Shanghai endured extreme heat and humidity for days in 2024
Reuters/Nicoco Chan
The Earth recorded an unprecedented number of hazardous hot and humid days in 2024, as climate change escalates global humidity to alarming levels.
The worldwide average of humid heat days on land surpassed the 1991-2020 average, reaching 35.6 days last year, an increase of over 9.5 days from the previous record in 2023. Climate Report 2024 Status published by the American Weather Society.
Under hot and humid conditions, it is challenging for individuals to cool down, as moist air diminishes the evaporative cooling impact of sweating. Such weather poses serious risks to human health. Kate Willett from the UK Met Office, who contributed to the report, states, “Your body starts to struggle to shed heat, making it very dangerous.”
Meteorologists measure heat and humidity using “wet bulb temperature.” This is typically done by wrapping a wet cloth around a thermometer bulb, demonstrating the cooling effect of evaporated water. The readings indicate temperatures lower than in a dry bulb, as high humidity limits the cooling effect of evaporation and brings the wet bulb temperature closer to that of dry air.
As the globe heats up, the atmosphere can retain more moisture, leading to increased heavy rainfall, storms, and higher humidity levels. Willett describes 2024 as “exceptionally” humid, second only to 2023 due to higher moisture levels.
Specific regions, including the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and East China, have reached 31°C (88°F) within a short time span, with wet bulb temperatures exceeding 84°F multiple times, according to the report. At these levels, extended exposure outdoors is deemed extremely perilous and potentially lethal.
Traditionally, scientists consider a wet bulb temperature of 35°C the threshold for human survival, as people cannot withstand outdoor conditions for more than a few hours before succumbing. However, research published in 2022 suggests that the actual limit may be lower, around 31°C. “Over 30°C, your body really struggles,” Willett explains.
If you were to poll a thousand physicists, you’d find no consensus. This assertion applies to a multitude of subjects, including the nature of the universe, the composition of dark matter, and the quest for perfectly efficient wiring. Recently, the team at Nature raised inquiries that sharply delineated the field’s divisions. They conducted a survey of 1,100 physicists regarding their preferred interpretations of quantum mechanics. The outcome? They exhibited “significant disagreement.”
This does not surprise me. In my reporting, I frequently encounter physicists who interpret the results of quantum experiments in varied ways. They might all analyze the same equation or experimental outcome but arrive at different narratives about reality.
So, how significant is this discord, and what does the quest for interpretation really entail? To begin with, it’s peculiar how things unfold within quantum mechanics, a discipline we’ve explored for over a century amid a plethora of unfortunate tests. There’s no denying the robust success of quantum mechanics, a remarkable framework governing the actions of the extremely small or the extremely cold. This theory not only passes all evaluations with distinction but also leads to technological innovations like transistors that power electronic devices and fiber optics for the internet. “Quantum mechanics is remarkably successful, both theoretically and practically,” asserts Peter Lewis from Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.
However, while physicists can articulate equations and construct devices, if I may put it bluntly, they don’t always agree on what these equations signify. They fail to reach consensus on how quantum mechanics describes the observable realities of our world. Research published in Nature indicates that the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics discourages contemplation on the nature of quantum entities, prompting physicists to focus merely on calculations. Others endorse the many-worlds interpretation, which necessitates belief in an infinitely expansive universe or a hyper-deterministic theory. Notably, only 24% of physicists expressed complete confidence in their chosen interpretations.
Discrepancies also surfaced regarding fundamental aspects of quantum theory, such as wave functions, the enigmatic link between particles referred to as quantum entanglements, and the iconic double-slit experiment that confirmed all matter possesses hidden wave-like attributes. “Moreover, some scientists, even those in similar camps, exhibit varied understandings of their chosen interpretations,” Elizabeth Gibney highlighted in her analysis of the research.
Lewis observes that this scenario—a blend of extraordinary technical advancement and complete philosophical bewilderment—is unparalleled in the annals of science. Navigating this situation remains a challenge. Some physicists perceive it as a discredit to the field, while others argue it’s a positive aspect of scientific diversity. I found myself wrestling with the term “interpretation” to discern which viewpoint I align with the most. What does this term actually imply, and what criteria make an interpretation viable or competitive? Ultimately, I returned to the source material.
“For me, interpreting quantum mechanics transcends mere physics; it veers into philosophy or perhaps psychology,” noted Jeffrey Harvey from the University of Chicago. I recall his class as being a mathematical challenge, and I vividly remember the excitement of discovering that the waves in the abstract Hilbert space “exist.” However, I struggle to remember any clear arguments surrounding the interpretations of the complex mathematical outcomes we examined. Harvey expresses hesitance in teaching various interpretations, citing competition from established “mental models” over experimentally discernible frameworks. When two interpretations stem from the same equation and yield identical experimental predictions, why favor one over the other? “This reflects an agnostic stance. I’d prefer to keep an open mind rather than feel compelled to choose,” Harvey explained.
