“If you create a sound by clapping your hands together, what sound is produced by clapping just one hand?”
At the start of his book, neuroscientist Nikolai Kukushkin asserts that if you meditate on this Zen Buddhist koan (a paradox utilized for training Zen monks) long enough, it might unveil the roots of the mind and even human experience.
Yet, as many Buddhists recognize, the path to enlightenment is often lengthy and arduous, although it is ultimately fulfilling. One Hand Clap is no different.
The book, initially published in Russian, has been translated into English by the author, who is presently affiliated with New York University. In it, Kukushkin delves into the origins of life and its evolution across a notably varied spectrum. He encourages us to contemplate origin stories through what he terms the idea or essence of nature, rather than a simplistic reductionist approach.
With an understanding of the subtleties of such terms, Kukushkin asserts: Idea If you find that term unsettling or unscientific, you may simply refer to it as essence: Natural Ideas: The Rational Outcomes of Choice.” He relates this to Plato’s concept of the Idea of Nature, known as Eidos or essence.
Through this lens, hydrothermal vents—his favored locations for the origin of life—transform from mere porous rocks and flowing liquids into patterns of activity observable throughout nature. For instance, existence demonstrates a tendency to become progressively intricate by tapping into greater energy sources. This dynamic is common to deep-sea vents, photosynthetic cells, and humans utilizing fossil fuels.
Other essences differentiate between movement and freedom, or desire and preference. However, I discovered that Kukushkin’s research on the sea slug Aplysia revealed how this unassuming creature devised abstract concepts vital for its survival, offering the clearest demonstration of this capability.
The book spans multiple pages and describes interactions among sensory neurons, motor neurons, muscles, and the siphon, which is a crucial respiratory organ on the slug’s back. Kukushkin notes that each neuron’s activity conveys a “different meaning,” such as “touching the tail” or “touching the body regardless of location.” When the slug learns the sources of potential danger (considering that the siphon must be safeguarded at all times), it employs the abstraction of “dangerous contact regardless of location” to make suitable decisions.
Kukushkin argues that similar patterns of abstraction and identification underpin our thought processes, albeit with greater complexity in the human mind. On this foundation of simple abstractions, we build numerous additional concepts that shape every facet of experience, from vision to language.
One Hand Clap encompasses a vast array of topics, giving it the feel of an engaging lecture series peppered with humorous sketches. Some may find Kukushkin’s joviality somewhat excessive. Yet, don’t dismiss it.
Contemporary scientists often refrain from attributing rationality and creativity to biological or chemical systems, steering clear of concepts involving agency and direction in life. Kukushkin highlights that ancient thinkers faced no such dilemmas. Recently, there has been a revival of ideas among certain biologists suggesting that evolution may, in a sense, occur “on purpose.”
Scientists might worry that this perspective resembles pseudoscience or the “intelligent design” of a religious faction. However, especially when tackling profound questions like the origins of life and consciousness, we may need to revisit concepts that provoke discomfort by association.
Despite being constituted of the same matter as the physical world, our subjective experiences involve something remarkably distinct—the “hard problem” of consciousness.
For Kukushkin, the resolution is found in a long arc. Eidos spans from atoms to cells to brains, being objective in their existence “out there.” However, we usually perceive abstraction as internal and subjective. “What if subjectivity is merely an intricate form of objectivity? What if every notion is an essence?” he contemplates.
“
Kukushkin recommends thinking about the story of the origin of life in terms of what he calls the concept or essence of nature. “
This is an ingenious attempt to argue that objectivity and subjectivity are two aspects of the same phenomenon. If contemplated thoroughly, Kukushkin asserts, complex problems can be resolved. Personally, I find the phenomenal nature of conscious experience, which intertwines our senses, emotions, and thoughts, more comprehensible when viewed through this lens. However, I wrestle with appreciating how it can bridge the divide between subject and object entirely.
This conundrum may never find a resolution. Yet, for now, One Hand Clap serves as an enlightening koan: the journey toward understanding is often more significant than the understanding itself.
Germanium is already utilized in standard computer chips
Matejimo/Getty Images
Superconductors made from germanium, a material traditionally used for computer chips, have the potential to revolutionize quantum computing by enhancing reliability and performance in the future.
Superconductors are materials that enable electricity to flow without resistance, making them ideal for various electrical applications, particularly in maintaining quantum coherence—essential for effective quantum computing.
Nonetheless, most superconductors have been specialized materials that are challenging to incorporate into computer chips. Peter Jacobson and his team at the University of Queensland, Australia, successfully developed a superconductor using germanium, a material already prevalent in the computing sector.
The researchers synthesized the superconductor by introducing gallium into a germanium film through a process called doping. Previous experiments in this area found instability in the resulting combination. To overcome this, the team utilized X-rays to infuse additional gallium into the material, achieving a stable and uniform structure.
However, similar to other known superconductors, this novel material requires cooling to a frigid 3.5 Kelvin (-270°C/-453°F) to function.
David Cardwell, a professor at the University of Cambridge, notes that while superconductors demand extremely low temperatures, making them less suitable for consumer devices, they could be ideally suited for quantum computing, which also necessitates supercooling.
“This could significantly impact quantum technology,” says Cardwell. “We’re already in a very cold environment, so this opens up a new level of functionality. I believe this is a clear starting point.”
Jacobson highlighted that previous attempts to stack superconductors atop semiconductors—critical components in computing—resulted in defects within their crystal structure, posing challenges for practical applications. “Disorder in quantum technology acts as a detrimental effect,” he states. “It absorbs the signal.”
In contrast, this innovative material enables the stacking of layers containing gallium-doped germanium and silicon while maintaining a uniform crystal structure, potentially paving the way for chips that combine the advantageous features of both semiconductors and superconductors.
On February 24, 1997, Jerry Linenger and his team of five encountered a peril they hoped to avoid: a fire on the space station, located hundreds of kilometers above Earth.
The fire ignited shortly after dinner when Russian cosmonaut Alexander Razutkin activated a solid-fuel oxygen generator meant to boost air supply while Russia’s flagship space station, Mir, was accommodating an unusually large crew.
The generators burst into flames, unleashing a three-foot-high jet of fire and sparks throughout the module. Soon, thick black smoke enveloped the station. The sole evacuation route? Blocked by the flames themselves.
Crews immediately mobilized, donning oxygen masks and using fire extinguishers to combat the blaze. After 14 tense minutes, the fire was extinguished, ensuring crew safety. However, it took hours for the smoke to clear, and even longer for those on the ground to learn what had transpired.
In a conversation with BBC Science Focus, astronaut Linenger reflects on surviving one of spaceflight’s most severe accidents and shares the lessons he hopes to impart to future generations aiming for the stars.
NASA astronaut Jerry Linenger wears a ventilator after a fire on the Mir space station. – Credit: NASA
SF: What was it like to experience such a dramatic event while in space? How did you feel at the time?
JL: It was a nightmare scenario. There’s no place to escape. People often mention claustrophobia, but I never felt that. They thoroughly screen for vulnerabilities like that.
When there’s a fire with flames two to three feet tall and smoke engulfing the entire station, I had never witnessed smoke spread in such a manner. Maintaining calm was crucial.
This is considered the most significant fire in space, and I believe that title remains accurate.
I’ve come to understand just how quickly situations can shift. One moment everything seems normal, and the next, you’re faced with life and death.
Mir space station seen above Earth – Credit: NASA
SF: Fighting fire is one matter, but smoke is equally perilous. How long did it take to resolve the situation?
JL: The Russians claimed the ship had an excellent filtration system, but that wasn’t true. A water-based extinguisher was in place, so much of the smoke evaporated.
Picture a humid, smoky environment. When we moved to the other side of the world, the hull cooled down, causing the water to condense alongside the smoke.
We didn’t have a great life support or filtration system—it was merely the condensation hitting the cold hull, which complicated matters. This issue persisted throughout our stay, as we aimed to avoid water splashing on the walls, where electronic equipment could corrode.
The next 24 hours involved wearing damp clothes and cleaning up the blackened water resulting from the fire. That’s how we cleared the air.
To answer your question, it took about a day to clean up. But roughly 45 minutes to an hour after the fire, the ventilators ran out of oxygen, and we could remove our masks and breathe. The air was still smoky, but I could breathe after about an hour.
Jerry Linenger somewhat relaxed aboard Mir, just three days after the fire started – Credit: NASA
SF: Is experiencing something like that on Earth different from in space?
JL: Yes, it’s an entirely different realm up there. It’s honestly hard to comprehend.
For instance, time loses meaning. The 24-hour day is a geocentric notion, irrelevant to the reality of time. If you experience day and night 15 times within a day, you realize the 24-hour construct is merely an artificial framework. Our sense of time shifts dramatically.
The concepts of top and bottom, space volume, and even the idea of walls change. Everything is fundamentally different.
Surprisingly, maintaining focus takes immense brainpower. Every detail demands attention; nothing is automatic anymore. It’s a stark contrast from the previous 40 years of my life.
The Mir Space Station was officially retired on March 23, 2001 after 15 years of operation – Credit: NASA
SF: Why do you think NASA and the Russian Space Agency downplayed the fire’s severity?
JL: This might be a Russian tactic. We had limited communication with Houston; all dialogue occurred through the Moscow control station, which could only connect when directly overhead.
There was a strong sense of discipline. As I mentioned, this was the final phase of their space program, and they were keen to maintain it at all costs, wanting to keep the U.S. involved. Negative news about the station was likely suppressed. Historically, Russia’s system has excelled at distorting reality and silencing unpleasant information.
“Don’t inform the people on-site. Stay quiet. They don’t want to hear about it,” was said unexpectedly. They wanted to create a particular narrative. In hindsight, it seems absurd. When we returned to Earth, we learned they described it as a minor incident, saying everything was fine. It was a significant fire. We narrowly escaped. Had the flames reached the hull, we would have faced rapid decompression and suffocation.
If the ventilators had failed or the flames lingered, we wouldn’t have had any breathable oxygen.
Despite that, I must emphasize the exceptional nature of my crewmates, the Russian cosmonauts. I wholeheartedly trusted them with my life. However, the systems on the ground were chaotic then, just as they are now. Any official narrative should be taken with skepticism, and it’s common to discredit the messenger conveying the truth upon returning.
The six crew members on board Mir during the February 1997 fire: (front) Aleksandr Y. Carelli, left, Jerry M. Linenger, and Valeri G. Korzun. (Back) Vasili V. Tsibuliev, left, Reinhold Ewald, Alexander I. Razutkin – Credit: DLR German Aerospace Center
SF: What advice would you give to the new generation who will experience the wonders (and risks) of space?
JL: You should feel honored to have that opportunity and make the most of every moment. Give it your all.
Looking back now, I take pride in my efforts. I believe I did my utmost. No regrets. I’m grateful to be alive—never thought I would be.
However, you are incredibly fortunate, so give it everything you have—1,000 percent. Recognize that you are blessed to be among those who venture into space.
Now, I think it’s time to reevaluate what we call astronauts. The experience of going to space and returning to sing “Yahoo!” and take pictures is vastly different from my experience.
If I were a passenger among tourists aboard that flight, I wouldn’t engage with you. It’s indisputable. Surviving Mir was no easy task.
Professional astronauts, much like seasoned test pilots, maintain composure in chaotic situations. I had immense faith in my crewmates, a pilot and a military engineer, as they possessed the expertise essential for navigating difficulties. It’s manageable when circumstances are stable, but when issues arise, having experienced professionals beside you is crucial.
This conversation has been edited for length and clarity.
Interested in learning more about Jerry Linenger’s experiences battling fires in space? His story, among many others, is featured in a new documentary series. Once Upon a Time in Space directed by BAFTA Award-winning James Bluemel. All four episodes are now available for streaming on BBC iPlayer.
Mesenchymal stem cells tagged with fluorescent markers
Vusivkova/Shutterstock
The largest trial conducted so far indicated that individuals who received a stem cell infusion right after a heart attack had a lower risk of developing heart failure compared to those who underwent standard treatment. This finding offers compelling evidence that stem cells may aid in the heart’s self-repair mechanisms.
Following a heart attack, the heart muscle sustains permanent damage and weakness, rendering the organ unable to adequately pump blood to meet the body’s needs, frequently resulting in heart failure. Presently, the only available treatments are heart transplants or pumps that can restore heart function.
To explore solutions, researchers turned to stem cells, which possess the remarkable capability to transform into various cell types. Nonetheless, prior studies evaluating their application post-heart attack have yielded inconsistent results. A 2020 study with 375 participants showed that bone marrow-derived cells, which include stem cells that evolve into blood cells, did not notably decrease mortality compared to standard therapies such as cardiac rehabilitation and medications aimed at lowering blood pressure, preventing blood clots, and managing cholesterol levels.
Armin Attar and colleagues from Shiraz University in Iran explored a different strategy. They employed mesenchymal stem cells capable of differentiating into structural cells such as cartilage and adipose tissue. These stem cells are also known to release substances that mitigate inflammation and promote tissue regeneration.
The researchers collected mesenchymal stem cells from umbilical cord blood and administered them into the hearts of 136 patients within three to seven days following their first heart attack. While these stem cells can also be extracted from the individual’s own adipose or bone tissue, the cultivation process can take up to a month. By utilizing umbilical cord blood samples, the team can provide treatments more swiftly and potentially enhance their efficacy, Attar explained. Another group of 260 participants received standard post-heart attack treatments.
After three years, individuals who received the stem cell therapy were, on average, 57% less likely to develop heart failure and 78% less likely to be hospitalized for heart failure compared to those receiving standard treatment. Furthermore, they exhibited significant improvements in cardiac function, suggesting that the therapy aids in the regeneration of heart tissue post-injury.
“This represents a significant advancement,” Attar remarked. Although the therapy did not lower mortality risk during the study period, the reduction in hospitalizations is still significant, according to Hina Chowdhury from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York. “Heart failure is the predominant cause of hospital admissions in the U.S.,” she pointed out.
However, it should be noted that 80% of participants were male, leading Chaudhry to caution that it is uncertain how the therapy would affect women, who are more prone to heart failure post-heart attack. Attar’s team did not observe any gender differences in a separate analysis. This study was also restricted to young adults, with all participants aged between 18 and 65. “It’s beneficial to see distinctions among age groups, as younger individuals typically have enhanced regenerative abilities and recover better from cardiac injuries,” Chaudhry noted.
This research provides the most robust evidence to date that stem cells can aid in restoring heart function post-heart attack. Nevertheless, this treatment does not fully heal the heart. “There is no medication or treatment that can replace lost heart muscle cells,” Chaudhry emphasized. Still, she added, “This ongoing work is expanding our understanding of the heart’s regeneration process and how to achieve it.”
An astronomer utilizing the Green Bank Telescope (GBT) has developed an extensive map of carbon monoxide (CO) and dark molecular gas in star-forming complexes, particularly in Cygnus X.
These images illustrate the location of CO-dark molecular gas within Cygnus X. Image credit: NSF/AUI/NSF’s NRAO/P.Vosteen.
For decades, scientists have recognized that most new stars are birthed in frigid clouds of molecular hydrogen gas.
A significant portion of this molecular hydrogen remains elusive to most telescopes as it fails to emit easily detectable light.
Astronomers have typically sought these clouds by examining carbon monoxide (CO), a molecule that serves as a glowing signal for star-forming regions.
However, it has been uncovered that CO houses a considerable amount of “non-glowing” gas conducive to star formation.
This concealed material, referred to as CO-dark molecular gas, has represented one of astronomy’s most significant blind spots.
In a fresh study, NRAO astronomer Kimberly Emig and her team mapped this hidden gas across extensive sections of the sky, using radio spectral lines from atomic recombination known as carbon radio recombination lines (CRRLs).
