the Pacific coast of Mie and Shizuoka prefectures.
Unlike typical sea anemones, which lack a hard skeleton, this species secretes a carcinogen that fortifies and enlarges the crab’s shell.
The research team’s stable isotope analysis indicated that the sea anemones derive a portion of their nutrition from organic particles and crab feces, demonstrating an unusual yet effective recycling method on the deep sea floor.
Additionally, 3D imaging using micro-CT scans revealed that sea anemones attach to their shells in a consistent, unidirectional manner, potentially linked to both feeding and shell formation.
Consequently, hermit crabs gain the advantage of increased body size through this association, underscoring a true symbiotic relationship between the two species.
“Our study provides the first quantitative evidence of mutualism within the carcinogen-forming context, illustrating a remarkable case of deep-sea symbiosis and hypothesizing how mutual benefits evolve over time, fostering the development of carcinogen-forming abilities and species-specific mutualisms,” the authors concluded.
Their paper was published on October 22nd in Royal Society Open Science.
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Akihiro Yoshikawa et al.. 2025. Deep seafloor symbiosis: A new shell-forming sea anemone coexists with hermit crabs. R. Soc. Open Science 12(10):250789; doi: 10.1098/rsos.250789
Lichens, comprising symbiotic fungi and algae (and/or cyanobacteria), are crucial ecological components that inhabit various substrates, including fossils. A recent study highlights their role as biological indicators of fossils in western North America, and demonstrates that they can be identified through remote sensing techniques.
Preferential colonization of dinosaur bones by lichens. Image credit: Pickles et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.09.036.
Dr. Brian Pickles from the University of Reading noted, “This research showcases how extant organisms can assist in uncovering ancient life forms.”
“It’s fascinating to realize that these lichens, which essentially represent miniature ecosystems, thrive on the remains of dinosaurs that went extinct over 75 million years ago.”
“Utilizing drone technology to identify spectral signatures in lichens could transform how paleontologists search for fossils.”
In their research, Dr. Pickles and his team identified two lichen species, Rusabschia elegans and Xanthomendoza trachyphylla, which colonized 50% of exposed fossil bones while affecting less than 1% of nearby rock fragments.
This preference can be attributed to the alkaline, calcareous, and porous nature of dinosaur bones that these lichens favor.
“Although the tendency of lichens to thrive on fossil bones has been observed for decades, it has never been quantitatively assessed until now,” stated Dr. Caleb Brown, a researcher at the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology.
“During our first encounter with a high concentration of exposed fossil bone, such as in a bone bed, our attention often shifts from the bones themselves to the vibrant orange lichen ‘meadows.’
The researchers deployed a drone fitted with specialized sensors to pinpoint lichen-colonized fossils from aerial imagery boasting a resolution of 2.5 cm.
Lichens reveal distinct spectral characteristics, exhibiting lower reflectance in blue wavelengths and increased reflectance in the infrared spectrum.
This innovative method presents considerable benefits for exploration in paleontology, particularly in remote locations where conventional ground surveys are challenging.
This strategy could expedite fossil discoveries while minimizing field expenses and ecological impacts.
The findings are rooted in decades of anecdotal observations made by paleontologists.
In 1980, paleontologist Darren H. Tanke observed that the orange pigmentation of lichens on centrosaurus bones might soon be detectable via satellite. The potential for locating bones using aerial drone technology appears more achievable than ever.
“This drone study sets the foundation for employing aircraft and satellites to map larger expanses,” remarked Dr. Derek Peddle, a researcher at the University of Lethbridge.
“Our newly developed lichen index will aid in fossil identification across vast terrains.”
“It’s exhilarating to merge our imaging technology with the expertise of this international team to enhance dinosaur discovery through remote sensing of lichens.”
The team’s publication appears in this week’s issue of Current Biology.
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Brian J. Pickles et al., 2025. Remote sensing of lichens by drone to detect dinosaur bones. Current Biology 35 (21): R1044-R1045; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.09.036
On Tuesday, President Donald Trump revealed his intention to renominate billionaire entrepreneur Jared Isaacman to head NASA, just months after abruptly removing Isaacman’s name from consideration in May.
“Jared’s enthusiasm for space, his astronaut experience, and his commitment to advancing exploration and unlocking the secrets of space make him the perfect candidate to guide NASA into a new and daring era,” stated President Trump. View on Truth Social.
Should he be confirmed, Isaacman would succeed Transportation Secretary Sean Duffy, who has been serving as interim administrator of the space agency since July.
At 42, Isaacman is considered somewhat of an outsider for leading the space agency. As the founder and CEO of payment processing company Shift4, he has never held a position with NASA or the federal government.
Nonetheless, he has completed two spaceflights on commercial SpaceX missions, having personally financed both endeavors for undisclosed amounts.
Trump initially nominated Isaacman in December 2024 but retracted his nomination five months later, citing a “thorough review of our existing relationship.” Details were scarce, although some Republicans expressed concern over Isaacman’s past contributions to Democratic campaigns.
If confirmed, Isaacman would take charge of NASA during a time of significant turmoil for the agency. Like other federal departments, NASA has seen major cuts in funding and personnel as part of the Trump administration’s downsizing strategies.
Since Trump’s return to office, NASA has reduced its workforce by about 20%, including over 2,000 senior positions. Last month, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced a reduction of 550 jobs, approximately 10% of its workforce.