Jontae Hans, located at the University of Newcastle in the UK, contends that the term interpretation is often utilized too broadly. Some interpretations effectively extend quantum mechanics by adding or modifying core equations. “The challenge lies in the fact that interpretations are viewed differently, as well as the specific issues faced by quantum mechanics,” Lewis states. The Nature survey revealed respondents’ insights across eight interpretations, some of which augment the foundational quantum mechanics rules, while others simplify them, leaving the question of their necessity open for debate, as seen in the Copenhagen interpretation.
To grasp this distinction, consider the famous Schrödinger equation. This is the equation physicists employ to predict outcomes related to quantum objects. Several interpretations of quantum mechanics (e.g., the many-worlds interpretation) rely on the original Schrödinger equation as it was initially formulated. Conversely, a theory termed “decoherence” seeks to uncover why quantum effects are infrequently observed in our macroscopic world, incorporating additional symbols and numbers into the Schrödinger equation that signify new physical processes. Hans asserts that this technically renders the latter an extension rather than merely an interpretation. In such cases, experimental tests could potentially reveal whether our reality necessitates modification of the Schrödinger equation.
This could provide evidence compelling researchers like Harvey to abandon agnosticism. Hans suggests that a successful extension of quantum mechanics could explain numerous experiments whose predictions are already highly accurate, while also insisting that different interpretations can yield clearly distinct and testable predictions.
At the same time, all three researchers acknowledged that many physicists manage to perform their daily tasks without delving into the complexities of quantum mechanics interpretations. This partly explains why my class with Harvey didn’t cover quantum mechanical interpretations; I was primarily taught how to apply the theory. “I don’t perceive it as a problem in terms of innovation and applications in most areas of quantum mechanics. [Interpretation] is mainly a philosophical concern,” Lewis remarks.
Nonetheless, it doesn’t mean that interpretations lack merit, even when competing interpretations don’t yield differing experimental predictions. “While physicists may find interpretations less integral to physics, they can significantly influence how innovative ideas emerge. In that regard, I believe the diversity of mental models fosters exploration of new concepts arising from quantum mechanics,” says Harvey.
Moreover, even philosophical perspectives hold weight, especially regarding the growth of quantum mechanics. For Lewis, this historically unprecedented divide between utility and meaning in quantum mechanics might offer insights into the limitations of science and the philosophical boundaries regarding what can or cannot be understood. The fact that quantum mechanics, a mathematical model explaining the world exceptionally well, still lacks consensus on its significance is telling.
Hans similarly argues that assigning meaning is a fundamental aspect of physics. When discussing this, they often reference social media posts from people like Elon Musk. While I may not have seen them, I’m struck by the tremendous simplifications in their claims. “For me… it’s all about developing equations; it’s about engineering. While some are inclined to pursue engineering careers, I haven’t followed that path. This doesn’t imply engineers lack curiosity; rather, I feel some tension stemming from existential concerns. It’s a question that has kept physicists awake for centuries, and it will likely persist into the future.
Mark Berman (Vermillion, UK; S&S/Simon Element, USA)
Mark Berman is on the verge of initiating a transformation, and I consider myself already aligned with his vision. You might have encountered his insights in New Scientist regarding the remarkable advantages of nature walks, the therapeutic impact of plants, and the enchantment of urban greenery.
If this sounds familiar, you may presume that Berman’s Research couldn’t offer anything new. However, you would be mistaken. Nature and the Heart caters to everyone, regardless of prior knowledge. It’s designed not only to inform and entertain but also to motivate action.
This narrative outlines how a once troubled boy forged a groundbreaking field in environmental neuroscience by transitioning from law studies pursued under his mother’s nursing influence and his father’s legal career to engineering as an undergraduate student.
Central to this is a fortuitous encounter between psychologists Steve and Rachel Kaplan from the University of Michigan, who introduced attentional restoration theory (ART). This concept posits that engaging with nature can help regain our focus, and by the time Berman met them as a graduate student, Kaplan had already amassed substantial evidence to support this theory.
Berman’s audacious plan involved quantifying these effects by analyzing people, their environments, and their interactions through methods including brain imaging, behavioral testing, computational neuroscience, and statistical analyses.
In his book, Berman reflects on his initial experimental proposal, met with skepticism from John Jonides, a cognitive neuroscientist at the University of Michigan, who said, “It’s crazy. It won’t work.”
The author champions a revolution to ‘naturize’ our homes, schools, offices, and cities.
Yet, Berman persevered, uncovering astonishing findings. A mere 50-minute walk in a park significantly improved individuals’ working memory and attention by 20%, irrespective of their enjoyment of the experience or the weather conditions. Remarkably, it was unnecessary for them to actually walk.