Their map encompasses Cygnus X, a star-forming region located approximately 5,000 light-years away in the constellation Cygnus.
“It’s akin to suddenly switching on a light in a room and discovering various structures that were previously unseen,” Dr. Emig remarked.
The newly constructed map unveils a sprawling network of arcs, ridges, and webs of dark gas permeating Cygnus X.
These formations indicate where star-forming materials accumulate and evolve before becoming noticeable as molecular clouds in CO.
The authors demonstrated that these faint carbon signals, observed at very low radio frequencies, serve as an extraordinarily powerful instrument for uncovering hidden gas that directly correlates ordinary matter with the birth of new stars.
They found that this dark gas is not static; instead, it flows, shifts, and moves at rates much faster than previously recognized. These dynamics influence the stellar formation rate.
Moreover, they discovered that the intensity of these carbon lines is directly connected to the intense starlight bathing the area, emphasizing the significant role radiation plays in galactic recycling.
“By illuminating the invisible, we can trace how the raw ingredients in our galaxy transform from simple atoms into complex molecular structures that will ultimately become stars, planets, and potentially life,” Dr. Emig stated.
“This marks merely the beginning of comprehending an otherwise unseen force.”
Find the results published in the October 17th edition of the Astrophysical Journal.
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Kimberly L. Emig et al. 2025. The cold dark gas of Cygnus X: the first large-scale mapping of low-frequency carbon recombination lines. APJ 992, 216; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adfa17
Fossil brain box and partial skull roof Carnegie Museum of Natural History. This specimen underwent reevaluation and was reclassified, resulting in the establishment of a new genus and species of sauropod dinosaur from the Dicraeosauridae family: athena bellmani.
Holotype brain case of athena bellmani. Image credit: Whitlock et al., doi: 10.26879/1550.
The dinosaur athena bellmani inhabited what is now Utah, USA, during the Late Jurassic Period, approximately 151 to 150 million years ago.
This specimen, designated Carnegie Museum (CM) Specimen 26552, was first discovered in 1913 in the Morrison Formation at the Carnegie Quarry in Dinosaur National Monument.
So far, the specimens have been assigned to a genus of sauropod dinosaurs known as diplodocus.
Dr. John Whitlock, a researcher at Mount Aloysius College and the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, commented, “The Carnegie Museum of Natural History contains some of the most significant specimens for understanding the cranial anatomy of diplodocoid sauropods.”
“One specimen, CM 26552, is frequently overlooked in favor of a more complete skull; however, it holds immense historical significance as it provided the foundation for modern descriptions of brain case anatomy in the diplodocus genus.”
“In view of new discoveries since its initial description in 1978, we are reassessing the anatomical and taxonomic relationships of this specimen.”
The new analysis indicates that CM 26552’s characteristics align more closely with another group of sauropods, the Dicraeosauridae.
“CM 26552 showcases mosaic features that distinctly separate it from other known North American dicraeosaur species,” the paleontologists noted.
“Based on this evidence, we are assigning CM 26552 to a new genus: athena, with the specific name bellmani.”
Research has also revealed that athena bellmani is closely related to dicraeosaurids like Swasea.
The researchers stated, “Considering CM 26552 as a new species of Dicraeosaurina enhances our understanding of this family’s diversity in the Morrison Formation and North America broadly, thus enriching the historically underrepresented sauropod diversity of this region.”
The findings have been published in an online journal this month: Old Trogia Electronica.
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John A. Whitlock et al. 2025. athena bellmani, a new species of dicraeosaur sauropod discovered from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah, USA. Old Trogia Electronica 28 (3): a50; doi: 10.26879/1550
Is your concentration wavering? Perhaps your brain needs a rinse!
Jenny Evans/Getty Images
It’s well-known that our focus diminishes when we’re short on sleep. But what causes this? It may stem from your brain momentarily losing attention as it attempts to rejuvenate itself.
While we sleep, our brain undergoes a cleansing process where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is cycled in and out of the brain, flushing out daily accumulated metabolic waste. If this does not occur, it could potentially harm brain cells.
Laura Lewis and her team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology hypothesized that the drop in alertness following sleep deprivation could be the brain’s way of trying to recover while awake.
To test this theory, researchers asked 26 participants aged 19 to 40 to sleep adequately to feel refreshed, and two weeks later, they kept the same group awake all night in the lab.
In both circumstances, the team used MRI scans to record the brain activity of participants the following morning as they performed two tasks. These tasks required them to press a button whenever they heard a specific sound or noticed a cross on the screen transforming into a square, which occurred numerous times over 12 minutes.
As predicted, participants struggled to press the button more frequently when they were sleep-deprived compared to when they were well-rested. This indicates that insufficient sleep hampers concentration.
Crucially, analysis of the brain scans revealed that participants lost focus about two seconds prior to the CSF being expelled from the base of the brain, with CSF being reabsorbed roughly one second after attentiveness returned.
“If you envision the brain-cleansing process as akin to a washing machine, you fill it with water, run it around, and then you need to drain it. The lack of focus represents the ‘swishing’ stage during this cleaning process,” explains Lewis.
The findings imply that if the brain cannot cleanse itself during sleep, it resorts to doing so while awake, which compromises concentration, according to Lewis. “If this wave of fluid doesn’t materialize because you’ve been awake all night, your brain begins to sneak it in during the daytime, at the expense of your focus.”
While the exact cause of how this cleaning process leads to diminished attention remains unknown, pinpointing the brain circuits involved could illuminate ways to mitigate the cognitive repercussions of sleep deprivation, Lewis suggests.
Remarkably, Segue 1, an extremely faint dwarf galaxy, is positioned at the center of this image.
CDS, Strasbourg, France/CDS/Aladdin
Astoundingly, a supermassive black hole appears to reside at the heart of a nearby galaxy previously believed to be dominated by dark matter. Segue 1 is scarcely a galaxy, hosting merely around 1,000 stars compared to the Milky Way’s vast hundreds of billions. Yet, it seemingly contains a black hole with a mass approximately 10 times greater than the combined total of all its stars.
Segue 1 and similar dwarf galaxies lack sufficient stars to generate the gravitational force needed to hold them intact. To address this anomaly, physicists have long speculated that dark matter—a mysterious, invisible substance—fills the universe, contributing additional gravity.
Recently, Nathaniel Lujan and colleagues at the University of Texas at San Antonio began exploring computer models of Segue 1. They anticipated that the model yielding the best fit would be one characterized by dark matter. “After running hundreds of thousands of models, we were unable to find a viable solution,” Lujan remarks. “Eventually, we decided to experiment with the black hole mass, and that dramatically changed the results.”
The model that closely aligned with the observations of Segue 1 featured a black hole with a mass around 450,000 times that of the Sun. This discovery was particularly unexpected—not only due to the galaxy’s scarcity of stars but also considering its age. With so few stars, Segue 1 is estimated to have formed merely 400 million years following the universe’s initial star formation. Time constraints make it challenging for such a massive black hole to develop, especially since the much larger Milky Way likely consumed most of the gas that could have nourished Segue 1 shortly after its inception.
“This suggests there may be far more supermassive black holes than previously assumed,” Lujan states. If true, this could clarify some of the gravitational effects formerly attributed to dark matter, though it remains uncertain whether Segue 1 is typical of all dwarf galaxies. The quest for additional supermassive black holes continues.
Oats (avena sativa) grain are a traditional food rich in dietary fiber, contributing positively to human health. Recent years have seen a rise in interest in oats as they serve as the foundation for plant-based milk alternatives. Unlike many other cereal crops, oat genomic research is still in its early stages, with limited exploration into structural genomic diversity and gene expression variability. Scientists are currently focused on collecting and annotating the genome. An atlas of gene expression across six tissues at various developmental stages in 33 wild and domesticated oat strains is also being developed.
Oats (avena sativa). Image credit: Christian Wynn.
Oats rank as the seventh most cultivated grain globally, esteemed for their high fiber content and notable health benefits.
In 2022 and 2023, global production exceeded 25 million tons.
Advancements in genetically improved varieties hold the promise of enhanced productivity and sustainability in oat farming; however, much of this potential remains untapped, with the first oat reference sequences released only in recent years.
The complexity of the oat genome adds to the slow progress.
“Pangenomes encapsulate the complete genetic diversity of cultivated plants like oats and are essential for our understanding,” remarked lead author Raz Avni, Ph.D., from the Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Research.
“They comprise genes common to all plants and those unique to specific species, providing a kind of roadmap.”
“The pantranscriptome reveals which genes are active across various tissues, such as leaves, roots, and seeds, and at different developmental stages. It serves as a gene expression atlas.”
“However, deciphering how genetic variations influence traits in individual plants poses a challenge, particularly in oats.”
“The oat genome’s complexity arises from its hexaploid nature, having six sets of chromosomes from three ancestral sources.”
During their study, the authors sequenced and analyzed the genomes of 33 oat lines, including cultivated varieties and related wild types.
They also constructed an oat pan transcriptome by scrutinizing gene expression in six tissues across various developmental stages in 23 of these oat lines.
The research aimed to identify structural changes, such as chromosome inversions and translocations.
“Our pangenome illustrates the extensive genetic diversity present in oats,” stated Dr. Avni.
“This insight aids in identifying key genes associated with yield, adaptation, and health.”
The researchers uncovered intriguing findings during their study.
“For instance, we observed the loss of many genes in one of the three subgenomes,” the team noted.
“Nevertheless, other gene copies seem to compensate for the functions, ensuring the plant’s productivity remains intact.”
“Sequencing the oat pangenome highlights how modern genomic methods can propel foundational research and directly influence health, agriculture, and breeding,” commented lead author Dr. Martin Mascher from Murdoch University’s Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Research.
“We also discovered that structural variations in the genome influence the regulation of flowering time.”
The team’s results are published in the journal Nature.
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R. Avni et al. Pangenome and pantranscriptome of hexaploid oat. Nature, published online October 29, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09676-7
Hurricane Melissa, which has recently impacted both Jamaica and Cuba, has become emblematic of the increasing frequency and intensity of major storms in a warming world.
Historically rare devastating storms characterized by extreme winds and heavy rainfall are now becoming more frequent, a trend accelerated by climate change. This shift is revealing intriguing patterns in the behavior and timing of these formidable hurricanes.
Before making landfall in Jamaica as a powerful Category 5 storm, Melissa, similar to other hurricanes over the past decade, exhibited exceptional strength in warmer waters. This rapid intensification has marked it as a major force of the current Atlantic season, tying it for the most formidable landfall recorded in Atlantic history.
After impacting Jamaica, the storm weakened and delayed rainfall—another indication of how climate change influences hurricane behavior. Notably, Melissa’s occurrence came later in the season, demonstrating a shift as hurricane activity typically peaks in early September, but this year persisted into the fall when ocean temperatures remain elevated.
Experts suggest that these patterns signify a new normal for hurricanes with Melissa representing this change.
“This storm differs significantly from those observed in previous decades,” stated Shel Winkley, a meteorologist affiliated with the Climate Central research group.
This is a critical change that meteorologists and officials in hurricane-prone areas are vigilantly observing.
intensified all at once
One of the most striking features of Melissa is its extraordinary rate of intensification. In a mere 18 hours, it escalated from a tropical storm to a Category 4 on Sunday, achieving Category 5 status early Monday morning.
Climate change is heightening the likelihood of such “rapid intensification,” defined by the National Hurricane Center as an increase in wind speeds of 35 miles per hour or more within a 24-hour timeframe.
In Melissa’s case, Winkley noted that notably warm sea surface temperatures in the Caribbean, coupled with elevated atmospheric moisture, triggered “extremely rapid intensification.”
“We’ve become adept at predicting significant increases in hurricane intensity, but Melissa surpassed even our most optimistic forecasts regarding wind speeds,” he explained.
Winkley added that the storm traversed Caribbean waters that were 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit above average, with climate change making its occurrence up to 700 times more likely.
“While 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit might seem minor, such small variations can noticeably impact storm behavior,” Winkley stated.
A number of recent hurricanes have exhibited rapid intensification. For instance, Hurricane Milton’s wind speeds surged by 90 miles per hour in roughly 25 hours, and Hurricane Ian in 2022 experienced rapid strengthening prior to making landfall in Florida. Similar patterns were observed in Hurricanes Idalia in 2023, Ida in 2021, and Harvey in 2017.
If there are fewer hurricanes, the impact will be greater.
Over the past 35 years, the annual incidence of hurricanes and tropical cyclones has decreased.
“Our research indicates that the number of hurricanes, including typhoons, around the globe has significantly dropped since 1990,” remarked Phil Klotzbach, a hurricane researcher at Colorado State University.
However, this overall decline is largely attributed to a reduction in Pacific cyclone activity, Klotzbach noted. In contrast, Atlantic hurricane activity has seen an increase primarily due to a long-term La Niña effect, which tends to weaken the upper-level winds that inhibit hurricane formation.
“If you enjoy hurricanes, La Niña is beneficial for the Atlantic,” Klotzbach said.
Hurricane Melissa on October 27, 2025.Noah / Shira
If a hurricane forms, it is increasingly likely to develop into a significant storm due to rising ocean temperatures.
“We’ve observed a rise in the frequency of hurricanes reaching categories 4 and 5,” Klotzbach noted.
Melissa was the third Category 5 hurricane to form this year, marking the first instance in two decades where two or more such hurricanes occurred in a single season.
Zachary Handros, an atmospheric scientist at the Georgia Institute of Technology, explained that warmer oceans will likely contribute to increased hurricane activity moving forward; however, atmospheric changes may alter upper-level winds, potentially hindering some storms. “It’s not a straightforward answer,” he added.
The ongoing evolution of these trends is a subject of active research and scientific inquiry.
Hurricane season gets longer
Experts concur that this season’s top hurricane struck just days before Halloween.
“At this point, we are quite late in the season, and typically things should be easing,” remarked Derrick Herndon, a researcher at the University of Wisconsin’s Tropical Cyclone Research Group.
While the Caribbean has always been known for powerful late-season hurricanes, Klotzbach indicated that the likelihood is increasing. He recently submitted a peer-reviewed study suggesting that hurricane seasons may commence earlier.
Workers, community members, and business owners clean up debris after Hurricane Helen on September 30, 2024, in Marshall, North Carolina.Javin Botsford/The Washington Post, with files from Getty Images
Klotzbach noted that the pattern of fall hurricanes is influenced by a long-term swing toward a La Niña pattern, likely a result of both climate change and natural variability.
La Niña diminishes upper-altitude winds while Caribbean waters remain warm, facilitating storm formation into late October and early November. “The odds are stacked for a powerful hurricane,” he said.
Hurricane Melissa further complicated matters with warmer-than-usual ocean waters off Jamaica’s southern coastline.
“If we anticipate a particularly strong Atlantic hurricane, it is likely to develop in this region,” Herndon stated.
In previous years, such storms would generally pull up cooler waters from the depths, thereby limiting their growth. However, with ocean heat surging both at the surface and at depths of 60 meters, Melissa has been able to tap into increased heat and energy, according to Andy Hazelton, a hurricane modeler and associate scientist at the University of Miami’s Oceanic and Atmospheric Cooperation Institute.
the storm is stagnant
Research indicates that hurricanes are more prone to stalling just before or after making landfall, resulting in significant rainfall. This conclusion has been supported by a study published last year. Other research suggests that the overall forward speed of storms has decreased, but this remains a topic of debate.
Residents of Guanimal, a coastal town in Cuba southwest of Havana, navigate flooded streets after Hurricane Helen in 2024.Yamil Raji/AFP from Getty Images File
Following this pattern, Hurricane Melissa gained strength before stalling offshore from Jamaica. On Tuesday morning, the day of its initial landfall, the storm was traveling at a mere 2 miles per hour. Forecasters anticipated up to 30 inches of rain in some areas of Jamaica, surpassing one-third of the yearly average.