Additionally, space agencies are bracing for potential budget cuts, as President Trump’s proposed budget indicates a reduction of more than $6 billion (roughly 24%) in NASA funding. With the ongoing government shutdown, many uncertainties surrounding NASA’s future remain.
The situation is complicated by a renewed space race between the U.S. and China, both vying to establish a sustained human presence on the moon. NASA aims to land astronauts by 2027, although delays are likely. Conversely, China has set its sights on landing its astronauts on the moon by 2030.
Elon Musk, founder and CEO of SpaceX and once an ally of Trump, had shown support for Isaacman’s initial nomination. Trump’s choice to withdraw Isaacman’s nomination coincided with a public dispute between Musk and the president.
Trump’s announcement of Isaacman’s renomination comes just weeks after Musk criticized Duffy on the social media platform X, which he owns.
The interim administrator of NASA revealed plans to open SpaceX’s current lunar lander contract to bids from competitors, sparking Musk’s frustration.
In 2021, SpaceX secured a $2.9 billion contract to use its Starship rocket system for NASA’s Artemis III mission, scheduled for 2027. However, Duffy indicated that SpaceX is falling behind and the government aims to foster competition.
Musk expressed his dissatisfaction with Duffy’s remarks, referring to him as a “Sean dummy” and accusing the acting administrator of undermining NASA.
SpaceX’s operations are closely linked to NASA, as the agency depends on Musk’s company for the transportation of astronauts and cargo to the International Space Station, along with upcoming lunar missions.
Vaccination against covid-19 is safer than infection
Juan Monino/Getty Images
Recent findings highlight that vaccinating children is more beneficial than exposing them to the coronavirus. A comprehensive study involving nearly 14 million children revealed that the likelihood of experiencing serious, albeit uncommon, side effects related to the heart and blood vessels was considerably greater following an infection compared to a vaccination.
Specifically, children aged 5 to 18 experienced 17 additional infections per 100,000 with inflammatory conditions such as Kawasaki disease in the six months after contracting SARS-CoV-2, as opposed to other periods. Conversely, among children first vaccinated with the Pfizer/BioNTech mRNA vaccine, infections per 100,000 dropped by almost two.
Myocarditis, which is inflammation of the heart muscle, resulted in over two extra cases per 100,000 individuals in the six months post-infection. In comparison, there was less than one additional case among vaccinated individuals, indicating that the risk of myocarditis is more than double following infection relative to vaccination.
A report highlighting a new coronavirus infection causing myocarditis has been made known. As early as April 2020, reports began surfacing even after vaccinations commenced in December. Vaccines associated with myocarditis tend to present milder symptoms, particularly in young men, and most individuals recover swiftly.
The uncommon side effects of this vaccine have garnered substantial media focus and stirred significant concern, contributing to delays in introducing routine childhood vaccinations in the UK until April 2022.
The latest findings reinforce earlier research indicating that vaccinated children face a lower risk of myocarditis compared to their unvaccinated peers, despite the rarity of this side effect. A majority of children contracted the virus, placing them at an elevated risk of adverse effects.
“It’s important to note that severe complications are highly uncommon among children and adolescents in general,” states Angela Wood from Cambridge, UK, a part of the HDR UK regional network. “Nevertheless, evidence suggests that the risk is generally higher following COVID-19 compared to vaccination.”
Wood’s team evaluated data from the UK’s National Health Service (NHS) encompassing approximately 14 million children under 18 from January 2020 to December 2021. During the latter half of this timeframe, 3.9 million children received the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine, while 3.4 million were diagnosed with COVID-19 for the first time. Subsequent periods could not be analyzed due to insufficient testing.
This approach does have its limitations. For instance, the data does not indicate whether children who experienced these complications made a full recovery, and many mild COVID-19 cases amongst children may not have been formally recognized. “However, despite these constraints, the scale of the data and the comprehensive connection across all NHS data instills great confidence in our overall conclusions today,” says Wood.
“It’s crucial to understand that findings relevant to the strain of the coronavirus prevalent during the peak of the pandemic may differ for the current strain,” advises William Whiteley from the University of Edinburgh, UK, who was not involved in the study. His team previously reported that COVID-19 vaccines reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes for at least six months post-vaccination.
The fact that nearly all individuals, apart from very young children, now possess some level of immunity to COVID-19 means they may respond differently to both booster shots and reinfections, according to team members including Peer Hardelid from University College London. “Ongoing research is essential,” she emphasizes.
Visual representation of polycystic ovary syndrome showing enlarged ovaries
Science Photo Library / Alamy
Recent research has begun to shed light on the genetics behind polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), paving the way for potential new therapies.
PCOS affects up to 20% of women, leading to disrupted ovarian function characterized by at least two of the following: irregular or absent periods, elevated male hormones like testosterone, and the accumulation of immature eggs within cyst-like ovaries. Consequently, it can result in fertility challenges.
While the exact causes remain unclear, PCOS is believed to correlate with changes in the gut microbiome and hormonal imbalances during prenatal development. The condition also appears to have a hereditary component, with studies indicating that 70% of the risk is genetic. However, researchers have only pinpointed about 25 genetic mutations impacting sex hormone production and ovarian function, explaining roughly 10% of an individual’s risk.
To address this knowledge gap, Qiao Shigang and colleagues at Shandong University in Jinan, China, conducted a genomic study involving over 440,000 women from China and Europe, out of which 25,000 were diagnosed with PCOS, marking the largest gene analysis related to the condition to date.