This improvement is notable, but why is attention restoration necessary? As Berman highlights, attention is a crucial resource for many cognitive and emotional functions, and our attention is often drained by an overstimulating environment. By restoring this resource, nature acts as a superpower, enhancing intelligence, happiness, reducing stress, increasing productivity, and fostering compassion.
Some of Berman’s discoveries are breathtaking. For instance, individuals suffering from clinical depression gained fivefold benefits from a walk in the park compared to participants in the original study. Moreover, having ten additional trees on a block in Toronto increased residents’ perception of well-being by 1%.
His research also leads to delightful and innovative findings. In one study, his team employed the JPEG standard in digital image compression to analyze how the human brain processes information regarding natural landscapes versus urban settings. This research demonstrated that urban and natural images with similar complexity levels taxed the brain differently, with nature being less taxing. They even created an app to provide “repair scores” for nearby walking routes.
Berman’s research addresses significant inquiries. How does nature capture attention? What scene elements encourage recovery? How can architecture leverage these effects? It also tackles intriguing questions, such as the allure of galley-style fonts (inspired by the curves of serif typefaces) and the appeal of Jackson Pollock’s abstract paintings (which reflect fractals).
Above all, he is driven by a desire to effect positive change. His work serves as a call to action, urging the implementation of a “natural revolution.” “We should fundamentally reevaluate the design of all constructed spaces,” he advocates. “The natural revolution necessitates a serious commitment from people on a grand scale.”
Research reveals obesity rates among children in Colombia’s hilly capital, Bogotá
Guillermo Legaria/Getty Images
A study involving over 4 million children in Colombia suggests that living at high altitudes may help in preventing obesity.
This outcome is consistent with existing research. Higher altitudes are thought to reduce obesity, potentially due to increased energy expenditure at lower oxygen levels. Most studies, however, have focused primarily on adults.
To explore the effect on children, Fernando Lizcano Rosada from Lhasavanna University in Chia, Colombia, along with his team analyzed data concerning 4.16 million children from municipalities up to age 5, sourced from the Colombian Institute of Family Welfare.
The participants were categorized into four groups based on the altitudes where they resided.
In two low-altitude areas, about 80 out of every 10,000 children were classified as obese. In contrast, at altitudes of 3,000 meters or higher since 2001, this rate dropped to 40 per 10,000.
However, at elevations above 3,000 meters, the prevalence rose again, reaching 86 out of 10,000. The researchers caution that this might be a statistical anomaly since it is based on data from only seven municipalities and 11,498 individuals, substantially fewer than the data for the other altitude groups.
“That’s a valid observation,” states David Stencel from Loughborough University, UK. He notes that a dose-response relationship would have strengthened the findings.
Stencel also underscores that the study is observational, meaning it does not definitively prove that high altitudes reduce obesity risk. “The research takes into account various confounding factors,” he explains, including measures of poverty. Yet, he adds, “we cannot account for everything.”
Nevertheless, he sees this research as a promising commencement. “It establishes a relationship that calls for more tailored studies to verify the hypothesis independently.”
Lizcano Rosada posits that metabolism may be heightened at higher altitudes, leading to increased energy expenditure.
This claim is plausible, Stencel agrees. “Some studies indicate that resting metabolic rates may be elevated at high altitudes,” he notes. For instance, a 1984 study found that climbers tended to lose more weight at high altitudes partly because fat from food was burned or expelled before being stored as tissue.
More recent studies suggest that lower oxygen levels may lead to accelerated metabolism and increased levels of leptin, the hormone related to satiety, while levels of ghrelin, often associated with hunger, are reduced.
If it is indeed true that high altitude diminishes obesity risk, Stencel notes that the practical application of this knowledge in combating obesity remains ambiguous. Nonetheless, Lizcano Rosada asserts that personalized advice could be beneficial, acknowledging that diverse environmental factors contribute to obesity across various locales.
Researchers have established a connection between being overweight or obese and various illnesses and health issues. Heart disease, some types of cancer, and additional conditions such as mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. Beyond specific diseases, obesity is also associated with an increased risk of premature death.
Health organizations in the US and around the world utilize the Body Mass Index, or BMI, to assess whether individuals are overweight or obese. For instance, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization both classify overweight as having a BMI over 25 and obesity as a BMI exceeding 30. In simple terms, a person who is 1.8 meters tall (approximately 5’11”) and weighs 90.7 kilograms (about 200 lbs) has a BMI of 28.
While doctors recognize that BMI can serve as a valuable metric in healthcare, some point out its limitations. Athletes with considerable muscle mass may be classified as overweight due to their muscle’s greater weight compared to fat. Additionally, body fat percentages can vary based on ethnicity and gender, suggesting that the standard BMI approach may not accurately reflect every individual’s health.