The scientific community remains divided regarding why certain storms slow down, though some hypothesize that climate change may be weakening atmospheric circulation patterns.
Hurricane Harvey in 2017 vividly illustrated the consequences of such stalls, as the storm lingered over Houston, leading to rainfall of nearly 5 feet in some locations. This phenomenon is especially concerning as a warmer atmosphere can retain and release more moisture.
“For every degree Fahrenheit that the environment warms, the atmosphere can contain 4% additional moisture,” Winkley stated. “Rising ocean temperatures amplify not only the strength of hurricanes but also enable greater evaporation, resulting in more moisture available for these storms to absorb and then release.”
Tim Berners-Lee in a rack at the CERN computer center
Maximilian Bryce/CERN
Tim Berners-Lee holds a comprehensive map of the internet on a single page, featuring around 100 blocks linked by various arrows. These blocks encompass blogs, podcasts, group messages, and abstract themes like creativity, collaboration, and clickbait, providing a unique depiction of the digital realm from the innovator of the World Wide Web.
“Most of them are good,” he remarked during our conversation at New Scientist‘s London office, reflecting on the web’s successes and failures. This map serves as a guide for others and a reminder that only a small fraction of the Internet is deemed detrimental to society. The top-left quadrant illustrates Berners-Lee’s concerns, with six blocks marked “Harmful,” including names like Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok, X, and YouTube.
In the last 35 years, Berners-Lee’s creation has evolved from just one user (himself) to approximately 5.5 billion users, constituting about 70% of the global population. It has transformed communication and shopping, making modern life unimaginable without it. However, the list of emerging challenges continues to expand.
Issues like misinformation, polarization, and election interference have become staples of online discourse, contrasting sharply with Berners-Lee’s vision of a collaborative utopia. In his memoir, This is for Everyone, he reflects, “In the early days of the web, joy and wonder were abundant, but today’s online experience can induce just as much anxiety.”
It’s natural for the web’s architect to feel a sense of disappointment regarding humanity’s use of his creation, yet he remains hopeful for the future of the internet. As one of the foremost technology visionaries (with a plethora of accolades and honors), he shares insights on what went awry and how he envisions solutions.
Invention of the Web
The World Wide Web’s origin story hinges on being at the right place and time. In the late 1980s, Berners-Lee was part of the computing and networking sector at a U.S. company. At CERN, the particle physics lab near Geneva, Switzerland, he pondered over better document management methods.
Most systems forced users into rigid organizational structures and strict hierarchies. Berners-Lee envisioned a more flexible approach, permitting users to link documents freely. Hyperlinks existed for internal references, and the Internet was already available for file sharing—why not merge the two concepts? This simple yet transformative idea birthed the World Wide Web.
Although Berners-Lee had harbored the idea since 1989, he ultimately convinced his supportive supervisors to let him pursue it fully. Within months, he created a surge of developments that led to HTML—a programming language for web pages, HTTP—the protocol for transferring them, and the URL, the means to locate them. The final code consisted of just 9,555 lines, marking the web’s emergence by year’s end.The web was born.
“CERN was an extraordinary place to innovate the web,” he states. “Individuals from around the world, driven by a genuine need to communicate and document their experiences, came together there.”
The inaugural website was hosted on Berners-Lee’s work computer, adorned with a “Do Not Turn Off” sign and instructions for engaging with the web. More web servers emerged, leading to exponential growth: “In the first year, it grew tenfold; in the second year, another tenfold; and by the third, yet another tenfold.” He recalls, “Even then, I sensed we were onto something significant.”
Initially, most web pages were crafted by academics and developers, but soon, everyone began using them to share a wide array of content. Within a decade, the landscape blossomed into millions of websites, hundreds of millions of users, and the inevitable rise of dot-com ventures.
The Spice Girls with their website in 1997.
David Corio/Redferns
Despite the web’s immense potential for profit, Berners-Lee believed it should remain free and open to realize its full capabilities. This was a challenge, as CERN had legitimate grounds to claim royalties on the software being developed. Berners-Lee advocated for his superiors to release this technology openly, and by 1993, after much negotiation, the comprehensive source code of the Web was made available, complete with a disclaimer: CERN relinquishes all intellectual property rights to this code—the web will be royalty-free forever.
Early Days
For its initial years, the web flourished. Although there was a notorious stock market crash at the turn of the millennium, largely driven by speculative venture capital rather than the web itself, piracy was rampant, and malware was ever-present, the web was fundamentally open, free, and enjoyable. “People loved the web; they were simply happy,” Berners-Lee recounted in his memoir.
He captured the essence of this era, believing the web held the potential to foster new forms of collaboration among people. He coined the term “intercreativity” to describe the creative synergy of groups rather than individuals. Wikipedia, with around 65 million English pages edited by 15 million contributors, exemplifies what he envisioned for the web. He notably positions it on his map and describes it as “probably the best single example” of his aspirations.
However, the optimistic phase of the web was not to extend indefinitely. For Berners-Lee, the turning point came in 2016, marked by the Brexit vote and the election of Donald Trump. “At that moment, discussions arose about how social media could be manipulated to influence voters against their interests. In essence, the web became an instrument of manipulation driven by larger entities,” he shared.
Traditionally, political movements communicated their messages to the public openly, allowing for critique and discussion. However, by the mid-2010s, social media enabled “narrowcasting,” as Berners-Lee describes it, allowing political messages to be tailored into numerous versions for various audiences. This complicates tracking who communicated what and makes it harder to counter misinformation.
The extent of this microtargeting’s impact on elections remains debated. Numerous studies have tried to quantify how such messaging alters public opinion and voting behavior, generally uncovering only modest effects. Regardless, these trends contribute to Berners-Lee’s broader concerns about social media.
He emphasized that social media platforms are incentivized to maintain user engagement, which leads to the creation of “addictive” algorithms. “People are naturally drawn to things that evoke anger,” he states. “When social media feeds users misinformation, it’s more likely to garner clicks and ensnare users longer.”
Quoting author Yuval Noah Harari, he stipulated that creators of “harmful” algorithms should likewise be held accountable for their recommendations. “It’s particularly essential to undermine systems designed to be addictive,” Berners-Lee argues. He admits that imposing restrictions contradicts his usual free and open philosophy, viewing it as a last resort. Social media can unify individuals and disseminate ideas, yet it also poses unique risks that warrant change, as he specifies in his latest book. “This must evolve somehow.”
Nonetheless, he harbors an optimistic view of the web’s potential trajectory. While social media, despite its captivating nature, represents merely a fragment of the internet landscape, Berners-Lee contends that addressing these issues should be part of a broader strategy aimed at enhancing the web overall, with a focus on reclaiming digital sovereignty.
A Plan for Universal Web Access
To further this goal, Berners-Lee has dedicated the last decade to developing a new framework reinstating control with the individual. Presently, disparate internet platforms manage personal data. For instance, it’s challenging to share a video from Snapchat on Facebook or a post from LinkedIn to Instagram—the user can create this content, yet each company retains ownership.
Berners-Lee’s concept advocates for consolidating data into a singular data repository known as a pod (short for “personal online data store”), which the user controls, rather than having information dispersed across various platforms. This pod can hold everything from family images to medical records, with users determining what to share. This isn’t merely theoretical; he co-founded a company, Inrupt, that aims to bring this vision to life.
Berners-Lee using an early version of website and web browser invented at CERN in 1994
CERN
He is particularly enthusiastic about merging data wallets with artificial intelligence. For example, when searching for running shoes, current AI chatbots require detailed guidance to offer suitable recommendations. However, if an AI accesses a user’s data wallet, it can understand all past measurements, training history, and potentially spending behavior, leading to more accurate suggestions.
Berners-Lee advocates that AI should serve users, not large tech corporations. His goal isn’t to create individual AIs but to establish safeguards within software. Data wallets are part of the solution, along with an idea that AI should adhere to a kind of digital Hippocratic oath to avoid causing harm. He envisions AI acting as “your personal assistant,” providing tailored support.
While recommending appropriate running shoes may not address the web’s most pressing challenges, Berners-Lee possesses an exceptional ability to envision potential before others. Data wallets might seem mundane today, yet just decades ago, hyperlink-based document management systems were equally obscure. His passion for bettering the world drives him, as he believes enhancing the data ecosystem is crucial to achieving that goal.
All these developments suggest Berners-Lee envisions a fundamental shift for the web. He believes we must transition from an “attention economy,” dominated by competing clicks, to an “intention economy,” where users express their needs and companies—and AI—strive to fulfill them. “This is more empowering for the individual,” he asserts.
Such a transformation could redistribute power from tech giants to users. Some might think such a reversal unlikely, especially with the ongoing trends of tech dominance and the pervasive “doomscrolling” culture. However, Berners-Lee has a proven history of spotting opportunities others miss, and ultimately, he is the architect of the roadmap.
Neanderthals may have used ocher crayons to draw on cave walls
Golodenkov/Getty Images
A fascinating yellow crayon discovered in Crimea remains sharp after over 40,000 years, indicating that marking objects was a component of Neanderthal culture. This finding serves as the most compelling evidence so far that certain Neanderthal groups utilized colored pigments symbolically, a behavior previously believed to be exclusive to humans.
“It’s truly remarkable. It expands our understanding of the symbolic application of color,” states Emma Pomeroy from the University of Cambridge, who was not part of the study.
The use of ocher, an iron-rich mineral displaying red, yellow, and orange shades, has deep roots in Europe and Africa, reaching back at least 400,000 years. Ocher fragments have been found in numerous Neanderthal sites and seem to have been utilized for practical activities like tanning skins and igniting fires, sometimes being applied to seashell beads.
Neanderthals might have also decorated their bodies, clothing, and surfaces with ocher, although such marks have long since vanished. To delve deeper, Francesco d’Errico and fellow researchers from the University of Bordeaux in France undertook a thorough examination of ocher fragments from Neanderthal sites in Crimea, Ukraine. By analyzing how Neanderthals modified these fragments and examining their wear using a microscope, they gained insights into their usage.
The most intriguing of these ocher artifacts, dating back at least 42,000 years, was yellow and shaped like a crayon, measuring about 5 to 6 centimeters long. In-depth analysis revealed that the tip had been worn down through use and then resharpened, suggesting that it was regularly reused as a marking implement.
“This is a tool that has been refined and reshaped multiple times, making it quite unique,” remarks D’Errico. “It’s not merely a standard crayon; it exists as a crayon because of its use as such. It may have been utilized for drawing lines on skin or stone, reflecting artistic endeavors.”
Ocher fragment tip utilized as a crayon and subsequently sharpened
D’Errico et al., Sci. Advances 11, eadx4722
April Nowell, a professor at Victoria University in Canada who was not part of the study, concurs. “I only retain the dot on the crayon when I aim to create precise lines or designs,” she comments.
The research team also uncovered an even older broken crayon made from red ocher, potentially as old as 70,000 years.
“A small piece of ocher can convey a wealth of information,” says Pomeroy. “It connects with our shared humanity in a deeply emotional way.”
This Crimean crayon discovery contributes to a growing array of evidence of Neanderthal artistic capacity, which includes a 57,000-year-old finger carving found on a cave wall in France, and a mysterious circle created from stalagmites 175,000 years ago in another French cave.
These findings support the notion that symbolic behavior is not merely a recent development but has deep-seated roots in our evolutionary trajectory. “The cognitive capabilities associated with symbolic actions were likely present in our last common ancestor, encompassing Homo sapiens, Denisovans, and Neanderthals over 700,000 years ago,” notes Nowell.
Ancient caves, the origins of humanity: Northern Spain
Explore some of the oldest cave paintings in this picturesque area of northern Spain. Journey back 40,000 years to discover how our ancestors lived, created, and built their lives. From ancient Paleolithic art to stunning geological formations, every cave tells a distinctive and timeless narrative.
Analog computers use less energy compared to digital computers
Metamol Works/Getty Images
Analog computers that can swiftly resolve the primary types of equations essential for training artificial intelligence models may offer a viable solution to the growing energy demands of data centers spurred by the AI revolution.
Devices like laptops and smartphones are known as digital computers because they handle data in binary form (0s and 1s) and can be programmed for various tasks. Conversely, analog computers are generally crafted to tackle specific problems, using continuously variable quantities like electrical resistance rather than discrete binary values.
While analog computers excel in terms of speed and energy efficiency, they have historically lagged in accuracy compared to their digital counterparts. Recently, Zhong Sun and his team at Peking University in China developed two analog chips that work collaboratively to solve matrix equations accurately—crucial for data transmission, large-scale scientific simulations, and AI model training.
The first chip generates low-precision outputs for matrix computations at high speed, while the second chip refines these outputs through an iterative improvement algorithm to assess and minimize the error rate of the initial results. Sun noted that the first chip produced results with a 1% error rate, but after three iterations with the second chip, this rate dropped to 0.0000001%, comparable to the accuracy found in conventional digital calculations.
Currently, the researchers have successfully designed a chip capable of solving 16 × 16 matrices, which equates to handling 256 variables, sufficient for addressing smaller problems. However, Sun acknowledges that addressing the complexities of today’s large-scale AI models will necessitate substantially larger circuits, potentially scaling up to 1 million by 1 million.
A unique advantage of analog chips is their ability to handle larger matrices without increased solving time, unlike digital chips, whose solving complexity rises exponentially with matrix size. This translates to a 32 x 32 analog chip outperforming the Nvidia H100 GPU, a leading chip for AI training.
Theoretically, further scaling could yield throughput up to 1,000 times greater than digital alternatives like GPUs while consuming 100 times less energy, according to Sun. However, he cautions that practical applications may exceed the circuit’s limited capabilities, limiting the perceived benefits.
“This is merely a speed comparison; your specific challenges may differ in real-world scenarios,” Sun explains. “Our chip is designed exclusively for matrix computations. If these computations dominate your tasks, the acceleration will be substantial; otherwise, the benefits may be constrained.”
Sun suggests that the most realistic outcome may be the creation of hybrid chips that incorporate some analog circuitry alongside GPUs to tackle specific problem areas, although this development might still be years away.
James Millen, a professor at King’s College London, emphasizes that matrix calculations are pivotal in AI model training, indicating that analog computing has the potential to make a significant impact.
“The contemporary landscape is dominated by digital computers. These remarkable machines are universal, capable of tackling any computation, yet not necessarily with optimal efficiency or speed,” Millen states. “Analog computers excel in performing specific tasks, making them exceptionally fast and efficient. In this research, we leverage analog computing chips to enhance matrix inversion processes—essential for training certain AI models. Improving this efficiency could help mitigate the substantial energy demands accompanying our expanding reliance on AI.”
Are you having trouble focusing? It might be that your brain needs a wash.
Jenny Evans/Getty Images
We all recognize that lack of sleep hampers our concentration, but what’s the reason behind it? It may be that your brain is temporarily losing focus as it attempts to refresh itself.
During sleep, the brain undergoes a cleansing process where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates into the organs and drains out at the base of the brain. This cycle helps eliminate the metabolic waste that builds up during waking hours. If this doesn’t happen, brain cells could be harmed.
Laura Lewis and her team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology theorized that the drop in alertness often seen after insufficient sleep could stem from the brain trying to make up for lost time while awake.
To test this theory, researchers enlisted 26 participants aged between 19 and 40 to first ensure they were well-rested. Two weeks later, they were kept awake overnight in a lab setting.
In both instances, the researchers recorded participants’ brain activity using MRI scans the next morning while they performed two specific tasks. During these tasks, participants needed to press a button every time they heard a particular sound or saw a cross on the screen transform into a square. This occurred many times over a span of 12 minutes.
As anticipated, participants struggled to hit the button significantly more often when sleep-deprived compared to when they were well-rested. This indicates that lack of sleep diminishes concentration capacity.