The researchers discovered 94 genetic variants that appear to contribute to PCOS risk, with 73 being previously unrecognized. Notably, one mutation affects the gene responsible for the mitochondrial ribosomal protein S22, essential for mitochondrial function, an area that Zhao points out has connections in earlier studies discussing the link between PCOS and mitochondrial dysfunction.
Another newly identified variant impacts sex hormone-binding globulin, a protein that moderates the activity of sex hormones and is often found at reduced levels in women with PCOS.
Several of the remaining variants influence the function of granulosa cells in the ovaries, responsible for producing estrogen and progesterone and aiding in egg development during the menstrual cycle. This supports the hypothesis that PCOS is genetically influenced by fluctuations in sex hormone levels, according to Zhao.
In summary, the research indicated that these 94 mutations account for around 27% of the risk variation in PCOS among European participants and about 34% in the Chinese cohort.
“This study is significant because it enhances our understanding of the genetic factors associated with this condition,” remarks Elisabeth Stenner-Victorin from Karolinska Institutet, Sweden. Furthermore, it underscores the necessity of including diverse ancestral backgrounds in PCOS genetic research, according to Zhao.
Ultimately, the team identified medications that could modify the pathways affected by the recognized mutations. Some of these, like clomiphene, are already used for PCOS treatment; they stimulate ovulation which is often hampered by the syndrome. Additionally, the team discovered that betaine—sometimes utilized for homocystinuria treatment—might also benefit PCOS patients. Future studies using mice exhibiting PCOS-like symptoms could explore this treatment potential.
“Current treatments focus on alleviating symptoms, as there aren’t any medications that can cure PCOS,” states Stenner-Victorin. Typical interventions include clomiphene, contraceptive pills to manage periods, and metformin, a type 2 diabetes medication that may enhance fertility. However, effectiveness varies among individuals. “Identifying genetic clusters that affect PCOS risk will be essential for developing more targeted treatment strategies for these women,” she adds.
If you’ve taken a physics class, you likely have “memorable” instances of measuring light speed, spending hours setting mirrors, lenses, and light sources just right to achieve the result: just under 300 million meters per second. This figure is a fundamental constant in physics and vital for comprehending the universe.
When observing space, light is our primary resource. While we have other means, like gravitational waves, they currently offer limited insights, so I might be exaggerating a tad. Almost all advancements in astronomy and cosmology derive from collecting light that has traversed from the edge of reality over millions, or even billions, of years. Light from our nearest star takes over four years to reach us. The duration it takes for light to travel may be one of the most practical yet least intuitive aspects of physics.
Humans have debated light’s speed long before we truly understood light itself. For centuries, many intellectuals believed that the glowing in certain animals’ eyes at particular angles indicated they emitted light, resembling a lantern. Nonetheless, they debated whether light traveled instantaneously or required time to propagate, a question not thoroughly tested until the 17th century.
An early endeavor to quantify it involved placing a lantern at a distance and measuring the time difference between it lighting up and the observer seeing the light. This method proved ineffective (Galileo and his peers failed to attain conclusive measurements because the lantern was too close), leading scientists to explore more complex and accurate approaches. The first effective instrument was developed in 1675 by Ole Römer while measuring Jupiter’s moon Io’s orbital period. He observed that the period seemed to vary as the distance from Earth to Jupiter fluctuated, which seemed perplexing. Why would Io’s orbit correlate with Earth’s positioning? The only variation was the time it took for light to travel from Io to Earth, diminishing as the two grew closer. A colleague, Christian Huygens, calculated that light’s speed was around 220,000,000 meters per second. Although this estimate lacked precision due to unknown earthly movements, it established a foundation for later refinements. By the early 18th century, measurements were within a few percent of the current consensus of light’s speed in vacuum: 299,792,458 meters per second.
This prompts two inquiries: Why is the speed of light seemingly arbitrary, and why is there a speed limit at all? The first question is straightforward, linked to our units. Meters and seconds (or miles and hours) originated from human experiences. For instance, a mile equals 1,000 steps and has no relation to fundamental constants. The second question is more complex, entwined with special relativity.
The answer lies in perhaps the most recognizable equation: e=mc2. This equation implies that energy and mass can be interchanged. When objects move at extremely high or relativistic speeds, I like to think of them possessing momentum, blending mass and velocity. To increase an object’s speed, we must continually supply more energy. A massive object achieving light speed would require infinite momentum, equating to infinite energy or mass. This situation is unattainable. As an object nears light speed, its mass escalates, making further acceleration unfeasible. Light, having no mass, circumvents this dilemma.
Moreover, special relativity illustrates that an outside, stationary observer would perceive something quite unusual. When an object travels at relativistic speeds, time appears to slow down from an external viewpoint. If I were moving away from you at 99% of light speed, I’d observe my aging decelerating. This phenomenon is termed time dilation. Concurrently, another effect, length contraction, would have you notice that I’m shrinking increasingly as I accelerate. From my frame of reference, I wouldn’t perceive time slowing down or my stature diminishing, but from your outlook, the closer I get to light speed, the shorter and more ageless I appear.
Herein lies a paradox: if I somehow reached light speed, time would seemingly stop for an outside observer as my height approaches zero. I would cease to exist, along with time and space. Luckily, the laws of physics preclude that scenario. Only massless entities can attain that speed limit: photons, gluons, and gravitational effects. Nothing surpasses light speed through space and time.