Recently, researchers from the University of Florida explored whether alternative body composition measurements provide a better prediction of mortality risk in young adults compared to BMI. They analyzed data from the National Health Nutrition Test Survey (NHANES), which was conducted in the US between 1999 and 2004 and connects to an index that indicates if participants had passed away by 2020. The study included data from 4,252 adults aged 20 to 49.
The researchers assessed whether high BMI, elevated body fat percentage, or increased waist circumference were more effective predictors of mortality within 15 years. They defined higher-risk body composition as (1) a BMI over 25, categorizing this as overweight or obese. Causes of mortality they investigated included deaths from any cause, referred to as all causes, heart disease, and cancer.
Findings revealed that body fat percentage is a stronger predictor of mortality in young adults than BMI. Specifically, there was no statistically significant link between overweight or obese BMI and cancer-related or all-cause mortality. In contrast, both high body fat percentage and large waist circumference were significantly related to deaths from all causes and heart disease. However, none of the three body composition measurements were found to be statistically related to cancer mortality.
Researchers acknowledged certain limitations in their study. First, the body fat percentage thresholds they applied were derived from another research and are not universally accepted metrics like BMI. Second, as they focused solely on mortality risk in young adults, BMI could still be a strong mortality predictor in older adults. Lastly, while they observed mortality rates, various diseases and health issues, such as cardiovascular disease, are still linked to higher BMI.
Nevertheless, the research team concluded that BMI may not provide a comprehensive view of body composition, suggesting that other measures, such as body fat percentage, could be more beneficial in healthcare settings. They proposed that future studies should investigate these findings in older populations and explore additional health outcomes, including cardiovascular disease.
If your teeth are facing damage, innovative toothpastes may soon appear on the market in the coming years. Some of their ingredients may surprise you.
Toothpaste derived from your own hair could offer an effective and eco-friendly method to safeguard and restore damaged tooth enamel during the initial stages of decay, according to new research from King’s College London.
The research team has found that keratin, a protein present in hair, skin, and nails, creates protective layers that emulate the structure and function of natural tooth enamel when interacting with saliva. In their experiments, scientists extracted keratin from animal wool, which is similar to human hair.
The Science Behind the Hair Toothpaste: Explainer (Credit: King’s College London)
Enamel loss and decay are ongoing issues for dental professionals. Factors such as acidic food and drinks, aging, and inadequate oral hygiene contribute to the gradual deterioration of the teeth’s protective layer.
This deterioration can result in tooth sensitivity, discomfort, and, ultimately, tooth loss. “Unlike bone and hair, enamel does not regenerate,” states Dr. Sherif Elshalkawi, Senior Author and Consultant of Prosthetics at King’s College London. “Once lost, it is gone forever.”
While fluoride toothpaste can help slow the process, this groundbreaking keratin-based solution has shown potential to stop it completely.
When combined with naturally occurring minerals in saliva, it forms a dense crystal-like layer that shields teeth, sealing off exposed nerve channels. As these nerves are responsible for sensitivity, this novel treatment not only aids in preventing enamel breakdown but also alleviates current symptoms.
This research has been published in Advanced Healthcare Materials, detailing how scientists extracted keratin from animal wool to form a structured scaffold on the teeth that continues to attract calcium and phosphate ions, ultimately creating a protective enamel-like coat.
This substance can be used daily in regular toothpaste or applied professionally as a gel, similar to nail polish, for targeted restorative treatment. El Sharkawi suggests that this affordable, sustainable method could be available to the public in the next two to three years.
“Keratin presents a revolutionary alternative to existing dental care practices,” comments Sara Gamea, a doctoral researcher at King’s College and lead author of the study.
“It not only draws on biological waste such as hair and skin for a continuous supply but also reduces reliance on conventional plastic resins often used in restorative dentistry, which are harmful and less durable.”
“Keratin also offers a more natural appearance than these alternatives, as it can better match the original tooth color.”
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Top Image: Dr. Sherif Elshalkawi presents the animal wool utilized in this groundbreaking treatment (credit: King’s College London)
Recently discovered human fossils from the Ledi-Geraru Research Project in a remote region of Ethiopia indicate an early presence of Homo around 2.78 million years ago and a previously unidentified species, Australian, dating back 2.63 million years.
The timeline from approximately 3 to 2 million years ago represents crucial phases in human evolution.
This encompasses the genus Homo and Paran Solo Pass, which first appeared in fossil records alongside the ancestors of Australopithecus afarensis, a species that eventually vanished.
“We typically viewed human evolution as a linear trajectory from ape-like ancestors to modern humans. However, Homo sapiens researcher Brian Villmoare from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, states that our understanding must adapt.”
“Humans have diversified into various niches multiple times throughout our history.”
“Our evolutionary tree reflects patterns not unique to us. Similar events occurred across different life forms.”
“This is something we should observe more frequently in the record of human fossils.”