Notably, the analysis of the brain scans revealed that participants lost focus approximately two seconds before the CSF was expelled from the base of the brain. Additionally, the CSF was reabsorbed into the brain about one second after attention was regained.
“Think of the brain-cleansing process like a washing machine: you fill it with water, let it agitate, and then drain it. The loss of attention corresponds to the swirling phase,” Lewis explains.
The results imply that if the brain is unable to cleanse itself during sleep, it compensates while you’re awake, thus impairing concentration, according to Lewis. “If this wave of fluid flow doesn’t occur, because you were awake the entire night, your brain starts sneaking in this process during the day, but it comes at the price of your focus.”
While the exact reason for how this cleaning process affects attention remains unclear, pinpointing the specific brain circuits involved may help uncover strategies to mitigate the cognitive impacts of sleep deprivation, Lewis states.
Artificial intelligence (AI) systems that drive today’s technologies, from chatbots to search engines, predominantly rely on a single source: Wikipedia. With over 7 million articles in English and a policy for free use, this platform is a goldmine of high-quality training data.
But will online encyclopedias adopt AI technology? In the BBC Science Focusinstant genius podcast, Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales expressed optimism about using AI for editing and error detection, though he remains uncertain about its role in drafting complete articles.
“What excites me about AI is its potential to aid the Wikipedia community,” Wales remarked.
Wales elaborated on various methods he’s exploring, mentioning a tool designed to analyze brief Wikipedia entries and their sources to pinpoint missing information and unsupported claims. “I’ve found that I’m quite adept at it,” he noted.
He also emphasized that this experimentation is not limited to his own efforts. The Wikimedia Foundation, which operates Wikipedia, has a committed machine learning team working on developing valuable AI tools for the Wikipedia community.
“Many individuals are engaged in maintaining Wikipedia,” Wales stated. “[These tools] represent an exciting initiative that enhances quality.”
When queried about the prospect of AI drafting Wikipedia entries soon, Wales was skeptical.
“I’m not ruling it out completely, but it seems unlikely in the short term. From a Wikipedia perspective, the current models still fall short.”
Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales made the first edit on the site’s homepage on January 15, 2001. Today, the encyclopedia boasts over 7 million articles in English alone. – Credit: Getty
One area where Wikipedia’s founders see potential for AI is in mitigating bias within the encyclopedia itself. For instance, research indicates that 20 percent of biographies on Wikipedia feature women, and these entries often skimp on coverage by focusing more on family, relationships, or appearance.
In light of these statistics, Wales proposed, “It’s feasible to envision AI continuously scanning Wikipedia for certain types of bias and alerting us to areas we should focus on.”
However, he also raised concerns about biases present in the Large-Scale Language Model (LLM), as many are trained extensively on data from Wikipedia: “Model trainers must be vigilant about this issue, reflecting deeply on it.”
Wales contends that while Wikipedia may contribute to AI bias, AI could also assist in reducing bias within Wikipedia itself. – Credit: Getty
Despite these concerns, Wales insists that few online spaces rival Wikipedia for quality training data.
“Fortunately, we don’t have an AI model trained exclusively on Twitter. That would result in a rather peculiar and hostile model,” he remarked.
“It’s crucial to have training materials that are factual, well-considered, and thoughtful.”
He summed up, saying, “Broadly speaking, the more fact-driven and extensive the language models we have, the better it is.”
Jimmy Wales’ new book, 7 Rules of Trust, is now available for purchase.
This newly discovered fossil, preserved in amber from Myanmar’s Kachin region, marks the first instance of a mosquito larva found in amber and represents the earliest immature mosquito of the Mesozoic era, designated as a new genus and species: Cletosabetes primaevus. This discovery strongly suggests that the mosquito family Culicidae has its origins in the Jurassic period and indicates that its larval structure has remained largely unchanged for at least the past 99 million years.
Larva of Cletosabetes primaevus. Image credit: Amaral et al., doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2025.09.011.
Mosquitoes comprise a vast group of insects, with over 3,727 known species alive today.
Although small, they are quite noticeable and widely distributed, playing significant roles in ecosystems, human history, and both human and veterinary health.
To date, 31 species of mosquito fossils have been documented. These ancient mosquitoes closely resemble modern species and are classified within the same genus as their modern counterparts.
“The earliest known mosquito fossils are adults, also found in amber dating back about 99 million years,” stated Dr. Andre Amaral from Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich and his team.
“Given their morphological distinctions from living species, they are considered part of a separate group, Burmaculicinae, representing an extinct lineage within Culicidae.”
The authors note that Cletosabetes primaevus belongs to the Sabetini group, which includes existing species.
Similar to the larvae of current Sabetini species, this new species’ larvae likely thrived in small water bodies.
“According to currently uncovered fossils, the evolutionary roots of mosquitoes are believed to be in the Jurassic period, roughly 201 to 145 million years ago,” the researchers remarked.
“Molecular phylogeny analyses yield varying conclusions, from the Triassic to Jurassic periods.”
“Our research strongly indicates that mosquitoes had already diversified during the Jurassic period, with their larval structure remarkably consistent for nearly 100 million years.”
“This finding challenges previous notions regarding the early evolution of this insect group and offers fresh insights into its evolutionary ecology.”
A segment of amber containing Cletosabetes primaevus larvae was sourced from the Kachin Amber Mine in Myanmar’s Hukaung Valley.
This amber dates back to the Late Cretaceous, about 98.79 million years ago.
“This fossil stands out as the larva closely resembles modern species. Unlike other mosquito fossils from this period, it displays distinct morphological features no longer found in today’s species,” Dr. Amaral explained.
A paper detailing Cletosabetes primaevus was published in this month’s edition of Gondwana Research.
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Andre P. Amaral et al. 2025. The first fossilized mosquito larva discovered in 99-million-year-old amber illuminates the evolutionary history of mosquitoes (Diptera: Mosquitoidae). Gondwana Research 150: 154-162; doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2025.09.011
Galaxy clusters create gravitational lenses, bending light around them
NASA, ESA, Michael Gladders (University of Chicago); Acknowledgment: Judy Schmidt
Quantum physics might hold the key to unraveling the mysteries of celestial objects that remain undetectable or poorly observed through telescopes.
In our quest to comprehend the universe, we gather and scrutinize light emitted by stars and various celestial entities. However, this light often doesn’t travel in a straight path. When passing near massive entities like planets or black holes, the light’s trajectory can curve, resulting in a distorted image, akin to having an additional lens in the process.
Considering smaller objects that lack significant mass, traditional imaging strategies often fall short when dealing with “microlensing” effects. Researchers including Liu Zhenning at the University of Maryland have demonstrated that light analysis protocols that respect the quantum aspects may yield superior results.
They aimed to utilize the quantum features of light to deduce the mass of objects responsible for microlensing. According to Liu, microlensing is detectable when light brightness increases, signaling the presence of an object obscuring our view. However, if this object doesn’t possess substantial mass, its weight remains indeterminate from the light characteristics already measured by the telescope. Such bodies could encompass solitary small black holes or wandering planets.
Given that light consists of photons—quantum particles—there’s valuable information embedded in the quantum nature of its journey to Earth. Notably, when a photon encounters multiple paths around an object, the travel time discrepancies impact its quantum properties. Due to the wave-like characteristics of quantum particles, these photons can traverse both paths simultaneously, mimicking a water wave around a rock. The team’s methodology is adept at analyzing the time differences of both routes, which can be transformed into mass estimates for the objects.
Liu mentions that while planets and black holes inducing microlensing may not be completely imperceptible by other means, these techniques could necessitate more light collection, implying the need for larger telescopes. Quantum methods, however, can function effectively even with smaller photon counts.
For instance, his team’s mathematical assessments indicate that their protocol is particularly effective for stars located in the galactic bulge, a section of the Milky Way where dark matter candidates have been previously identified using gravitational lensing techniques. Because this new approach doesn’t demand a sophisticated quantum computer and can be employed with more conventional devices combined with classical computers to capture and analyze individual photons, it’s poised for real-world testing in the near future.
Daniel Oy, a professor at the University of Strathclyde in the UK, asserts that quantum methodologies significantly enhance the extraction of time-delayed data from light, an enhancement he characterizes as a pivotal advancement in quantum technology. He posits that since quantum theory sets limits on measurement precision in physics, it aligns perfectly with the challenge of detecting faint astronomical signals like those from a limited number of photons.
Scientists have uncovered ice and air that is 6 million years old from a shallow ice core in the Arran Hills of East Antarctica. They believe this ancient ice showcases a preserved surface snowpack or permafrost due to the development of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet during the mid-Miocene to late Miocene epochs.
Ancient ice extracted from the ALHIC1902 ice core. Image credit: Shackleton et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2502681122.
“Ice cores function as time machines, allowing researchers to glimpse Earth’s past,” stated Dr. Sarah Shackleton, a scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
“With the Allan Hills Core, our timeline extends much further than we previously thought was possible.”
“This is a groundbreaking discovery for the NSF-funded Center for Oldest Ice Exploration (COLDEX),” remarked Dr. Ed Brook, COLDEX director and paleoclimatologist at Oregon State University.
“We were aware that the ice in this area was ancient. Our initial estimates placed its age at around 3 million years, or perhaps slightly older, but this discovery has far surpassed our expectations.”
COLDEX is engaged in a friendly race with various international teams to push the ice core record beyond its historical 800,000-year threshold.
A European research team recently reported finding a continuous ice core dating back 1.2 million years deep within East Antarctica.
For months, the team operated in a remote field camp within East Antarctica’s Arran Hills, drilling 100 to 200 meters into the outskirts of several ice sheets, where ice movement and rugged mountain landscapes work together to safeguard ancient ice and bring it closer to the surface for easier retrieval.
In contrast, obtaining the oldest continuous ice cores from archaeological sites in East Antarctica necessitates drilling deeper than 2,000 meters.
“We are still exploring the specific conditions that enable such ancient ice to remain near the surface,” Dr. Shackleton explained.
“Besides the terrain, factors like intense winds and extreme cold may play a role.”
“The winds can disperse newly fallen snow, while the cold can slow down accumulation until the ice is nearly stationary.”
This makes the Arran Hills one of the premier locations globally for discovering shallow, ancient ice, while also being one of the most challenging environments for fieldwork.
The air trapped within these new ice cores enables scientists to directly ascertain the age of the ice by precisely measuring isotopes of the rare gas argon.
This direct dating method means that scientists can derive age indicators directly from the ice, instead of making assumptions based on accompanying features or deposits.
While this ancient ice record doesn’t form a continuous stretch, its age is unparalleled, the researchers noted.
“By dating multiple samples, our team has compiled a library of ‘climate snapshots’ approximately six times older than previously recorded ice core data, supplemented by more detailed younger data from other Antarctic ice cores,” Dr. Higgins stated.
Temperature records derived from oxygen isotope measurements in the ice indicate that the region underwent a gradual cooling of about 12 degrees Celsius (22 degrees Fahrenheit) over an extended timespan.
This marks the first direct assessment of the cooling extent in Antarctica over the past six million years.
Ongoing analyses of these ice cores aim to reconstruct atmospheric greenhouse gas levels and ocean heat content, which hold significant implications for understanding the drivers of natural climate change.
“The COLDEX team plans to return to the Arran Hills for additional drilling in the coming months, potentially yielding more detailed snapshots and even older ice,” Dr. Brook shared.
“In light of the unexpectedly ancient ice recovered in the Arran Hills, we are preparing a comprehensive, long-term study of the region with the goal of extending the record even further, which we hope to commence between 2026 and 2031.”
The team’s paper has been published today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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S. Shackleton et al. 2025. Miocene and Pliocene ice and air from the Allan Hills blue ice belt in East Antarctica. PNAS 122 (44): e2502681122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2502681122
A newly released map of WASP-18b, a hot Jupiter exoplanet located approximately 325 light-years from Earth, showcases an atmosphere characterized by distinct temperature zones. Within this region, the scorching temperatures are capable of decomposing water vapor.
Hot Jupiter WASP-18b. Image credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.
The WASP-18b map represents the first implementation of a method known as 3D eclipse mapping, or spectroscopic eclipse mapping.
This study features a 2D model. The paper, published in 2023 by members of the same research team, illustrated how eclipse mapping can leverage the sensitive observations from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.
“This technique is unique in that it can simultaneously survey all three dimensions: latitude, longitude, and altitude,” stated Dr. Megan Weiner Mansfield, an astronomer at the University of Maryland and Arizona State University.
“This enables a greater level of detail than previously possible for studying these celestial objects.”
With this technology, astronomers can now begin to chart the atmospheric variations of many similar exoplanets observable through Webb, resembling how Earth-based telescopes once scrutinized Jupiter’s Great Red Spot and its striped cloud formations.
“Eclipse mapping allows us to capture images of exoplanets whose host stars are too bright for direct observation,” remarked Dr. Ryan Challenor, an astronomer at Cornell University and the University of Maryland.
“Thanks to this telescope and groundbreaking technology, we can start to understand exoplanets similarly to the neighboring worlds in our solar system.”
Detecting exoplanets is quite challenging as they typically emit less than 1% of the brightness of their host star.
Mapping a solar eclipse involves measuring a small fraction of the total brightness as the planet orbits behind the star, obscuring and revealing areas of the star in the process.
Scientists can link minute changes in light to specific regions, creating brightness maps. These maps can be rendered in various colors and translated into three-dimensional temperature readings based on latitude, longitude, and altitude.
“It’s quite difficult because you’re looking for changes where small sections of the Earth become obscured and then revealed,” Challenor explained.
WASP-18b has a mass approximately 10 times that of Jupiter, completes its orbit in just 23 hours, and achieves temperatures around 2,760 degrees Celsius (5,000 degrees Fahrenheit). Its strong signal makes it an excellent candidate for testing new mapping techniques.
While previous 2D maps relied on a single wavelength or color of light, the 3D map re-evaluated the same observations using Webb’s Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrometer (NIRISS) across multiple wavelengths.
“Each color corresponds to different temperatures and altitudes within WASP-18b’s gaseous atmosphere, allowing them to be combined into a 3D map,” Dr. Challenor noted.
“Mapping at wavelengths that water absorbs can indicate the layers of water in the atmosphere, while wavelengths that water doesn’t absorb facilitate deeper probing.”
“When combined, these provide a three-dimensional temperature map of the atmosphere.”
The new perspective uncovered spectroscopically distinct zones (with varying temperatures and potentially different chemical compositions) on the visible dayside of WASP-18b (the side that perpetually faces its star due to its tidally locked orbit).
The planet exhibits a circular “hotspot” that receives the most direct stellar light, with winds insufficient to redistribute the heat.
Surrounding the hotspot is a cooler “ring” located closer to the planet’s visible outer edge.
Interestingly, the measurements indicated that water vapor levels within the hotspot were lower than the average for WASP-18b.
“We believe this suggests that the heat in this area is so intense that water is beginning to decompose,” explained Challenor.
“This was anticipated by theory, but it’s exhilarating to confirm it through actual observations.”
“Further observations from Webb could enhance the spatial resolution of this pioneering 3D eclipse map.”
“Already, this technique will aid in refining temperature maps of other hot Jupiters, which comprise hundreds of the more than 6,000 exoplanets discovered to date.”
Dr. Mansfield expressed: “It’s thrilling that we now possess the tools to visualize and map the temperature of another planet in such intricate detail.”
“We can apply this technique to other exoplanet types. For instance, even if a planet lacks an atmosphere, we might be able to use this method to map surface temperatures and discern its composition.”
“While WASP-18b was more predictable, we believe there’s potential to observe phenomena we never anticipated before.”