Rather than feeling disheartened by the universe’s speed limitations, we should celebrate them. The speed of light carries a crucial consequence: it underpins the whole notion of causality. All physics, and our comprehensive understanding of everything, hinges on the principle that effects always follow causes, never the other way around.
Consider this: as I approach light speed, you observe my time slowing down. It will cease entirely when I attain light speed. Should I exceed light speed, from your perspective, I’d be reversing time. If I transmitted a signal faster than light, a hypothetical message defying physics, you’d receive it before I sent it. Absent a universal speed limit, discerning which events caused which effects would be impossible, rendering the universe largely incomprehensible.
Finally, here’s a thought-provoking notion: if all signals require time to travel, and time progresses variably in frames of reference moving at different speeds, what does simultaneous meaning? If I wink at my reflection, the reflected wink arrives slightly later than my physical action, due to light needing to bounce off my face, towards the mirror, and back into my eyes. If two events simultaneously occurred across the universe, I must ask, “By whose standard?” Depending on the distance separating two locations, event 1 might have occurred first for one observer, while event 2 happened prior to event 1 for another. There is no objective simultaneity, no definitive “same time.” This reality stems solely from light’s finite speed. Fascinating, right?
An analysis of five-year health data from over 130,000 adults suffering from insomnia who had been taking melatonin for at least a year indicated that these individuals were at an increased risk of being diagnosed with heart failure, needing hospitalization for the condition, or dying from any cause.
Long-term use of melatonin supplements, often utilized to enhance sleep and treat insomnia, was linked to a higher risk of heart failure diagnosis. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Melatonin is a hormone naturally generated by the pineal gland, aiding in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.
Levels of melatonin rise in darkness and fall during daylight.
Synthetic hormones, chemically identical to natural melatonin, are frequently prescribed to address insomnia (difficulties in initiating or maintaining sleep) and jet lag.
This supplement is widely available over-the-counter in several countries, including the United States.
In the recent study, researchers identified individuals with long-term melatonin use (defined as over a year recorded in electronic health records) as part of the melatonin group.
Conversely, those without any recorded use of melatonin in their medical history were classified as the non-melatonin group.
“The perception that melatonin supplements are harmless may not be accurate,” asserts Dr. Ekenedirichukwu-Nnadi from the State University of New York Downstate/Kings County Primary Care.
“If validated, our findings could significantly impact how healthcare providers counsel patients regarding sleep aids.”
Although melatonin supplements are marketed as safe sleep aids, there is insufficient evidence regarding their long-term cardiovascular safety, prompting researchers to investigate whether melatonin use elevates the risk of heart failure, particularly in chronic insomnia patients.
Heart failure, which arises when the heart is unable to pump sufficient oxygenated blood for the body’s organs to operate effectively, affects 6.7 million adults in the United States, according to the American Heart Association’s 2025 Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics.
The researchers utilized a large international database to analyze five years of electronic health records of adults with chronic insomnia who had documented melatonin use exceeding one year.
They were compared with colleagues in the database who also suffered from insomnia but did not have melatonin recorded in their medical files.
Participants with a prior heart failure diagnosis or those prescribed other sleep medications were excluded from the study.
The analysis revealed that among insomnia sufferers, those whose records indicated long-term melatonin use (over 12 months) were roughly 90% more likely to develop heart failure over five years compared to non-users (4.6% vs. 2.7%, respectively).
Similar outcomes (an 82% higher incidence) were observed for individuals who received at least two melatonin prescriptions spaced 90 days or more apart.
In a further analysis, researchers noted that melatonin users were nearly 3.5 times more likely to be hospitalized for heart failure compared to non-users (19.0% vs. 6.6%, respectively).
Melatonin group participants were almost twice as likely to die from any cause over a five-year duration compared to those in the non-melatonin group (7.8% vs. 4.3%, respectively).
“Melatonin supplements are generally regarded as a safe, ‘natural’ solution for improving sleep quality, so the consistent and significant rise in serious health issues was unexpected,” stated Dr. Nadi.
“Since melatonin isn’t officially approved for treating insomnia in the U.S., it’s surprising that physicians would prescribe it for more than 365 days,” remarked Dr. Marie-Pierre St-Onge from Columbia University.
“While melatonin is available as an over-the-counter supplement in the U.S., individuals should be cautious about using it chronically without proper guidance.”
Utilizing the Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam) aboard the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have obtained fresh images of the Red Spider Nebula, a prominent planetary nebula located in the constellation Sagittarius.
This web image showcases the Red Spider Nebula. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Webb/JH Kastner, Rochester Institute of Technology.
The Red Spider Nebula was identified by American astronomer and physicist Edward Charles Pickering on July 15, 1882.
This astronomical object is located roughly 12,420 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Sagittarius.
Commonly referred to as NGC 6537, ESO 590-1, and IRAS 18021-1950, it has an approximate radius of 3.6 light-years.
“Planetary nebulae, like the Red Spider Nebula, form when average stars, such as our Sun, reach the conclusion of their life cycles,” Webb astronomers noted in a statement.
“As these stars expand into cool red giants, they shed their outer layers, propelling them into space and revealing their hot white cores.”
“Ultraviolet radiation from the central star ionizes the ejected material, causing it to emit light.”