“Nature has explored numerous paths toward humanity, particularly as climates became drier in East Africa, leading to the extinction of more ape-like species.”
Dr. Villmoare and his co-authors uncovered 13 human teeth at the Ledi-Geraru site in Ethiopia.
They determined that while some fossils belong to the genus Homo, others include upper and lower teeth sets from an unnamed species, Australian.
This new species differs from Australopithecus afarensis, which was first identified nearby at Khadar around 2.95 million years ago.
“The coexistence of both species in the same area suggests that human evolution resembles a branching tree rather than a linear progression,” said Dr. Villmoare.
The Ledi-Geraru site is also where paleontologists discovered the earliest jaw of Homo in 2013, dating back 2.8 million years.
“Recent findings of Homo teeth from sediments aged between 2 and 2.8 million years confirm the timeline of our lineage,” stated Dr. Villmoare.
“We know what the earliest teeth and jaws of Homo look like, but our findings extend beyond that.”
“This underscores the critical need for additional fossil discoveries to differentiate between Australian and Homo, and to explore potential overlaps in their fossil records.”
“There has been considerable geological activity in this region,” noted Dr. Christopher Campizzano, a geologist at Arizona State University.
“Numerous volcanic eruptions released ashes containing feldspar crystals, allowing scientists to date them.”
“We can date the eruptions that occurred in the landscape where these fossils were found.”
“These fossils are situated between volcanic deposits, facilitating age determination.”
“We are dating the volcanic ash from eruptions that coincided with the deposition of these fossils.”
“As this new research highlights, this was a pivotal era for human evolution,” said Professor Ramon Arrowsmith from Arizona State University.
“Geology provides critical insights into the age and characteristics of sedimentary layers, including those containing fossils.”
“Whenever an exciting new discovery occurs, paleontologists recognize that further information is essential,” commented Dr. Kay Reid, a paleontologist at Arizona State University.
“We need more fossils, which emphasizes the importance of training individuals to explore and identify new fossil sites.”
“The more fossils we uncover, the better we can understand our distant ancestors and the unique journey of survival that led to our existence.”
The findings are documented in a publication released today in the journal Nature.
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B. Billmoare et al. New discoveries of Australian and Homo from Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia. Nature, published online August 13, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09390-4
A protective atmosphere, a welcoming sun, and abundant liquid water make Earth a remarkable place. Leveraging the extraordinary capabilities of the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers are on a mission to uncover just how unique and extraordinary our planet truly is. Is it possible for a temperate environment to exist elsewhere, perhaps around a different type of star? The TRAPPIST-1 system offers an intriguing opportunity to explore this question, as it contains seven Earth-sized planets orbiting red dwarf stars—the most common type in the Milky Way.
The artist’s concept depicts TRAPPIST-1d passing in front of a turbulent star, showing the other planets in the background. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/Joseph Olmsted, STSCI.
TRAPPIST-1 is a super cool dwarf star situated 38.8 light-years away in the constellation Aquarius.
These stars are slightly larger than Jupiter, comprising only 8% of our Sun’s mass. They rotate quickly and emit UV energy flares.
TRAPPIST-1 is home to seven transiting planets designated TRAPPIST-1b, c, d, e, f, g, and h.
All these planets are similar in size to Earth and Venus, or marginally smaller, with very brief orbital periods of 1.51, 2.42, 4.04, 6.06, 9.21, 12.35, and 20 days, respectively.
They may all be tidally locked, meaning the same side always faces their star, akin to how the same side of the moon is always turned towards Earth. This results in a permanently night side and a permanently day side for each TRAPPIST-1 planet.
“Ultimately, we aim to discover whether similar environments to those we enjoy on Earth exist elsewhere, and under what conditions they might thrive,” stated Dr. Caroline Piaulett Graeb, an astronomer at the University of Chicago and the Trottia Institute for Planetary Research.
“At this stage, we can exclude TRAPPIST-1d as a potential twin or cousin of Earth, even as Webb enables us to investigate Earth-sized planets for the first time.”
Dr. Piaulet-Ghorayeb and her team utilized Webb’s NIRSpec (near-infrared spectroscopy) instrument to capture the transmission spectra of the TRAPPIST-1d planet.
They found no common molecules typically present in Earth’s atmosphere, such as water, methane, or carbon dioxide.
However, they have outlined several possibilities for the exoplanet that warrant further investigation.
“There are multiple reasons we might not detect an atmosphere around TRAPPIST-1d,” Dr. Piaulet-Ghorayeb mentioned.
“It may have a very thin atmosphere, similar to Mars, which is challenging to identify.”
“Alternatively, thick, high-altitude clouds may obscure certain atmospheric signatures.”
“Or it could be a barren rock with no atmosphere whatsoever.”
In any case, TRAPPIST-1d faces challenges as a planet orbiting a red dwarf star.