The map of WASP-18b is detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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RC Challenor et al.. Horizontal and vertical exoplanet thermal structures from JWST spectroscopic eclipse maps. Nat Astron published online October 28, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02666-9
According to studies, the warm waters that fueled the storm’s rapid intensification are 500 to 700 times more likely to be influenced by climate change. This was highlighted by Daniel Guilford and his team at Climate Central, a non-profit based in the US.
“The figure of ‘500 to 700 times more likely’ is substantial,” Guilford noted. “This clearly indicates that the extreme temperatures witnessed around Melissa wouldn’t be possible without human-induced climate change.”
Tropical cyclones like Melissa derive their energy from warm ocean waters. When storms pass over warmer surfaces, more water vapor is generated. As this moist, warm air rises and cools, condensation occurs, releasing latent heat. This process generates energy that fuels tropical cyclones.
In the central Caribbean, where Melissa rapidly intensified into a Category 5 hurricane, sea surface temperatures were recorded at 1.4 degrees Celsius (2.5 degrees Fahrenheit) higher than typical for October. These elevated temperatures extend to significant depths, resulting in an abundance of thermal energy within the oceans.
As Melissa stirs the ocean, sea surface temperatures remain elevated, bringing deeper, warmer water to the surface. Conversely, if only a shallow warm layer exists, colder water rises, depleting the storm’s energy.
“Hurricane Melissa is shaping up to be a perfect storm. The warm ocean has been rapidly escalating in intensity recently, while its slow movement could lead to extensive rainfall as it makes landfall,” said Lianne Archer, a researcher at the University of Bristol in the UK. “These conditions are largely intensified by the additional heat present in the oceans and atmosphere driven by climate change.”
The combination of strong winds and heavy rainfall poses a severe threat to Jamaica. Reports indicate that three individuals have already lost their lives as preparations continue for the storm, anticipated to make landfall around 11 a.m. or 12 p.m. local time.
“This presents one of the most alarming scenarios,” commented Hannah Cloke, a researcher from the University of Reading in the UK. “The nation will bear deep and lasting scars from this storm, making recovery a challenging endeavor for impacted regions.”
Historical studies of past disasters indicate that such events can stifle economic growth for years. Though some economists speculate a quick recovery could spur growth, this notion has often proven to be unfounded.
The Trump administration has significantly reduced essential U.S. health research
Ken Cedeno/UPI/Bloomberg via Getty Images
Essential public health research in the United States is experiencing severe cutbacks following extensive layoffs among government employees responsible for key national data systems. These datasets, which track a wide variety of factors from births to substance use, have informed health policy for many years. Without this data, effectively identifying and responding to health challenges will become nearly impossible.
“It’s akin to boarding a plane without a speedometer or altimeter; you have no idea of your altitude or distance to the nearest airport,” remarks Susan Mayne, the former Director of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.
During his second term, President Donald Trump has actively sought to shrink government size, with the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) becoming a primary target. The agency’s workforce was slashed in March, reducing from 82,000 employees to 62,000. In October, an additional 1,100 layoffs were announced, though a court order temporarily halted them due to the ongoing government shutdown.
Most layoffs have affected human resources, IT, and communication departments; however, some critical public health research staff have also been impacted. HHS has not responded to inquiries from New Scientist. The full extent of the layoffs affecting public health surveys remains unknown, though at least five cases have been identified thus far.
The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) was one of the first to feel these impacts. In April, HHS terminated all 17 people working on this vital study, disrupting the only national survey on drug use, addiction, and mental health. For over fifty years, the NSDUH has guided policymakers in directing funds to regions most affected by these issues. Although the latest report was released in July with the help of contractors from RTI International, the future of the survey remains uncertain. “All our planning will ultimately be for naught. Who at HHS will now steer the investigation?” asked former NSDUH director Jennifer Honig on social media, in a post.
In September, the government also terminated the Household Food Security Report, which tracks food insecurity nationwide, claiming: in a statement, “These redundant, expensive, politicized, and irrelevant studies only stoke fear.”
Yet, this report has enjoyed bipartisan backing for decades. Georgia Machel from the National WIC Association, a nonprofit that supports the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), remarked, “Programs like WIC depend on this national data to comprehend the full scope of hunger and food insecurity, allowing us to allocate resources effectively,” Machel added in her statement.
Recently, HHS is reported to have disbanded the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and laid off about 100 staff members. As noted by a Washington D.C.-based nonprofit advocating for open data and evidence-based policy, data infrastructure includes many employees from the National Vital Statistics System, which monitors births, deaths, and the leading causes of mortality and maternal issues across the United States.
Furthermore, the entire team administering the National Death Index has also faced these layoffs, according to former NCHS director Charles Rothwell. This database contains essential identifying information about every death in the U.S., including individual names, addresses, causes of death, and often Social Security numbers, enabling comprehensive tracking. “This is the only dataset like this accessible,” states Rothwell.
Because it contains sensitive information, the report will not be published but will assist other researchers and institutions with long-term studies. For instance, the Department of Veterans Affairs collaborates with officials to analyze mortality among veterans versus non-veterans. Researchers also utilize the data to ascertain whether participants have died or simply relocated, which is vital for aging studies like the Health and Retirement Study that evaluates the wellbeing of older Americans. As Rothwell highlighted, disruptions to the National Death Index could have ripple effects on various public health studies.
According to New Scientist, citing a recent court ruling, NCHS stated it is “not currently taking steps to implement or manage” staffing cuts. However, there was no reply regarding whether action would be taken once the government shutdown concludes, or how existing databases would be maintained.
In October, an employee responsible for the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was also dismissed. This research initiative is one of the most thorough evaluations of health, nutrition, and disease in the nation, facilitating mobile clinics that conduct blood tests, urine assessments, bone density evaluations, and oral health examinations to oversee diet, environmental exposures, and disease spread. “This truly lays the groundwork for nutrition and public health policy,” says Mayne. Moreover, it informs national dietary guidelines, environmental regulations, and food label developments. “Lacking accurate data about our population’s health and nutrition means we cannot properly prioritize public health initiatives,” she asserts.
The Data Foundation reports that HHS appears to have reversed its decision regarding layoffs for NHANES staff. However, the initial elimination of these roles remains alarming, as does the fate of personnel involved in other significant public health inquiries. These data sets fundamentally shape U.S. public health policy; any weakening or elimination of them could lead to systemic failures.
On Earth, we may not often realize it, but the sun regularly ejects massive clumps of plasma into space known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Astronomers, utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope along with ground-based telescopes in Japan and South Korea, have begun to detect signs of multi-temperature CMEs. EK Draconis, a young G-type main sequence star, is located 112 light-years away in the northern constellation Draco.
Artist’s depiction of the coronal mass ejection from EK Draconis. Image provided by: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
“Researchers believe that CMEs may have significantly impacted the development of life on Earth, given that the Sun was quite active in its early days,” stated Kosuke Namegata, an astronomer at Kyoto University, along with his colleagues.
“Historically, studies have indicated that young stars similar to our Sun often produce intense flares that surpass the largest solar flares recorded in contemporary times.”
“The massive CMEs from the early Sun could have drastically influenced the primordial conditions on Earth, Mars, and Venus.”
“Nevertheless, the extent to which these youthful stellar explosions produce solar-like CMEs remains uncertain.”
“Recent years have seen the detection of cold plasma in CMEs via ground-based optical methods.”
“However, the high speeds and frequent occurrences of significant CMEs predicted in earlier studies have yet to be confirmed.”
In their investigation, the authors concentrated on EK Draconis, a youthful solar analog estimated to be between 50 million and 125 million years old.
Commonly referred to as EK Dra and HD 129333, the star shares effective temperature, radius, and mass characteristics that make it an excellent analog for the early Sun.
“Hubble captured far-ultraviolet emission lines sensitive to high-temperature plasma, while three ground-based telescopes simultaneously recorded hydrogen alpha lines tracking cooler gas,” the astronomers explained.
“These synergistic multi-wavelength spectroscopic observations enabled us to observe both the hot and cold components of the eruption instantaneously.”
This research presents the first evidence of a multitemperature CME originating from EK Draconis.
“Our findings indicate that high-temperature plasma at around 100,000 K was ejected at speeds ranging from 300 to 550 km/s, followed approximately 10 minutes later by a lower-temperature gas around 10,000 K ejected at a speed of 70 km/s,” the astronomers reported.
“The hotter plasma contained significantly more energy than the cooler plasma. This implies that frequent intense CMEs in the past may have sparked strong shocks and high-energy particles capable of eroding or chemically altering the early atmospheres of planets.”
“Theoretical and experimental research suggests that robust CMEs and high-energy particles could play a key role in generating biomolecules and greenhouse gases vital for the emergence and sustainability of life on early planets.”
“Consequently, this discovery carries substantial implications for understanding the habitability of planets and the conditions under which life may have arisen on Earth—and potentially elsewhere.”
The team’s study was published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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Namekata K. et al. Signs of multi-temperature coronal mass ejections identified in a young solar analog. Nat Astron published online on October 27, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02691-8
Both the NOvA (NuMI Off-Axis νe Emergence Experiment) and T2K experiments involve launching neutrinos from a particle accelerator and detecting them after they traverse extensive underground distances. The challenges are significant: out of trillions of particles, only a few leave a trace that can be detected. Advanced detectors and software are then employed to reconstruct these rare events, offering insights into how the “flavor” of neutrinos alters as they travel.
The world’s first neutrino observation inside a hydrogen bubble chamber, captured on November 13, 1970, in a 12-foot bubble chamber at a zero-gradient synchrotron. Here, an invisible neutrino collides with a proton, resulting in three particle tracks (bottom right). The neutrino changes into a muon, marked by a lengthy orbit extending up and to the left. The shorter track represents the proton, while the third track extending down and to the left is the pion formed by the collision. Image credit: Argonne National Laboratory.
Neutrinos are among the most prevalent particles in the universe.
With no charge and minimal mass, they are notoriously difficult to detect. Yet, this very elusiveness contributes to their scientific significance.
Understanding neutrinos may shed light on one of the greatest mysteries in cosmology: the reason the universe consists of matter.
Theoretically, the Big Bang should have resulted in equal parts matter and antimatter, which would have completely annihilated each other upon meeting, releasing energy in the process.
However, during the Big Bang, an imbalance occurred, producing a greater abundance of matter, which eventually led to the formation of stars, galaxies, and life as we know it.
Physicists theorize that neutrinos hold the key to this conundrum.
There are three types, or “flavors,” of neutrinos: electron, muon, and tau, which are different versions of the same fundamental particle.
They possess a unique ability to oscillate, changing from one flavor to another as they traverse space. Studying these oscillations and examining any differences between neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts could provide insights into why matter triumphed over antimatter in the nascent universe.
“Understanding these various identities could help scientists gain insight into neutrino masses and address significant questions regarding the universe’s evolution, including why matter became dominant over antimatter,” stated Dr. Zoya Valari, a physicist at Ohio State University.
“What makes neutrinos particularly intriguing is their ability to change their ‘taste.’”
“Consider this: you buy chocolate ice cream, stroll down the street, and suddenly it turns mint, only to change again with every step you take.”
To delve deeper into this shape-shifting behavior, the NOvA and T2K experiments partnered to direct neutrino particle beams over hundreds of kilometers.
NOvA projects a beam of neutrinos from a source at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory near Chicago, traveling 500 miles to a 14,000-ton detector in Ash River, Minnesota.
On the other hand, Japan’s T2K sends a neutrino beam 295 km from the J-PARC accelerator in Tokai to the enormous Super-Kamiokande detector situated beneath Mt. Ikenoyama.
“While our objectives are aligned, the distinct experimental designs mean that synthesizing the data yields more comprehensive insights, making the whole greater than the sum of its parts,” Dr. Valari remarked.
This study builds upon earlier findings that noted minor yet significant variations in the masses of different types of neutrinos. Researchers sought deeper clues indicating that neutrinos might operate beyond the conventional laws of physics.
One such inquiry involves whether neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts exhibit different behaviors—a phenomenon referred to as charge parity violation.
“Our results indicate that additional data are needed to adequately address these fundamental questions,” Dr. Valari said.
“This underscores the importance of developing the next generation of experiments.”
Research indicates that employing two experiments with varying baselines and energies is more likely to yield answers than relying solely on a single experiment. Consequently, consolidating results from both experiments allowed scientists to explore these urgent physics questions from diverse perspectives.
“This research is extremely complex, involving hundreds of contributors in each collaborative effort,” said John Beacom, a professor at Ohio State University.
“Collaboration in science is typically competitive, but our work together here highlights the high stakes involved.”
For further details, see the new discovery published in the journal Nature.
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NOvA collaboration and T2K collaboration. 2025. Joint neutrino oscillation analysis using T2K and NOvA experiments. Nature 646, 818-824; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09599-3
Satellite image of Hurricane Melissa captured on October 28
Associated Press/Alamy Stock Photo
Jamaica is facing severe impacts from what is possibly the strongest hurricane to hit the Atlantic Ocean. Current forecasts predict up to 1 meter (40 inches) of rainfall. There’s little doubt that global warming has intensified Hurricane Melissa.
“‘500 to 700 times more likely’ is an astonishing figure,” Guilford stated. “This clearly indicates that the extreme temperatures observed around Melissa would not be feasible without human-induced climate change.”
Tropical storms like Melissa draw their energy from warm ocean waters. The hotter the sea surface, the more water vapor is generated when a storm passes above it. As the warm, moist air rises, the vapor condenses and releases latent heat, warming the air and encouraging further condensation. This process fuels tropical cyclones.
In the central Caribbean, where Melissa rapidly intensified into a Category 5 hurricane, sea surface temperatures were 1.4 degrees Celsius (2.5 degrees Fahrenheit) above the October average. Since these extreme temperatures penetrate to significant depths, there is abundant excess thermal energy available in the ocean.
This indicates that sea surface temperatures remain elevated as Melissa churns the ocean and draws up cooler, deeper water. Conversely, if only a thin layer of warm water exists, the storm brings up cold water, cutting off its energy supply.
“A perfect storm continues to build for Hurricane Melissa. The warm ocean has been rapidly strengthening over recent days, and its slow movement may bring additional rainfall as it makes landfall,” stated Lian Archer, a researcher at the University of Bristol in the UK. “Many of these conditions are being exacerbated by heightened heat in the oceans and atmosphere attributable to climate change.”
The combination of powerful winds and extreme rainfall poses a significant risk of severe damage to Jamaica. So far, three lives have been lost as preparations for the storm continue, which is expected to make landfall around 11 a.m. or noon local time.
“This is one of the most troubling scenarios,” remarked Hannah Cloke, a researcher at the University of Reading in the UK. “The entire nation will suffer long-term and potentially permanent damage from this storm, and recovery will require significant effort for those affected.”
Research into past disasters suggests that such events can depress economic growth for decades. While economists propose that quicker recovery or even growth driven by recovery efforts is possible, these notions have generally proven to be overly optimistic.
Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales has dismissed Elon Musk‘s assertions that the online encyclopedia possesses a left-wing bias, labeling the Tesla and X owner’s comments as “factually incorrect.”
In December 2024, Musk urged his over 200 million followers on his social media platform X (formerly Twitter) to cease donations to Wikipedia, referring to the site as “Walkpedia.
In September, he announced plans to launch his own version, Grokipedia, through his AI company xAI, claiming it would represent “a vast improvement on Wikipedia.”
Speaking on the BBC Science Focus podcast, Wales stated that Musk’s accusations “make absolutely no sense,” though he acknowledged that Wikipedia’s volunteer community is not entirely free of bias. “The notion that we’ve turned into some kind of crazy left-wing activist platform is simply incorrect,” he explained. “This doesn’t mean there aren’t areas where we can improve.”