“The planetary nebula stage of a star’s lifecycle is both spectacular and brief, lasting only tens of thousands of years.”
“This Webb image displays the central star of the Red Spider Nebula, which shines slightly brighter than the dusty gas web surrounding it.”
In optical images from telescopes such as Hubble, the stars appear faintly blue.
However, in the NIRCam image, it appears red. Webb’s sensitive near-infrared capabilities have unveiled the hot dust enveloping the central star.
“This hot dust likely orbits the central star in a disk-like formation,” the astronomers explained.
“Even though only one star is visible at the nebula’s center, a concealed companion star may exist there.”
“Such a stellar companion could account for the nebula’s shape, including its distinctive narrow waist and broad jets.”
“This hourglass configuration is also observed in other planetary nebulae, like the Butterfly Nebula, which Webb has also recently studied.”
“Webb’s fresh perspective on the Red Spider Nebula reveals, for the first time, the complete extent of the nebula’s extended lobes that resemble the spider’s ‘legs,'” researchers stated.
“These lobes, depicted in blue, are traced by light emitted from H.2, a molecule consisting of two hydrogen atoms bonded together.”
“These lobes, which are visible across NIRCam’s field of view, are shown to be closed, bubble-like structures, each stretching about three light-years.”
“Gas streaming from the core of the nebula has inflated these massive bubbles over countless years.”
“New observations from Webb indicate that gas is also actively being ejected from the nebula’s center.”
“A protracted purple ‘S’ shape at the nebula’s center follows light from ionized iron atoms.”
“This feature illustrates where a fast-moving jet has emerged near the nebula’s central star, colliding with previously ejected material and shaping the nebula’s undulating structure that we observe today.”
Preparatory ministerial meeting in Brasilia, Brazil ahead of COP30
Ton Molina/Bloomberg via Getty Images
As world leaders converge for the latest United Nations climate change conference a decade after the landmark COP21 summit in Paris, pessimism looms large. With the pivotal 1.5°C target already deemed unattainable and even the more lenient 2°C objective appearing increasingly elusive, the atmosphere is charged with concern.
The United Nations Environment Programme suggests, based on current national commitments, that the world is on track for a temperature rise of 2.3 to 2.5 degrees Celsius this century. Climatologists emphasize that the upcoming 30th United Nations Conference of the Parties in Belem, Brazil, could be crucial in altering the course of global warming, with oceans, forests, and polar ice sheets nearing tipping points. Significant action is essential to assist poorer nations in securing the estimated $1.3 trillion necessary each year by 2030 to transition away from fossil fuels, mitigate climate change, and adapt to its consequences.
Manuel Pulgar Vidal, WWF’s global leader in climate and energy, states, “The climate debate is under serious threat from not just political decisions but also economic, financial, and trade factors.” He adds that this makes the upcoming COP perhaps one of the most consequential since 2009, as vital as Paris but in an entirely different context.
In reality, however, the expectations held by negotiators are muted. The prospect of a groundbreaking multilateral agreement akin to that of Paris seems far-fetched in the current fragmented political landscape.
The previous COP29 held in Baku, Azerbaijan, concluded with disappointing outcomes, as wealthier nations pledged considerably fewer fiscal contributions than poorer counterparts anticipated. Consequently, trust in the COP process has diminished, leading to discussions on whether the existing framework is still viable.
“Private investment is lacking, nations appear to be retreating on their commitments to move away from fossil fuels, and there are no new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) offered,” remarks Claudio Angelo from Brazilian NGO Klima Observatory. “The atmosphere surrounding climate action feels incredibly strained.”
Tensions ignited by trade disputes and geopolitical conflicts have infiltrated climate negotiations, with former President Trump actively opposing climate initiatives. He notably withdrew the U.S. from the Paris Agreement and curtailed efforts to limit fossil fuel use, urging other nations to do the same. On October 17, the International Maritime Organization postponed the formal endorsement of a plan aimed at reducing maritime emissions, incited by Trump’s threats of sanctions against supportive countries.
Economic sluggishness, rising living costs, and a rise in populist sentiments are complicating the implementation of climate-friendly policies. “2025 is shaping up to be the worst year for global climate action,” concludes Angelo.
Europe was initially anticipated to take a leadership role in climate diplomacy following the withdrawal of U.S. support; however, the continent remains divided as defense priorities, trade issues, and escalating energy expenses dominate discussions.
In Brazil, the host nation, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva—who campaigned on environmental protection—has approved new highway constructions in the Amazon and oil prospecting in the region, with an eye towards the upcoming elections.
Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva visits the main venue of COP30 in Belem
Alessandro Falco/Bloomberg via Getty Images
Bringing the COP to Belem is also a contentious choice. This first-ever Amazon COP aims to highlight the stories of those and the forests affected by climate change, underscoring the bold vision necessary for global salvation. The Ministry of the Environment has declared that a greater number of indigenous delegates than ever before will attend COP30.
Nonetheless, many participants regard this decision as imprudent. A shortage of available accommodation has driven up prices, forcing NGOs, diplomats, and businesses to seek alternative sleeping arrangements like tents, shipping containers, or hammocks.
The United Nations also restricts accreditation, leading to concerns that rather than being an “implementing COP,” this one may turn out to be an “empty COP.”
“An organization that had eight certifications last year only secured two this time,” notes Carla Cardenas from the Rights and Resources Initiative, a coalition advocating for land rights for indigenous peoples. Cardenas raised worries that civil society groups aiming to hold leaders accountable may face restrictions in attendance while oil and gas lobbying organizations, which possess larger budgets, remain unaffected.