TRAPPIST-1, the host star of the system, is known for its volatility and often emits high-energy radiation flares that can strip away the atmosphere of nearby small planets.
Nevertheless, scientists remain eager to search for atmospheric signs on the TRAPPIST-1 planets, as red dwarfs are the most prevalent stars in our galaxy.
If these planets can retain an atmosphere here, it suggests they could potentially do so anywhere, even under the harsh conditions of stellar radiation.
“Webb’s sensitive infrared instruments allow us to probe into the atmospheres of these small, cold planets for the first time,” said Dr. Bjorn Beneke, an astronomer at the Institute for Planetary Research at Montreal University.
“We are using Webb to identify atmospheres on Earth-sized planets and define the thresholds between those that can and cannot sustain an atmosphere.”
Results will be published in Astrophysical Journal.
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Caroline Piaulett Graeb et al. 2025. Restrictive conditions on the potential secondary atmosphere of the temperate rocky exoplanet TRAPPIST-1d. APJ 989, 181; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ADF207
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Model of Australopithecus Hominin
Credit: Cro Magnon/Alamy
In Ethiopia, 13 human teeth have been found within volcanic ash layers dating between 26 to 2.8 million years ago. Researchers indicate that some of these teeth are attributed to the genus Homo, hinting that others may belong to a newly identified human lineage, suggesting a coexistence of both species.
“They shared resources and everything was fine,” says Kay Reed from Arizona State University. “I cannot be certain at this point.”
Previous finds suggested that early members of several Homo species existed in this region about 3 million years ago, including Australopithecus afarensis, the species of the well-known Lucy Fossil.
The emergence of the first representatives of the genus Homo around 2.5 million years ago showcases characteristics increasingly reminiscent of modern human traits. So, what unfolded during that period? To delve into this, Reid and her colleagues have been excavating at Ledi-Geraru, an area rich with volcanic deposits from this pivotal epoch.
In 2013, her team unearthed a chin from a 2.8 million-year-old Homo species, pushing back the timeline for the origin of this genus. Recently, her team identified 13 teeth across three distinct layers of ash.
The oldest and youngest dental specimens (dated 2.79 and 2.59 million years) also belong to the genus Homo, as per the team’s findings. Nevertheless, they postulate that the teeth from the middle layer (dated 2.63 million years) are from Australopithecus. All excavation sites are within a kilometer of one another.
“We anticipated discovering more Homo specimens, yet we also encountered Australopithecus,” Reid remarks.
Molar teeth from Ledi-Geraru, possibly from an unidentified Australopithecus species
Brian Billmore: University of Nevada Las Vegas
Moreover, Australopithecus teeth exhibit distinctive features when compared to A. afarensis and other members of the genus, leading the team to speculate that they may belong to a new species. If this hypothesis holds, it indicates a more intricate and expansive evolutionary tree leading to modern humans than previously assumed.
“This is a significant finding,” states John Hawks from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. However, he cautions against drawing firm conclusions based merely on a handful of teeth.
“When fossils span a timeframe of 200,000 years, as these teeth do, it’s challenging to assert that they coexisted,” remarks Hawks. “That’s a vast period.”
There are also concerns about the identification of distinct species from these teeth. “Many fossils exhibit characteristics that overlap with various species. It’s feasible to categorize smaller samples into distinct groups—some resembling Homo and others more akin to Australopithecus,” Hawks explains.
“The issue remains statistical; the measurements do not indicate that these teeth are substantially different. They fall within the overlapping size ranges of early Australopithecus and early Homo species.”
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas for an enchanting journey through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites in southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
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A tiny disc, roughly the size of a nail, has the potential to ascend to high altitudes in sunlight while carrying sensors through some of the coldest and thinnest parts of the atmosphere. These swarms, flying higher than commercial aircraft and balloons, could reveal new insights regarding Earth’s evolving weather and climate.
These floating devices harness a phenomenon known as photophoresis. This was initially discovered over 150 years ago when chemist William Crookes invented a radiometer, a device with black and white feathers that spin when they are exposed to sunlight. The wings absorb light and release heat, increasing the momentum of nearby gas molecules. Due to the difference in temperature between the black and white sides of the wings, the black side emits more momentum, allowing the air to flow in one direction with sufficient force to turn the wings.
“We’ve embraced this lesser-known physics to develop applications that could benefit many people, enhancing our understanding of how weather and climate change unfolds over time.” Ben Schafer from Harvard University.
To create the levitating disc, Schafer and his team designed a device that spans 1 cm, composed of two sheets of aluminum oxide filled with microscale holes. When illuminated, the lower sheet, which contains alternating layers of chromium and aluminum oxide, heats up more than the top layer, similar to the black sides of the radiometer blades. This generates a directional airflow that moves upwards instead of sideways.