Wales continued, “The right solution is to involve more people. I want kinder, more thoughtful individuals who notice bias in Wikipedia entries to realize it’s not the product of some overzealous activist who will block you for disagreeing. People are just relying on sources, which may not take all perspectives into account.”
Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales welcomes “kind and thoughtful” conservatives into the Wikipedia community – Credit: Getty
Musk’s criticism of Wikipedia escalated in January following the circulation of a video from a rally celebrating President Donald Trump’s inauguration. Several users on X suggested that Musk’s gesture appeared akin to a Nazi salute. Musk rejected this interpretation and criticized a Wikipedia entry about the incident, which some claimed drew parallels to the gesture. He reposted an article from X, accusing Wikipedia of perpetuating “legacy media propaganda.”
Wales responded on X, stating that the article accurately reflected verifiable facts: “It’s true that you made that gesture (twice), it’s true that people compared it to a Nazi salute (many), and it’s true that you denied any intention behind it. That’s a fact—all elements of it.”
Musk later tweeted:
Legacy media propaganda is considered a “valid” source by Wikipedia, so of course it is simply an extension of legacy media propaganda. https://t.co/lwQlM51FRX
Wikipedia’s editing guidelines mandate that all entries are written from a neutral perspective, meaning that “all significant views published by reliable sources on a topic must be represented fairly and without editorial bias.” Wales emphasized in the BBC interview that Wikipedia welcomes contributors from all political perspectives as long as they adhere to neutrality rules. “If someone is a kind, thoughtful conservative intellectual, we would love for them to join Wikipedia,” he remarked. “But if someone is a zealous activist with an agenda, I would consider them ‘boring and annoying.’
“Don’t assume just because Elon calls us Walkpedia that we’ve found a new home in Woke,” he added.
Grokipedia was initially slated for launch on October 20, but Musk claimed it was delayed “to clear out propaganda.” He asserted that the site would be live by the end of the week; however, it remains offline as of this writing.
BBC Science Focus reports that Musk’s team did not respond to requests for comment.
This image captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope offers a fresh and detailed view of the star-filled spiral galaxy NGC 4571.
This Hubble image highlights NGC 4571, a spiral galaxy located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Coma. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / F. Belfiore / J. Lee / PHANGS-HST team.
NGC 4571 is positioned 60 million light-years away in the constellation Taurus.
This galaxy was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel on January 14, 1787.
Also referred to as IC 3588, LEDA 42100, and UGC 7788, NGC 4571 is classified as a spiral galaxy with low surface brightness.
It belongs to the Virgo Cluster, which comprises over 1,000 galaxies.
This cluster is part of the more extensive Virgo supercluster, which encompasses a local group that includes our very own Milky Way galaxy.
“NGC 4571 captivates with its feather-like spiral structure and vibrant star clusters,” remarked Hubble astronomers regarding this new image.
“The galaxy’s dusty spiral arms are sprinkled with bright pink nebulae that contain massive young stars.”
“The star-forming clouds in this image are heated to about 10,000 K due to intense ultraviolet light from young stars at their centers, although stars form in much cooler conditions.”
“Stars emerge from giant molecular clouds that can span tens to hundreds of light-years, with temperatures only slightly above absolute zero.”
“The remarkable change from a frigid gas cloud to a blazing young star is driven by the immense gravitational force that compacts the gas into dense clumps within star-forming clouds.”
“As these clumps yield to gravity and collapse inward, they eventually reach sufficient heat and density to initiate nuclear fusion at their cores and begin to shine.”
“The luminous clouds depicted in this image enclose particularly massive stars that are hot enough to ionize the gas within their stellar nurseries.”
In 2022, the Hubble team captured intricate images of NGC 4571 as part of an observational initiative incorporating data from major observatories, including Hubble, NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope, and the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array.
“The newly released images today add data from a program aimed at understanding the impact of dust on observations of young stars obscured within their natal clouds,” the astronomers noted.
This newfound species of crocodile existed in what is now Egypt roughly 80 million years ago during the late Cretaceous period.
Dubbed Wasdiskus Kassabi, it belongs to the Dirosauridae family. This group of crocodilians is known for its diverse skull morphology and broad distribution from the Late Cretaceous to the Paleogene.
“In contrast to modern crocodiles, dirosaurs flourished in coastal and marine habitats, characterized by elongated snouts and thin, needle-like teeth optimal for capturing slippery prey like fish and turtles,” stated paleontologist Sara Saber from Assiut University and her colleagues.
“Their notable survival and dispersal following the extinction of the dinosaurs is vital for understanding how reptiles adapted and diversified during the collapse of global ecosystems.”
Wasdiskus Kassabi was estimated to be 3.5 to 4 meters in length, featuring a lengthy snout and sharp, tall teeth.
“What sets it apart from other dirosaurids is its four teeth at the front of the snout versus the primitive five, nostrils placed at the top of the snout for surface breathing, and a notable notch at the snout’s tip where the jaws converge,” Saber added.
“These characteristics suggest that the dirosaurids’ bite was a gradual adaptation, representing a significant milestone in their evolutionary journey.”
Two partial skulls and three partial jaws of Wasdiskus Kassabi were discovered in the Kharga and Baris oases within Egypt’s Western Desert.
“Apart from its unique features, Wasdiskus Kassabi significantly contributes to our understanding of the origins of the dyrosaurid family,” Dr. Saber remarked.
“This new species extends the timeline for the African origin of dirosaurids and suggests their diversification may have begun earlier than previously thought, potentially during the early Coniacian-Santonian period (approximately 87 to 83 million years ago) rather than the Maastrichtian period (around 72 to 66 million years ago) as had been traditionally assumed.”
“This discovery highlights Africa as the evolutionary cradle of dirosaurids, from which subsequent lineages spread worldwide and have consistently been positioned in our phylogenetic analyses.” Wasdiskus Kassabi “is the ancestor of the dirosaurid lineage,” noted Belal Salem, a researcher affiliated with Mansoura University, Ohio University, and Benha University.
“The significance of Wasdiskus Kassabi lies not only in its revelations about the evolutionary history of this remarkable crocodilian group but also in the reminder that Egypt’s Western Desert still holds treasures that guard the mysteries of Earth’s ancient past.”
The findings are detailed in a study published today in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.
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Sarah Saber et al. 2025. Early dirosaurids (Wasdiskus Kassabi) discoveries from the Campanian of Egypt illuminate the origin and biogeography of dirosaurids. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 205 (2): zlaf134; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf134
Chinese paleontologists have identified a new species of Coelacanth, Whiteia anniae, based on two fossil specimens. This breakthrough expands the geographic presence of the genus Whiteia, marking the oldest record of this genus in Asia, which predates the earliest known pyloid coelacanth in this continent by 9 million years.
Whiteia anniae Right side view, holotype. Image credit: Dai et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-20229-w.
“Coelacanths are a fascinating group of sarcopterygian fishes, with two extant marine species from the genus Latimeria,” stated lead author Dr. Guan Hui Shu, a paleontologist at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and colleagues.
“This group first appeared in the Early Devonian, peaked in taxonomic diversity during the Early Triassic, but saw a decline starting in the Middle Cretaceous.”
“Coelacanths play a crucial role in evolutionary biology due to their distinctive physiological and anatomical characteristics, as well as their resilience through four major extinction events over hundreds of millions of years.”
The discovery of Latimeria previously ignited discussions on how this unusual lobe-finned fish relates to the evolution of terrestrial animals.
“Given their evolutionary stability, coelacanths have long been viewed as one of the most morphologically conservative vertebrate groups.”
“However, some research, particularly those focusing on Triassic fossils, indicate that coelacanth body shapes exhibit greater diversity than previously recognized.”
“Recent discoveries of new species around the globe continue to yield significant insights into the evolution of coelacanths.”
The newly identified species, Whiteia anniae, lived during the Smithian stage of the Early Triassic, approximately 249 million years ago.
This fish belongs to the genus Whiteia, an extinct group of coelacanths that were previously known from Madagascar, South Africa, Canada, and Greenland, but not from Asia.
“As the first record in Asia, this new finding from the Early Triassic dramatically broadens the geographic distribution of the genus Whiteia and is a significant addition to our understanding of the evolution of this major Triassic coelacanth lineage,” stated the paleontologists.
Two specimens of Whiteia anniae were discovered in Late Triassic marine deposits at Maoshankou in Anhui Province, China.
Fossil evidence suggests that this coelacanth measured between 41 and 46 centimeters in length, making it notably larger than other named species within its genus.
“Previously reported Whiteia species from the Early Triassic were typically small, ranging from 11.5 to 27 cm in length, and a slender body shape was once believed to be a defining characteristic of the genus,” the researchers explained.
“While there has been a recent trend of recovery, the Whiteia giganteus (estimated to exceed 100 cm in length) from Texas illustrates a period in which the genus achieved larger body sizes during the Late Triassic in North America.”
“The recovery of Whiteia anniae provides an intriguing example of a smaller species, in contrast to larger relatives in Europe, Africa, and North America.”
The team’s study was published on October 17th in the journal Scientific Reports.
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QH.Large et al. 2025. A new species of coelacanth (Actinistia, Sarcopterygii) from the Early Triassic period of Anhui Province, China. Scientific Reports 15, 36320; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-20229-w
A researcher suggests that the binary star system TOI-2267 is likely home to two warm Earth-sized exoplanets and an additional candidate. A new paper published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics discusses these findings.
Artist’s impression of the binary star system TOI-2267. Image credit: Mario Sucerquia, Grenoble-Alpes University.
The system, known as G 222-3 or TIC 459837008, consists of the M5 type star TOI-2267A and the M6 type star TOI-2267B, which are separated by approximately 8 astronomical units.
Located about 22 parsecs (73.5 light-years) from the Sun in the constellation Cepheus, TOI-2267 presents a fascinating planetary arrangement.
Dr. Sebastian Zuniga Fernández, an astronomer at the University of Liege, stated, “Our analysis shows a distinct planetary configuration: two planets orbiting one star and a third planet orbiting its companion star.”
This discovery makes TOI-2267 the first known binary star system to host planets that transit around both stars.
Dr. Francisco Pozuelos from the Andalucía Astronomical Institute remarked, “Our findings set several records, making this star system the most compact and coolest known planet-planet pair, and it is the first observed instance of a planet transiting both components.”
Astronomers utilized the SPECULOOS and TRAPPIST telescopes along with their proprietary detection software, SHERLOCK, to identify the three planetary signals.
“Uncovering three Earth-sized planets within such a compact binary star system is an exceptional opportunity,” Dr. Zuniga-Fernández noted.
“This will enable us to scrutinize the limits of planet formation models in complex environments and deepen our understanding of the variety of planetary structures in our galaxy.”
The two confirmed planets, TOI-2267b and TOI-2267c, have orbital periods of 2.28 days and 3.49 days, respectively.
The authors currently cannot determine which star in the binary system the planets orbit.
When orbiting TOI-2267A, TOI-2267b and TOI-2267c exhibit radii of 1 and 1.14 Earth sizes, while their radii become 1.22 and 1.36 Earth radii when orbiting TOI-2267B.
Furthermore, researchers detected a third strong signal with a period of 2.03 days, which is still classified as a planetary candidate, having sizes of 0.95 or 1.13 Earth radii depending on whether it orbits TOI-2267A or TOI-2267B.
Dr. Pozuelos added, “This system serves as a genuine natural laboratory for exploring how rocky planets can form and persist under extreme mechanical conditions that were previously thought to endanger their stability.”
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S. Zuniga-Fernandez et al. 2025. Two warm Earth-sized exoplanets and an Earth-sized candidate planet in the M5V-M6V binary star system TOI-2267. A&A 702, A85; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202554419
Exercise offers substantial advantages for heart health
Ian Canham/Alamy
For men over 50, engaging in more than twice the exercise as women may be necessary to achieve equivalent heart health benefits. Data analysis from activity trackers indicated that this demographic requires almost nine hours of moderate-to-vigorous activities, such as brisk walking or cycling, each week to lower their risk of coronary heart disease by 30%.
In comparison, women only need around four hours to achieve the same reduction.
Researchers had long speculated that women might experience greater heart benefits from exercise than men, based on self-reported data, although such figures can be misleading.
To address this issue, Chen Jiajing and colleagues at Xiamen University in China utilized data from wrist-worn activity monitors sourced from the British Biobank study, correlated with participants’ health records over an eight-year span.
The team first evaluated data from 80,243 adults, averaging 61 years in age and with no previous history of coronary heart disease. Women achieving at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise weekly had a 22% reduced risk of developing coronary heart disease, while men saw only a 17% reduction with the same exercise commitment.
To reach a 30% risk reduction, even greater physical activity was required. There was a notable gender disparity in this regard, with women needing to exercise 250 minutes and men needing 530 minutes.
The team next examined 5,169 participants already diagnosed with coronary heart disease, with an average age of 67, and two-thirds being male. Women who engaged in 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise per week were 70% less likely to die from any cause in the subsequent eight years compared to less active women. Conversely, men who completed the same amount of exercise only experienced a 20% lower likelihood of death than their less active counterparts.
“This isn’t bad news for men, but it’s important to recognize,” says Nir Einon from Monash University, Australia. “With this knowledge, men can strive to improve and exercise more. It’s encouraging for busy women, yet we must not forget that women also need to remain active.”
Chen and his team could not be reached for immediate comments, but the study suggests the discrepancy may be linked to hormonal factors, as higher estrogen levels can enhance fat metabolism during exercise. Eynon posited that biological differences could mean women utilize more breathing capacity, metabolic energy, and muscle strength to achieve comparable physical tasks as men.
The research is “robust”; Guidelines based on gender according to Ercilia DeFilippis at Columbia University in New York City, yet it primarily encompasses individuals who are about 93% white, affluent, and educated. DeFilippis highlighted that Black women typically experience poorer cardiovascular outcomes than their white counterparts, and social factors significantly impact their health and treatment adherence.
“It’s crucial to understand how these findings relate to more racially diverse and socio-economically disadvantaged groups in the future, given the severe impact of cardiovascular disease,” she emphasized.
Nonetheless, these findings for the older demographic indicate that remaining active in later years can offer considerable benefits, but exercise regimens should be customized according to age and physical capabilities, she reiterated. “It’s never too late to become active and move your body.”
President George H.W. Bush (left) and environmental protection advisor Bill Riley
Netflix
white house effect Directed by Boni Cohen, Pedro Cos, and John Schenck, available on Netflix starting October 31st
The opening scene of white house effect transports viewers to the devastating Great Drought of 1988. The backdrop is a scorching summer in North America, presenting the USA with its worst drought since the Dust Bowl. Relief is nowhere in sight; the heat is relentless.
This climate crisis defined the presidential election that year, pitting Democrat Michael Dukakis against Republican George H.W. Bush, who triumphed with a landslide victory on a pledge for enhanced environmental protection.
“Some may argue these challenges are insurmountable,” President Bush remarked during a campaign stop in Michigan, addressing climate change. “My belief is clear: it is achievable, and we must act. These matters transcend ideology and politics.” Such a sentiment from a prominent Republican seems unimaginable today.
In 1988, the U.S. was a nation where addressing environmental issues garnered votes, and where the connection between fossil fuels and climate change was discussed with a mix of urgency and skepticism.
Predominantly narrated through archival footage, white house effect serves as a window into a hopeful future that never came to fruition. It tells the tale of a populace ready to acknowledge climate change as a bipartisan issue, only to be steered away from that consensus.
The film centers on a struggle between two advisors to President Bush. In the blue corner, Bill Riley, former president of the World Wildlife Fund and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency administrator starting in 1989. In the red corner stands John H. Sununu, the chief of staff known for his climate skepticism. These two figures will shape the environmental policies of the Bush administration and face off for years, with dire consequences for our planet.