Ahead of the summit, there are some indications of a positive shift. Fears that not enough leaders would attend to achieve a quorum have lessened, as high-profile figures like Britain’s Keir Starmer decide to make last-minute trips.
Amid declining multilateralism, Brazil, known for its mediating role on the global stage, could serve as an ideal host to unite divergent perspectives within climate diplomacy.
The president’s office is adopting a practical stance in negotiations, indicating that no major headline-making declarations are anticipated this time. Brazil’s focus will likely be on implementing existing agreements rather than chasing media-friendly headlines.
While substantial international breakthroughs in Belém are unlikely, there remains potential for cities, regions, and businesses committed to climate action to step forward, according to Thomas Hale from Oxford University. Groups of states collaborating to announce environmental initiatives could still have a significant influence.
“Countries resistant to change, like the U.S., may stay on the sidelines, but that won’t define where the real action occurs,” he explains. “Although we may not see international decisions made at COP that will move us forward fundamentally, it can still provide a framework for many positive initiatives to arise.”
Enamel shields teeth from harm, yet can be easily compromised
Agrobacter/Getty Images
The gel incorporates compounds found in saliva to aid in the repair and regeneration of tooth enamel while preventing cavity formation that necessitates fillings.
Enamel, the tough and glossy outer layer of teeth, safeguards the sensitive inner part from wear, acids, and bacteria. “Enamel serves as your initial defense; when it starts to deteriorate, tooth decay accelerates,” explains Dr. Alvaro Mata from the University of Nottingham, UK. Since enamel does not self-repair, methods like fluoride varnishes and remineralizing treatments merely prevent further deterioration.
In search of a solution, Mata and his team engineered a gel that contains a modified protein designed to mimic amelogenin, which is vital for enamel growth in early development.
Tests revealed that applying the gel to human teeth under a microscope in a calcium and phosphate solution—the essential components of enamel—yielded a thin, robust layer that persisted for weeks, even during brushing.
This gel establishes a framework that utilizes calcium and phosphate to fill imperfections and encourage the organized development of new crystals in the enamel beneath the gel layer, even if a significant portion of the dentin is exposed.
“The gel successfully grew crystals epitaxially, meaning it mirrored the crystal orientation of the existing enamel,” Mata states.
This alignment allows the new growth, achieving thicknesses of up to 10 micrometers, to integrate with the underlying natural tissue, reconstructing both the structure and functionality of the enamel. “Growth occurs within a week,” remarks Mata. The method proved effective not only with the specific solution employed but also with donated saliva, which naturally contains calcium and phosphate.
Electron microscopy images of a demineralized tooth showcasing eroded crystals (left) and a similar tooth after two weeks of gel treatment that reveals epitaxially regenerated enamel crystals (right)
Professor Alvaro Mata, University of Nottingham
A comparable approach was noted in 2019, but it resulted in a thinner coating, only partially restoring the inner enamel structure.
Clinical trials on humans are set to commence early next year. Mata is also establishing a company named Mintech-Bio, hoping to launch its first product by late 2026 for use by dentists.
A supermassive black hole in the process of engulfing a massive star
California Institute of Technology/R. Hurt (IPAC)
Astronomers have made an astounding discovery of the brightest flare ever observed from a supermassive black hole. This flare was so intense that it can only be attributed to a tidal disruption event (TDE), where a colossal star was torn apart by a distant galaxy’s black hole, unleashing an extraordinary burst of energy that is still resonating.
Originating from an active galactic nucleus (AGN) — a supermassive black hole at the core of a galaxy consuming matter — this event is approximately 20 billion light-years from Earth, marking it as one of the most distant TDEs recorded. Notably, many TDEs remain undetected in AGNs due to the fluctuating brightness near these active black holes, which obscures the distinction between a TDE and other phenomena.
“For the last 60 years, we have understood AGNs to be highly volatile, but we lacked clarity about their variability,” explains Matthew Graham from the California Institute of Technology. “Currently, we are aware of millions of AGNs, yet their variability remains largely a mystery.” The event, dubbed “Superman” due to its remarkable brightness, holds the potential to unravel some of these cosmic enigmas.
Initially identified in 2018, astronomers speculated that Superman might merely be a bright explosion from a relatively nearby galaxy. It wasn’t until 2023 that subsequent observations unveiled its true distance and revealed that its brightness was significantly more intense than initially estimated.
This first flare enhanced AGN visibility to over 40 times greater and was 30 times more powerful than any other flare recorded from AGN. Graham and his research team concluded that the most plausible explanation is the disintegration of a massive star, possibly over 30 times the mass of the Sun.
All active supermassive black holes are surrounded by a region of infalling material known as an accretion disk. The matter density in this area is expected to yield substantial stars, although they have never been directly observed. “If our interpretation of this as a TDE is correct, it substantiates our hypothesis regarding the existence of these massive stars in such environments,” noted Graham.
“We once believed that active supermassive black holes simply housed gas disks that meandered about. However, this scenario is much more dynamic and active,” he adds. By examining the fading Superman, we may uncover a deeper understanding of its environment.