Under white LED and laser illumination — set to an intensity that mimics about 50% of natural sunlight — this upward force successfully lifted the device. This represents progress over previous solar-powered flyers, which required light intensity significantly brighter than sunlight. However, the tests were conducted under laboratory conditions with air pressure much lower than Earth’s surface pressure.
Fortunately, such low pressure conditions are common at higher altitudes, especially in the Mesosphere, which spans 50-85 km above the Earth. Researchers indicate that increasing the disc’s size to 3 centimeters could enable it to carry a 10-milligram payload to hard-to-reach research areas at altitudes of 75 km. Schafer has co-founded a startup, Rare Feed Technology, aiming to commercialize fleets of these high-flying devices for environmental monitoring and communications.
After sunset, computer modeling indicates that these discs could utilize the heat radiating from Earth’s surface to remain airborne. “If they can stay afloat during the night, that represents a significant advancement instead of simply descending and landing.” Igor Bargatin from the University of Pennsylvania, who is conducting similar research.
ADHD symptoms can be effectively managed through medication and therapy
Alex Di Stasi/Shutterstock
A study involving 150,000 participants in Sweden found that individuals using medications to control their symptoms face a diminished risk of suicidal behavior, criminal charges, substance misuse, accidental injuries, and traffic incidents. Prior research supports this, yet the team behind this latest study claims it’s the most substantial evidence available to date.
“This represents the best methodology, akin to a randomized trial,” states Zheng Chang from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden.
When considering medications for ADHD management, the wider impact of avoiding these treatments might not be fully recognized, according to Samuelle Cortese from the University of Southampton, UK. He suggests parents often become preoccupied with immediate academic challenges but should also consider potential long-term outcomes.
“Neglecting ADHD can be risky,” he emphasizes. “Current evidence indicates that treatment lowers these risks.”
Such trials involve randomly assigning individuals to either receive treatment or not, regarded as the gold standard in medical research. However, no randomized studies have yet evaluated the broader effects of ADHD medications, forcing researchers to rely on observational studies, which do not definitively prove that medication leads to noted behavioral changes.
Recently, Chang, Cortese, and their team executed a method known as target trial emulation. They utilized Swedish medical and legal records to compare patients who began ADHD medication promptly after diagnosis with those who delayed.
The results indicated that those using ADHD medications were 25% less likely to face criminal charges or experience substance problems. They also recorded a 16% reduction in traffic accident involvement, a 15% lower risk for suicide attempts, and a 4% decrease in accidental injuries.
“Understanding if medication can influence daily life beyond mere symptom alleviation is invaluable,” stated Adam Guastella during an interview with the UK Science Media Centre at the University of Sydney, Australia. “This knowledge will also assist governments and policymakers in recognizing the potential societal benefits of comprehensive care, including mental health and criminal justice outcomes.”
If you need someone to talk to, please reach out: UK Samaritans: 116123 (samaritans.org); US 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline: 988 (988lifeline.org). Find more helplines at bit.ly/suicidehelplines for other regions.
The jacket becomes thicker when it dries (left) and thinner when it gets wet (right)
Xiaofeng Jiang/Nanjing Aviation University Astronaut 2023
If you think you’ll be wearing your jacket indefinitely once the sunshine fades, a material that decreases in thickness when you sweat could be a game changer.
Researchers have previously created self-adaptive materials that help cool individuals in high temperatures by emitting excess heat as infrared radiation. However, these materials generally operate in only one direction and are not effective for retaining warmth in cooler environments.
Xiuqiang Li, a Chinese astronaut, along with his team, has crafted a jacket that consists of layers that dry and flatten when wet. This unique property allows the jacket to become thicker in cooler surroundings and thinner in warmer conditions, primarily due to human perspiration. “The amount of sweat produced serves as a timely and straightforward indicator of the body’s actual thermal needs,” notes Li.
The design of the clothing resembles that of standard down jackets but incorporates layers of cellulose derived from bacteria. This is further bolstered with polyester to ensure that the fabric’s outer layer can expand effectively. Li’s team discovered that the cellulose layer does not dry in a predictable manner and remains fixed at a certain angle for up to 12 hours, working effectively after 200 cycles of transitioning from flat to curved.
The team examined how much heat the material emitted while being worn under varying moisture levels. They found it to feel as cool as standard polyester shirts when wet, yet nearly as warm as down jackets when in a similar condition.
These assessments were akin to wearing the material directly against bare skin. “Theoretically, when the material is layered over other clothing items, such as t-shirts, the sweat produced can permeate through these inner layers, potentially triggering a response that causes thinning,” states Xiaofeng Jiang, who is also from Nanjing Aviation University.
With these insights, the team aims to enhance the fibers to ensure they generate enough warmth to be worn without additional layers.