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George H.W. Bush stated that climate change knows no political boundaries. “
With hindsight, one could easily predict the outcome. Yet, what’s intriguing about white house effect is that it refrains from presenting this as inevitable. It explores a gradual march towards a destiny. The archival footage is always engaging, often shifting timelines to reinforce the film’s message, keeping the audience aware and engaged despite the grim reality on display.
Consider the 1979 energy crisis, during which Exxon experienced a staggering 119% profit increase while countless drivers waited hours to refuel due to plummeting oil production. One driver at a gas station remarked that everyone should just return home and await the gas shortage. When asked why he wasn’t turning back, he responded: “I’m not going back because no one else is.”
This documentary features numerous climate scientists, but none resonate more than Steven Schneider, a pioneer advocating for climate action. His journey forms the film’s emotional core, from his Senate testimony in 1988 to his final interview before his passing in 2010.
“Looking back at our early efforts, many of our immediate goals fell short. But here we are, making gradual progress,” he reflects. “The problem of global warming has been recognized, and we’re pushing for a cultural shift—something that will take a generation.”
It’s heart-wrenching to ponder how Mr. Schneider would view the last 15 years of fruitless attempts and the current direction of America.
Viewing white house effect can feel suffocating. It stirs frustration, particularly for those, like me, born too late to witness these events firsthand. While the film is polemical, it serves a vital purpose—shaking us out of apathy and urging action, no matter the cost.
Addressing climate change is a fundamentally collective effort. We share a single planet and atmosphere, meaning every emission of greenhouse gases impacts us all.
Notably, a small percentage of individuals have a disproportionate impact. The wealthiest 1% globally account for one-fifth of total emissions since 1990. A voluntary reduction in carbon footprints by the affluent could yield significant global benefits.
However, given our understanding of human behavior, such an outcome seems unlikely. But what if the affluent sought to balance carbon outputs through financing geoengineering projects designed to cool the planet? As explored in an exclusive survey of climate scientists (see “Exclusive: Climate scientists expect attempts to dim the sun by 2100”), there are unpredictable risks associated with such initiatives, potentially leading to adverse effects like droughts or ozone depletion.
Thus, if we are to engage in atmospheric modification, it must be pursued collectively. At present, there are no barriers preventing individuals or factions from attempting to unilaterally cool the Earth. This is why over 80% of respondents in our survey advocate for a global treaty to regulate potential climate interventions.
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The wealthiest 1% globally account for one-fifth of total emissions. “
Such a treaty would be among the many necessary updates to global governance in our era. Another domain where affluent individuals can exert significant influence is the night sky, which is increasingly cluttered with satellites that negatively affect the atmosphere (see How worried should we be about toxic chemicals from dead satellites?). With no global restrictions on satellite launches, the number has surged into the thousands, primarily driven by Elon Musk’s Starlink initiative.
International agreements lack the allure of dramatic, high-tech solutions often envisioned in science fiction, making it challenging to win support from billionaires. However, if they wish to contribute positively, endorsing international law would be a constructive starting point.
“Exercising with peers significantly boosts workout attendance.”
Rich Bowen Photography/Alamy
As a child, I steered clear of team sports; my hand-eye coordination was lacking, and my competitive nature led to more frustration than fun. However, new studies are challenging my perspective. Research indicates that group exercise, particularly in team sports, may provide greater health benefits than going solo.
A 2023 analysis showed that participating in sports—be it for fun or competition—boosts mental well-being, decreasing stress and anxiety levels, and enhancing self-esteem. These outcomes are notably stronger in team sports, suggesting they have a greater positive impact on mental health than other exercise forms, independent of physical activity levels.
The social elements of sports can amplify these physical advantages. Exercising with others increases the likelihood of attending workouts. In a 2024 study, over 770 participants received cash incentives for gym visits, with some required to bring friends. Those with workout partners attended about 35% more often than individuals who could go alone. Follow-up studies suggested this was due to greater accountability and enhanced enjoyment from exercising together.
Other research reveals that this enjoyment can even enhance performance. In one study, participants in a free community run reported feeling more energized when joined by friends or family, resulting in faster paces. Additionally, research on competitive rowers revealed that viewing pictures of loved ones while rowing allowed participants to endure about 20% longer compared to those who looked at images of strangers.
The exact reason remains unclear, but it likely relates to how we process fatigue. Ultimately, our brain governs our muscles, and fatigue serves as a protective mechanism, preventing us from overextending ourselves and risking injuries. Exercising alongside friends (or even just seeing their photos) signals safety to our brains, potentially delaying fatigue.
This concept aligns with a significant shift in exercise psychology, previously emphasizing competition as a performance enhancer. Increasingly, research is exploring the impact of cooperation. After all, our innate ability to run long distances likely developed through collective hunting, suggesting we may be inherently designed to exercise in groups.
This revelation brings me comfort, prompting a shift in focus from competition to collaboration in sports. I’m planning to run a half marathon with my best friend soon, and her suggestion to train together feels like the key to reaching the finish line.
Bakhshali manuscripts contain the first example of zero in written records
PA Image/Alamy
What’s the most significant number in mathematics? It seems like an absurd question—how do you choose from an infinite range? While prominent candidates like 2 or 10 might stand a better chance than a random option among trillions, the choice is still somewhat arbitrary. However, I contend that the most critical number is zero. Allow me to explain.
The rise of zero to the pinnacle of the math hierarchy resembles a classic hero’s narrative, originating from modest beginnings. When it emerged around 5000 years ago, it wasn’t even considered a number. Ancient Babylonians utilized cuneiform, a system crafted from lines and wedges, to represent numbers. These were akin to tally marks, where one type denoted values from 1 to 9 and another signified 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50.
Babylonian numerals
Sugarfish
Counting could extend to 59 with these symbols, but what came after 60? The Babylonians simply restarted, using the same symbol for both 1 and 60. This base-60 system was advantageous because 60 could be divided by many other numbers, simplifying calculations. This is partly why we still use this system for time today. Yet, the inability to differentiate between 1 and 60 represented a significant limitation.
Thus emerged zero—or something like it. The Babylonians, similar to us today, utilized two diagonal wedges to signify the absence of a number, allowing other numbers to maintain their correct placements.
For instance, in the modern numbering format, 3601 represents 3,000, 600, 10 of 0, and 1. The Babylonians would write it as 60 60, 0 10, 1. Without the zero marking its position, that symbol would look identical to 1 60 and 1. Notably, though, the Babylonians didn’t utilize zeros for counting positions; they functioned more like punctuation marks to indicate where to skip to the next number.
This placeholder concept has been utilized by various ancient cultures for millennia, although not all incorporated it. Roman numerals, for instance, lack a zero due to their non-positional nature; X consistently signifies 10 regardless of its placement. Zero’s evolution continued until the 3rd century AD, as evidenced by documents from present-day Pakistan. These texts featured numerous dot symbols indicating a position of zero, which eventually developed into the numerical 0 we recognize today.
Yet, we had to wait a few more centuries before zero was regarded as a number on its own, as opposed to merely a placeholder. Its first documented appearance occurred in the Brahmaspukhtasiddhanta, authored by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta around 628 AD. While many had previously recognized the oddity of computations like subtracting 3 from 2, such explorations were frequently considered nonsensical. Brahmagupta was the first to treat this concept with due seriousness and articulated arithmetic involving both negative numbers and zero. His definition of zero’s functionality closely resembles our contemporary understanding, with one key exception: dividing by zero. While Brahmagupta posited that 0/0 = 0, he was ambiguous regarding other instances involving division by zero.
The dot in Bakshali manuscript means zero
Zoom History / Alamy
We would have to wait another millennium before arriving at a satisfactory resolution to this issue. This period ushered in one of the most potent tools in mathematics: calculus. Independently formulated by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the 17th century, calculus engages with infinitesimals—numbers that aren’t precisely zero but approach it closely. Infinitesimals allow us to navigate the concept of division by zero without crossing that threshold, proving exceptionally practical.
For a clearer illustration, consider a hypothetical scenario where you’re accelerating your car rapidly. The equation v = t² describes this speed change, where t denotes time. For instance, after 4 seconds, the velocity shifts from 0 to 16 meters/second. But how far did the car travel during this interval?
Distance, determined by speed multiplied by time, would suggest 16 multiplied by 4 equals 64 meters—a misrepresentation, as the car only reached its maximum speed at the end of that period. To improve accuracy, we might assess the journey in segments, generating an overestimated distance as we rely on maximum speed.
To refine this estimation, we should truncate the time windows, focusing on the speed at a specific moment multiplied by the duration spent in that state. Here’s where zero becomes significant. Graphing v = t² reveals that our earlier estimates diverged from reality, with subsequent adjustments closing the gap. For the utmost precision, one must envision splitting the journey into intervals of 0 seconds and summing them. However, achieving this would necessitate division by zero—an impossibility until the advent of calculus.
Newton and Leibniz devised methods that facilitate an approach to division by zero without actually performing it. While a comprehensive explanation of calculus exceeds the scope of this article (consider exploring our online course for more details), their strategies unveil the genuine solution, derived from the integral of t², or t³/3, leading to a distance of 21 1/3 meters. This concept is often illustrated graphically as the area beneath a curve:
Calculus serves purposes beyond simply calculating a car’s distance. In fact, it’s utilized across numerous disciplines that require comprehension of shifting quantities, from physics to chemistry to economics. None of these advancements would have been possible without zero and our understanding of its profound capabilities.
However, for me, the true legacy of zero shines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For centuries, mathematics faced a crisis of identity. Mathematicians and logicians rigorously examined the foundations of their fields, uncovering alarming inconsistencies. In a bid to reinforce their disciplines, they began to define mathematical objects—numbers included—more explicitly than ever before.
What exactly constitutes a number? It can’t simply be a term like “3” or a symbol like “3,” as these are mere arbitrary labels we assign to the concept of three objects. We might point to a collection of fruits—apples, pears, and bananas—and express, “There are three pieces of fruit in this bowl,” yet we haven’t captured their intrinsic properties. What’s essential is establishing an abstract collection we can identify as “3.” Modern mathematics achieves this through zero.
Mathematicians operate with sets, rather than loose collections. For instance, a fruit collection would be represented as {apple, pear, banana}, with curly braces indicating a set. Set theory forms the bedrock of contemporary mathematics, akin to “computer code” for this discipline. To guarantee logical consistency and prevent the fundamental gaps discovered by mathematicians, every mathematical object must ultimately be articulated in terms of sets.
To define numbers, mathematicians commence with an “empty set,” a collection of zero elements. This can be represented as {}, but for clarity’s sake, it is often denoted as ∅. With this empty set established, the remaining numbers can be defined. The numeral one corresponds to a set containing one object—thus, {{}} or {∅} is visually clearer. The next number, 2, necessitates two objects; the first can again be an empty set. But what about the second? Defining this object inherently creates another—a set that contains the empty set, yielding {∅, {∅}} for two. Proceeding to three, it becomes {∅, {∅}, {∅, {∅}}}, and so forth indefinitely.
In summary, zero is not merely the most vital number; it can be regarded as the only number in a certain light. Within any given number, zero is always present at its core. Quite an accomplishment for something once dismissed as a mere placeholder.
Light travels at a finite speed, meaning it takes time to cover vast distances. Astronomers leverage this to investigate ancient epochs in the universe’s history by examining distant celestial objects. Due to inherent geometric and physical constraints, objects become smaller and dimmer the farther away they are. Additionally, when trying to focus a telescope on a small, faint, and distant target, your view might be obstructed by something larger, closer, and more luminous.
In certain scenarios, scientists can circumvent this limitation and even turn it into an advantage. Like matter, light is influenced by gravity; its trajectory curves as it passes through a gravitational field. The larger an object, the stronger its gravitational pull, resulting in more pronounced bending of light.
When confronted by a massive entity like a galaxy cluster, the light from objects positioned behind it is significantly bent, leading to distorted and magnified images, akin to passing through a lens. This effect, where a distant object appears enlarged due to the gravity of a nearby massive object, is known as gravity lensing.
A group of astronomers recently studied an ancient galaxy, A1689-zD1, which is gravitationally lensed by the galaxy cluster Abel 1689. A1689-zD1 is currently about 25 billion light-years away from us, equivalent to 150 sextillion miles or 240 sextillion kilometers. The light we observe from it has traveled for approximately 13 billion years, around the same duration as the universe’s 14 billion-year lifespan.
By analyzing this light, astronomers can explore the characteristics of galaxies as they were 13 billion years ago. They hypothesize that galaxies at this distance are in the initial phases of their formation and evolution, a period they refer to as the dawn of the universe. Investigating galaxies from this era provides astronomers with valuable insights into the formation processes of galaxies.
To conduct their observations, the team gathered data from multiple sources, including a radio telescope situated in the Atacama Desert in Chile. They utilized the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) to analyze light emitted by oxygen and carbon ions in galaxies. They also employed the Green Bank ObservatoryVEGAS spectrometer, which searches for light emitted by carbon monoxide molecules in galaxies. The radiation from these ions and molecules aids astronomers in determining a galaxy’s structure and examining the motion and interaction of its various components. Finally, the team integrated archival images from A1689-zD1 from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Spitzer Space Telescope to create a composite image in ultraviolet and infrared light, allowing for comparison with their radio data.
While gravitational lenses are beneficial to astronomers by revealing hidden light sources and enhancing them, they often produce distorted representations of objects. To ascertain the galaxy’s true shape, the research team needed to account for these distortions, utilizing Abel 1689’s model of light’s gravitational bending effect. By employing the software Lenstool, the research team accurately characterized the dynamics of A1689-zD1 to within less than 1% of the Milky Way’s width, measuring 200 parsecs, or around 4 quintillion miles and 6 quintillion kilometers.
The team discovered that A1689-zD1 is substantially larger than what a previous study estimated, which suggested a mass between 2 to 4 billion times that of the Sun. The new findings indicate its total mass to be around 20 billion times that of the Sun. They also observed that this mass is divided into five distinct regions, each exhibiting different movements and locations. Moreover, these parts displayed no indications of forming a single rotating disk, unlike the familiar spirals of the Milky Way.
The researchers proposed three potential explanations for this observation. One possibility is that these regions represent components of a single extended galaxy, existing as large molecular clouds or star-forming clusters. Another conjecture is that A1689-zD1 resulted from the merger of at least two smaller galaxies, with the differing regions emerging from the collision and gravitational interactions of the merging galaxies. Lastly, they suggested that the first two hypotheses may not be mutually exclusive, but current data does not allow for determining the extent of either occurrence.
The researchers noted that much of this uncertainty could be clarified through follow-up investigations using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). They also highlighted that considerable aspects of A1689-zD1 remain obscured in the studied wavelength range, contributing to the ongoing discrepancy between mass estimates derived from starlight counting and those determined by analyzing stellar motion. Overall, they concluded that their findings suggest galaxies in the universe’s infancy present a diverse and intricate nature.
Paleontologists have unearthed a 2.9-centimeter fossil foot bone believed to belong to a bowerbird at the Miocene site of St Bassans in Aotearoa, New Zealand.
Recreating the life of the St. Bassin’s bowerbird (Aeviperditus gracilis). Image credit: Sasha Votyakova / Te Papa / CC BY 4.0.
The newly identified species existed in New Zealand during the Miocene epoch, approximately 19 to 14 million years ago, well away from its close relatives in Australia and New Guinea.
“This finding offers significant and unique insight into the biological history of Aotearoa’s avian life,” stated Dr. Nick Lawrence, director of the Otago Institute of Paleogenetics.
“For many around the globe, bowerbirds gained fame from Sir David Attenborough’s documentaries featuring their intricate courtship rituals. Males construct arched structures called bowers, adorned with colorful items such as sticks and occasionally fruit, leaves, or even plastic, to attract a mate.”