Moreover, it may lead to the establishment of a model for TDEs in AGNs, enhancing future detection efforts. “When a potential TDE is identified in an AGN, it remains uncertain whether it is merely an active galactic nucleus or if a true TDE is occurring, so having such unambiguous evidence is invaluable,” states Vivian Baldassare from Washington State University. “This will greatly aid in revealing future TDEs and understanding various AGN variability sources.”
Quantum Internet could provide secure communications globally
Sakumstarke / Alamy
One of the most sophisticated quantum networks constructed to date will enable 18 individuals to communicate securely through the principles of quantum physics. The researchers affirm that this represents a feasible step towards realizing a global quantum internet, although some experts express doubt.
The eagerly awaited quantum internet aims to allow quantum computers to communicate over distances by exchanging light particles, known as photons, that are interconnected through quantum entanglement. Additionally, it will facilitate the linkage of quantum sensor networks, enabling communications impervious to classical computer hacking. However, connecting different segments of the quantum realm is not as straightforward as laying down cables due to the challenges in ensuring seamless interactions between network nodes.
Recently, Chen Shenfeng from Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China demonstrated a method to interconnect two quantum networks. Initially, they established two networks containing 10 nodes each, both sharing quantum entanglement and functioning as smaller iterations of a quantum internet. They then combined one node from each network, resulting in a larger, fully integrated network that enables communication across all pairs of the 18 remaining nodes.
Networking 18 classical computers is a straightforward endeavor involving inexpensive components, but in the quantum sphere, where specific timing is crucial for sharing individual photons among several users, advanced technology and specialized knowledge are required. Even establishing communication between pairs is intricate, yet facilitating communication among any pair of 18 users is unprecedented.
“Our method provides essential capabilities for quantum communication across disparate networks and is pivotal for creating a large-scale quantum internet that enables interactions among all participants,” the researchers stated in their paper, which has not responded to inquiries for comments.
As the researchers clarify, this network integration hinges on a process termed entanglement swapping. Photons can be intertwined by conducting a specific observation known as the Bell measurement. By simultaneously measuring the status of one photon from each of two pairs of entangled photons, the most distant photons in the arrangement become linked. However, attempting to observe their states disrupts the delicate quantum balance and thus depletes the measured photon states.
“This isn’t the initial demonstration of entanglement exchange,” remarks Sidharth Joshi from the University of Bristol, UK. “What they have achieved is a framework that simplifies inter-network exchanges.”
Joshi notes that current quantum communication research is divided between extending the range of information transmission between two devices, occasionally utilizing satellites, and developing protocols and strategies for reliably networking numerous devices over shorter distances. This study pertains to the latter. “Both areas are critically important,” he asserts.
Conversely, Robert Young, a professor at Lancaster University in the UK, commented that while the results showcase a remarkable technical feat demanding expertise and extensive resources, he deems it improbable as a blueprint for future large-scale quantum networks, considering the expense and intricacy involved.
“This is far from practical and not something readily applicable in real-world scenarios,” Young states. “The paper’s claim is that this is the future of quantum network integration, but many formidable challenges remain to be addressed.”
One significant issue is the necessity for quantum repeaters to convey information across extensive distances. As distance increases, photons are frequently lost in fiber optic cables, and measurements can jeopardize the state of a photon, rendering the quantum information unreadable or untransmittable, thereby preventing signal amplification along its route. If quantum repeaters functioned effectively, they could transmit signals over longer distances, yet constructing such devices has been challenging.
“We understand that to build a viable quantum network, some method of quantum repeater is essential,” Young points out, emphasizing that this was absent in the current network demonstration.
A supermassive black hole has violently consumed a massive star, resulting in a cosmic explosion that shone as brightly as 10 trillion suns, according to a recent study.
This event, referred to as a black hole flare, is believed to be the largest and most remote ever detected.
“This is genuinely a one-in-a-million occurrence,” stated Matthew Graham, a research professor of astronomy at the California Institute of Technology and the lead author of the study published Tuesday in Nature Astronomy.
Graham indicated that based on the explosion’s intensity and duration, a black hole flare is likely the explanation, but further studies will be necessary to validate this conclusion.
While it is common for black holes to devour nearby stars, gas, dust, and other materials, such significant flare events are exceptionally rare, according to Graham.
“This enormous flare is far more energetic than anything we’ve encountered previously,” he remarked, noting that the explosion’s peak luminosity was 30 times that of any black hole flare documented so far.
Its extreme intensity is partly due to the massive size of the celestial objects involved. The star that came too close to the black hole is estimated to possess at least 30 times the mass of the Sun, while the supermassive black hole and its surrounding matter disk are estimated to be 500 million times more massive than the Sun.
Graham mentioned that these powerful explosions have persisted for more than seven years and are likely still ongoing.
The flare was initially detected in 2018 during a comprehensive sky survey using three ground-based telescopes. At the time, it was identified as a “particularly bright object,” but follow-up observations months later yielded little valuable data.
Consequently, black hole flares were mostly overlooked until 2023, when Graham and his team opted to revisit some intriguing findings from their earlier research. Astronomers have since managed to roughly ascertain the distance to this exceptionally bright object, and the results were astonishing.
“Suddenly, I thought, ‘Wow, this is actually quite far away,'” Graham explained. “And if it’s this far away and this bright, how much energy is it emitting? This is both unusual and intriguing.”
While the exact circumstances of the star’s demise remain unclear, Graham hypothesized that a cosmic collision might have nudged the star from its typical orbit around the black hole, leading to a close encounter.