Known as Aeviperditus gracilis or St. Bassin’s bowerbird, this new bird species was considerably smaller than its modern counterparts.
“It weighs only 33g, much lighter than both existing and extinct bowerbird species, which typically range from 96 to 265g,” Dr. Lawrence explained.
“Its leg bones closely resemble those of Avenue Bower builders, including the brightly colored Flame Bowerbird and Satin Bowerbird.”
“If this bird is indeed a relative of bowerbirds, it could represent an entirely new lineage of songbirds for Aotearoa,” suggested Dr. Elizabeth Steele, a researcher at the University of Cambridge.
“This is particularly crucial given our limited understanding of the region’s ancient songbird fossil record.”
“St Bathan’s Bowerbird signifies the latest lineage of songbirds with a long evolutionary history in Aotearoa, with the earliest representatives of groups like the Uia, Koukako, Tieke, Piopio, and Mohua found here.”
“All these species likely evolved rapidly and dispersed from Australia to New Zealand.”
“Like many of St. Bathans’ unique species, this bird has no surviving descendants in Aotearoa.”
“The bowerbird seems to have been particularly vulnerable to the cooling temperatures preceding the Ice Age and the resulting shifts in forest composition and distribution, contributing to its extinction,” Dr. Lawrence noted.
An article detailing the discovery of Aeviperditus gracilis was published on October 7, 2025, in Historical Biology, International Journal of Paleontology.
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Elizabeth M. Steele et al. Possible early Miocene bowerbirds of New Zealand. Historical Biology, published online October 7, 2025. doi: 10.1080/08912963.2025.2568099
The notion that reducing food intake could enhance longevity has existed for millennia. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates famously stated, “If you overnourish the patient, you nourish the disease as well. Excess is contrary to nature.”
For decades, scientists have been investigating the validity of this advice.
The first major evidence emerged in the 1930s when American nutritionist Dr. Clive McKay discovered that rats on a restricted diet lived nearly twice as long as those with unrestricted access to food.
These rats did not suffer from constant hunger nor did they struggle for survival. On the contrary, they exhibited better health in old age, showcasing improved lung and kidney function, with no signs of cancer (until their food supply was increased post-experiment).
Since then, calorie reduction has been linked to increased lifespan and health across various life forms, including single-celled organisms, nematodes, flies, spiders, grasshoppers, guppies, trout, mice, hamsters, and dogs.
Why is this the case? The theory suggests that reduced food consumption activates a biological mechanism in your cells that encourages energy conservation.
When food is scarce, expending energy for activities like reproduction becomes counterproductive, especially in an environment lacking sufficient resources.
Thus, evolutionary biology suggests that animals in such circumstances should conserve energy, slowing their aging process until food availability improves, increasing their chances of remaining healthy enough to reproduce later.
Anti-aging effects of eating less
While there is ample evidence of caloric restriction in animals, obtaining reliable human data poses challenges.
Funding bodies, ethics committees, and participants are understandably hesitant to commit to long-term dietary interventions.
The most significant trial to date is the carrie trial (A Comprehensive Assessment of the Long-Term Effects of Reducing Energy Intake), where participants aimed to cut their intake by 25% over two years.
(Ultimately, the average reduction was only 12 percent, highlighting the difficulty of maintaining such a regimen, even with scientific support.)
Though two years is insufficient to conclusively determine longevity, participants did experience an average weight loss of 8 kg (17.6 lb), along with minor reductions in LDL cholesterol, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and inflammatory markers.
Cutting back on protein
If you wish to apply this concept personally, an important question arises about what exactly should be reduced in your diet.
Recent studies indicate that a reduction in protein intake—the critical factor influencing our health—may be essential.
For example, one study by researchers at the University of Sydney found that mice on a low-protein diet lived approximately 30% longer than those on a protein-rich diet.
Specificity matters here. Since proteins are composed of 20 amino acids, reducing one or more of these could potentially extend lifespan.
Research indicates that lowering levels of “branched-chain” amino acids (BCAAs) might extend male mice lifespan by 30%. (The reasons behind the different effects in female mice remain unclear.)
In fact, reducing the specific amino acid isoleucine resulted in a 33% increase in male mice lifespan (compared to just 7% for female mice).
Ongoing research is investigating additional amino acids. For instance, methionine presents a delicate case.
Mice consuming a diet with 0.15% methionine lived 10% longer than those on a standard diet containing 0.4% of this amino acid.
Conversely, mice consuming 0.1% methionine often faced early death from rectal prolapse, prompting one to consider the risks involved.
Current research is shifting focus from merely restricting dietary components to optimizing them. However, with 20 amino acids, the permutations can be overwhelming.
Even experimenting with simple combinations of high and low doses of each amino acid could require over a million trials.
read more:
Genome-based amino acid diet
To tackle this complexity, scientists are examining our DNA, which directs protein synthesis. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
What if we provided living organisms with a diet that reflects the amino acid ratios found in their DNA?
Early research on fruit flies showed that those fed a diet aligned with their DNA ratios were larger, matured faster, laid more eggs, and had longer lifespans compared to those on standard diets.
A subsequent study involving mice found that when provided with the ideal dietary amino acid balance via their DNA, the mice demonstrated faster growth, increased muscle mass in males, and enhanced sperm production.
However, it’s yet to be determined if these mice will also enjoy prolonged lifespans.
Rapamycin (red) inhibits a protein known as mTOR (blue), which is linked to aging – Image credit: Science Photo Library
While the biological effects of reducing protein intake remain uncertain, scientists are making strides in understanding the underlying mechanisms. Similar to calorie restriction, this approach appears to significantly slow down the aging process.
A recent study published in May 2025 suggests that a low-protein diet may help in reducing DNA damage and mutations.
This doesn’t imply that proteins are directly mutagenic, but their influence on metabolism might lead to the production of “free radicals” that can harm DNA and cellular structures.
DNA mutations are known precursors to cancer and have long been associated with the aging process.
The exploration of how dietary adjustments can indirectly influence the rate of chemical “errors” in our DNA is a promising area for research.
Not everyone needs protein reduction
So, should you begin reducing your protein intake? While animal studies provide compelling evidence, human research yields more nuanced findings.
One 2014 study found that individuals consuming less protein tend to live longer than those with high protein intakes. A 50-year-old consuming under 45 g (1.6 oz) of protein daily may expect to live approximately four years longer than someone consuming 90 g (3.2 oz) daily.
Nonetheless, generalizing this advice proves challenging. In individuals over 65, the same study indicates the opposite effect. This might be due to age-related muscle loss, where protein consumption aids in weight gain.
Moreover, individuals consuming a higher proportion of plant-based protein did not face an increased mortality risk during midlife.
Hence some contend that risks may stem more from excessive red and processed meat intake than protein consumption itself.
Another factor could be that plant proteins are generally lower in certain amino acids, like methionine, meaning high vegetable consumers might naturally have a lower methionine intake.
Sadly, no comprehensive human studies have been conducted to deliberately restrict specific amino acids.
However, it would be intriguing to research this approach in humans, not through protein powders but via dietary combinations that adhere to our genetic requirements and can be easily integrated into daily nutrition.
Such findings may help mitigate the downsides associated with strict diets. Reducing food variety often leads to reported feelings of hunger, chills, decreased libido, irritability, and slower recovery from injuries.
As an old saying in longevity science goes, while dietary restrictions might not extend your life, they can certainly make your life feel longer.
Medication alternatives to protein restriction
Perhaps the answer lies not in our kitchens but in pharmaceuticals. A drug called rapamycin, for example, activates cellular recycling pathways that mimic those triggered during dietary restriction, leading to lifespans increased by up to 60% in mice.
Diabetes medications that lower blood sugar are another avenue to induce caloric reduction and extend mouse lifespans.
Moreover, GLP-1 agonists such as semaglutide (Ozempic) have showcased the potential to alleviate various conditions by directly curbing appetite.
Could these or other medications help us maintain health without adhering strictly to lengthy dietary regimens?
As a person interested in a long, healthy life, but wishing to avoid being a hungry centenarian, I eagerly anticipate the initiation of clinical trials.
As Napoleon advanced into Russia in 1812, he commanded the largest army ever assembled in Europe. However, his return was marked not by gunfire, but by the chilling impact of microscopic foes.
Scientists examining DNA from the teeth of soldiers who perished during the retreat from Moscow have uncovered two diseases that devastated the Tsar’s grand army.
Historically, “typhus has been regarded as the most widespread illness in the military,” stated Nicolas Raskovan, director of the microbial paleogenomics department at the Pasteur Institute and lead author of the research. The findings were published in “Current Biology”.
Employing a method known as shotgun sequencing, Raskovan and his team investigated ancient DNA from the dental remains of 13 soldiers discovered near Vilnius, Lithuania, and identified two “previously undocumented pathogens.”
“We have confirmed the presence of Salmonella enterica, which is part of the Paratyphoid C strain,” he explained to NBC News, noting this bacteria is responsible for paratyphoid fever, along with Borrelia ricerentis, the agent of relapsing fever.
These diseases would likely have thrived in environments where “sanitation and hygiene were severely lacking,” he added.
The results align with historical accounts detailing symptoms like fever and diarrhea that plagued Napoleon’s troops, according to the study.
A “reasonable scenario” for the fatalities might include “extreme fatigue, cold weather, and multiple illnesses, such as paratyphoid fever or louse-borne relapsing fever,” the researchers noted.
“Although not necessarily deadly, louse-borne relapsing fever can be profoundly debilitating for someone already worn down,” they added.
In contrast to a 2006 study that discovered traces of bacteria causing typhus and trench fever in four out of 35 individuals, this research found no evidence of those illnesses.
However, Raskovan noted that while early research was constrained by the technology at the time, both old and new findings paint a clearer picture of the factors that led to the downfall of Napoleon’s forces.
“The discovery of four different pathogens in such a significant number of individuals strongly indicates that a variety of infections were widespread,” he remarked.
Approximately 300,000 lives were lost before Napoleon’s army retreated. It appears even an emperor cannot conquer the realm of microorganisms.
Astronomers have identified a peculiar “moon” that casts a shadow on Earth as it navigates through space. Dubbed quasi-moons, these entities don’t orbit our planet in a traditional manner, yet they maintain proximity as they travel around the sun.
According to a new study published in the American Astronomical Society Research Notes, this space rock may have been a companion to Earth for as long as 60 years.
The object, identified as 2025 PN7, is small enough that it might have evaded earlier detections. While its exact dimensions remain uncertain, researchers estimate it to be around 30 meters (98 feet) in diameter—approximately the wingspan of a typical short-haul airliner—making it the tiniest known quasi-moon associated with Earth.
“With rapid technological progress, we’re identifying near-Earth objects faster than ever,” said Dr. Darren Baskill, an astronomy lecturer at the University of Sussex, in BBC Science Focus. “The sensitivity of digital cameras has improved, allowing us to detect these faint objects, and computers can effectively process vast data sets.”
At its closest approach, this object comes within 300,000 km (186,400 miles) of Earth. Usually, it remains about 384,000 km (238,600 miles) away, but its horseshoe-shaped orbit can take it as far as 297 million km (185 million miles) from our planet.
Consequently, it’s only detectable when nearby, as occurred in August 2025, when researchers from Spain’s Complutense University of Madrid spotted it from the PanSTARRS Observatory in Hawaii.
Upon reviewing historical records, scientists identified it as a potential Earth companion for decades.
“The primary question is, where did 2025 PN7 originate?” Baskill noted. “At its closest, 2025 PN7 will be roughly the same distance from Earth as the Moon, providing insights into the Moon’s possible origin.
“Another clue can be observed on a clear night: the Moon is full of craters. Each impact casts debris into the atmosphere, and some material may escape the Moon’s gravity and be launched into space.”
Moon’s craters offer clues to the origin of space rocks – Photo credit: Getty
Another hypothesis suggests that the space rock originated in the asteroid belt, but Baskill states, “It’s challenging to gather sufficient light from such a moving object to determine its chemical composition and origin.”
He further added, “Astronomers must be patient and wait to observe PN7 when it’s at its brightest, closest to Earth.”
2025 PN7 is just one of seven quasi-satellites currently orbiting near Earth. The other is the space rock Kamooarewa, which is the target of China’s Tianwen-2 mission. Launched in May 2025, Tianwen-2 aims to collect samples from asteroids to understand more about Earth’s origins and asteroid formation.
“These near-Earth objects, due to their occasional close passes, might become prime targets for the inaugural mining operations beyond Earth, or even enter Earth’s atmosphere,” Baskill remarked.
PN7 will remain in existence until 2085 when it will be pulled from orbit by gravitational forces.
Paleontologists have unearthed the fossilized lower right canine tooth of a significant proborchiid Sparathodont in Brazil’s Taubaté Basin.
The lower right canine tooth of a large proborchiid sparasodont excavated from the Tremembé Formation in Brazil. Scale bar – 5 mm inches (AE) and 20 mm inches (H). Image credit: Rangel et al., doi: 10.4072/rbp.2025.2.0534.
The newly discovered fossils date back to the Oligocene Desedan period, approximately 29 to 21 million years ago.
This specimen has been classified as a yet unnamed member of the Proborhyaenidae, an extinct family of South American mammals within the Metatherian order of Sparassodonta.
These creatures played the role of carnivorous predators on the Cenozoic continents.
“Sparassodonta represents an extinct clade of metatherians exclusive to South America, which served as the primary predator of terrestrial mammals on this continent throughout the Cenozoic era,” noted paleontologist Dr. Caio César Rangel from the Federal University of Uberlandia and the Federal University of Pernambuco and colleagues.
“Their evolutionary journey included two significant diversification events, first during the Eocene and later in the Miocene.”
“The Oligocene is marked by cooler temperatures compared to the late Eocene and Miocene.”
“This global cooling trend led to substantial environmental changes, resulting in a turnover in fauna across South America, including both extinctions and diversifications among various Metatherian clades.”
Reconstruction of Thylacosmilus atrochus, a type of post-saber-toothed beast that is part of the sister lineage to the Proborhyaenidae. Image credit: Roman Uchytel.
Paleontologists retrieved the new specimen, measuring 5.73 centimeters (2.3 inches) in length, from the lower section of the Tremembé Formation in São Paulo state, eastern Brazil.
The researchers explained, “The Taubate Basin is situated in São Paulo in southeastern Brazil, stretching from the city of Cachoeira Paulista to Jacarei.”
“It measures approximately 150 km (93 miles) in length and 10–20 km (6–12 miles) in width and lies within a rift between the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira mountains.”
“The Tremembé Formation is the sole Late Oligocene fossil site in Brazil that preserves a diverse array of mammalian fossils and native species,” they added.
“The fauna within this area includes representatives from Metatheria, Pteroptera, Rodentia, Singleta, Astrapoteria, Litopterna, Notungulata, and Pyrotheria.”
This ancient predator thrived in wetland and lake environments and is believed to have held the position of apex predator.
The researchers noted, “The observable wear on the crown and the associated undulations found on the canines indicate that their frequent use is likely related to the capture or active processing of prey by adult specimens.”
This discovery broadens the geographic distribution of Proborhyaenidae and marks the second record of this member of the Sparasodontidae in Brazil.
“This record enhances the diversity of large mammals found in the Tremembé Formation,” the authors stated.
“In general, this region serves as a crucial geological and paleontological resource that offers valuable insights into the final phases of the Paleogene period in tropical South America.”
For more about this discovery, refer to the published paper in the August 2025 issue of Revista Brasileira de Paleontology.
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CC Rangel et al. 2025. The “swamp monster” of the Tremembé Formation (Taubaté Basin, Brazil, late Oligocene): description of a carnivorous metatherian (Sparasodonta, Proborhyaenidae). Revista Brasileira de Paleontology 28 (2): e20250534; doi: 10.4072/rbp.2025.2.0534
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