This finding enhances our understanding of black hole behavior and evolution.
“Our perspective on supermassive black holes and their environments has dramatically transformed over the past five to ten years,” Graham stated. “We once pictured most galaxies in the universe with a supermassive black hole at the center, idly rumbling away. We now recognize it as a much more dynamic setting, and we are just beginning to explore its complexities.”
He noted that while the flares are gradually diminishing over time, they will remain detectable with ground-based telescopes for several more years.
The Hubble Space Telescope, operated by NASA and ESA, unveils the radiant galactic core and stunning spiral arms in this fresh perspective of NGC 4102.
This Hubble image illustrates NGC 4102, an intermediate spiral galaxy located 55.4 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / G. Fabbiano.
NGC 4102 is positioned to the north of Ursa Major, approximately 55.4 million light-years distant.
This intermediate spiral galaxy was discovered on April 12, 1789, by the German-British astronomer William Herschel.
Also known as UGC 7096, NGC 4102 features an active galactic nucleus.
“Active galactic nuclei are luminous centers within galaxies, powered by supermassive black holes with masses millions to billions of times greater than that of the Sun,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“When these black holes attract surrounding gas, the intense gravitational forces cause the gas to heat up and emit light across various wavelengths, from X-rays to radio,” they added.
“NGC 4102 stands as a prime candidate for examining the interaction between active galactic nuclei and their host galaxies,” noted the researchers.
“These active galactic nuclei range from very powerful variants that consume significant amounts of matter and produce jets of charged particles to more subdued types that gently draw in gas and emit less intense light.”
“NGC 4102 is likely categorized among the latter; it falls within the Compton-thickness classification, indicating a dense gas environment surrounding its nucleus, and is identified as a low-ionization nuclear emission line region (LINER).”
“LINER galaxies are recognized by emission lines from weakly ionized elements and may be sustained by supermassive black holes gradually accumulating gas from their vicinity.”
“The latest imaging offers an enhanced view of the galaxy, utilizing data from Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3), which replaced WFPC2 in 2009, providing improved resolution and a larger field of view,” according to the researchers.
“These new observations are part of a program that integrates visible-light imagery from Hubble with X-ray data from the Chandra X-ray Observatory, aimed at exploring NGC 4102 and its relationship with active galactic nuclei.”
Recent discoveries by archaeologists in Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula, home to significant Middle to Late Paleolithic sites like Starosele, include a 5-centimeter-long bone fragment from a Neanderthal man, dating between 46,000 and 44,000 years ago. Genetic analysis shows this individual to be closely related to Altai Neanderthals through mitochondrial DNA, indicating that Neanderthal populations traveled great distances across Eurasia. Under favorable climatic conditions, these migrations likely involved the spread of the Micocchia stone tool industry, highlighting cultural continuity and regional adaptability during the Late Pleistocene.
A group of Neanderthals in a cave. Image credit: Tyler B. Tretsven.
Crimea is rich in well-preserved layered Paleolithic sites, many reflecting the biocultural and human occupation transition that occurred approximately 47,000 to 42,000 years ago.
According to earlier radiocarbon dating studies, the peninsula has been recognized as a refuge for late Neanderthals who survived just before their extinction.
Starosele, a rock shelter located in a steep valley, features four distinct cultural layers and has been researched since 1952.
“The archaeological layers of this site are rich in cultural artifacts,” stated Emily Piggott, a PhD student at the University of Vienna, along with her colleagues.
“Levels 1, 2, and 4 are linked to stone tools from the Crimean Mikokian stone tool industry, associated with Neanderthals.”
This study aimed to identify potential human remains from the thousands of fragmented bones excavated from the Starosele site.
From the 150 bone fragments analyzed, 97.3% contained sufficient collagen for taxonomic identification.
Approximately 93% of the remains belonged to horses and deer, with fewer found from mammoths and wolves, indicating that Paleolithic humans in Crimea heavily relied on horse hunting.
Notably, one bone fragment, measuring 49.8 mm in length and 18.8 mm in width, was classified as hominin.
Radiocarbon dating indicated an age range of 46,000 to 45,000 years, coinciding with the transitional period before the extinction of Neanderthals and the emergence of Homo sapiens in Western Europe.
“Particularly the remains of humans before Starosele are from a much later era of Homo sapiens,” Piggott remarked.
“Upon receiving the radiocarbon results, we realized we had uncovered a true Paleolithic hominin.”
“Neanderthals went extinct across Eurasia, replaced by Homo sapiens, yet genetic information about these earlier human populations is scarce.”
Researchers then sequenced the mitochondrial genome from this bone, confirming the individual was part of the Neanderthal lineage.
The mitogenome of this individual aligns with other Neanderthal mitogenomes previously documented in the Altai region of Siberia.
“Surprisingly, this individual shared the closest genetic ties with Neanderthals from Altai, over 3,000 kilometers to the east, as well as with Neanderthals that once roamed areas of Europe such as Croatia,” highlighted the researchers.
“This finding reaffirms previous studies suggesting that Neanderthals migrated extensively across Eurasia, traversing from central Europe to central Eurasia during the late Pleistocene.”
“This research highlights Crimea as a crucial junction in the Neanderthal migration routes.”
The findings of this study will be published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Emily M. Piggott et al. 2025. A new late Neanderthal from Crimea reveals long-distance connections across Eurasia. PNAS 122 (45): e2518974122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2518974122
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