Li believes that scaling up the production of these materials should be feasible, as bacterial cellulose is readily obtainable and cost-effective; however, the team must first confirm that it can withstand the durability expected from conventional clothing.
Illustration of a protein complex binding to DNA in the production of vital signaling molecules known as interferons.
Martin McCarthy/Getty Images
Weekly inhaler puffs, similar to those used for asthma, might safeguard you against viral infections that could make winters challenging.
This promising idea stems from encouraging animal studies involving mRNA therapies aimed at activating our natural viral defenses. “We can consider this a universal antiviral agent,” states Dusan Bogunovic from Columbia University in New York.
To fully realize this potential, the development of mRNA technology used in vaccines will be essential, but recent funding cuts in the US for mRNA vaccine initiatives pose a significant concern. “I would be surprised if this doesn’t impact such progress,” Bogunovic mentioned.
Beyond recognizing and neutralizing viruses with antibodies, our bodies have multiple inherent defenses. For instance, upon detecting a viral invasion, cells emit a critical signaling molecule called interferons. This activates around 1000 genes, resulting in the production of various antiviral proteins, each playing distinct protective roles. Some obstruct viral entry into cells and hinder the release of other viral particles.
While not all antiviral proteins are effective against every virus, their strategic combination can yield significant results. “Our innate immune system is remarkably robust,” Bogunovic observes.
Bogunovic points out that the rapid replication of respiratory viruses presents a challenge. However, if the body can proactively prepare these defenses, it could reduce viral replication and ensure that infections remain less severe, even before the immune system fully kicks in.
There were hopes of using interferon as a broad-spectrum antiviral, but the potential for severe side effects warranted caution. Thus, Bogunovic and his team are focusing instead on creating an antiviral agent composed of a select group of 1000 proteins induced by interferons.
They chose 10 specific proteins and introduced them into cells via mRNAs that encode these proteins. The mRNA delivery system allows for temporary protein production within targeted cells, which is critical as preformed proteins are often too large to enter cells in adequate amounts.
Experiments where human cells were infected with a range of viruses, including influenza and Zika, demonstrated that this mRNA cocktail effectively enhanced viral protection. This could provide the necessary head start in the body.
The team subsequently administered these mRNAs to the lungs of Golden Hamsters. The mRNA combination afforded strong protection against the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes Covid-19, drastically reducing viral loads in comparison to untreated counterparts. “I thought, ‘This could actually be a universal antiviral,’” Bogunovic says.
Present antiviral medications are typically limited to specific viruses; hence, broad-spectrum treatments are immensely valuable. The breakthrough of antibiotics such as penicillin, which can eliminate a wide array of bacteria, has transformed medical practice.
Moreover, some combinations of proteins activated by interferons may work particularly well against specific viruses, Bogunovic mentions. This same methodology could also help in formulating specialized antiviral agents.
Effectively delivering mRNA to a significant number of vulnerable cells remains crucial. Further advancements are required, as targeting specific cell types with mRNA continues to be challenging.
“This scenario is certainly intriguing and could lead to significant developments, but we are still a distance from implementing practical and adaptable solutions,” states Aris Katzourakis from Oxford University. “This research emphasizes the vast potential of mRNA technology extending beyond vaccines. The current trend of mRNA vaccine funding in the US will likely and regrettably hinder progress in both domains.”
While antibiotic resistance remains a pressing issue, Bogunovic believes it is unlikely that viruses will develop resistance to this type of antiviral approach, given its combination of various interferon-triggered proteins that target multiple phases of the virus’s lifecycle. This combined strategy has already yielded successes in HIV treatments.
Yoga has emerged as the leading practice for enhancing sleep
ShutterStock/Drazen Zigic
After a poor night’s sleep, the last thing I feel like doing is working out, even though I know it could help me rest better. The idea of intense physical activity when I’m sleep-deprived doesn’t seem appealing. However, I was astonished to discover that pushing yourself at the gym may not be the most effective strategy for improving sleep.
A recent review of 22 studies involving over 1,300 adults suffering from insomnia evaluated how seven exercise-related interventions influenced sleep. It was found that gentler activities like yoga and Tai Chi contribute more positively to sleep quality than intense workouts, such as strength training and aerobic exercises.
Yoga (as shown in the image) has been linked with an increase in total sleep time by nearly 2 hours compared to the control group, surpassing the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy. Traditional insomnia treatments boost sleep by merely about an hour, while Tai Chi results in a 52-minute increase. Instead of helping individuals sleep longer, exercising diminished the frequency of awakenings and shortened the duration it took to fall asleep.
I must admit I found these findings surprising. I had thought one reason exercise helps improve sleep is because it tires you out. However, the results suggest this isn’t the case; intense physical activity had minimal impact on sleep.
Then what about those gentle exercises that are major contributors to better sleep? Their effectiveness may lie in their focus on breath control and bodily awareness. Research indicates that mindfulness practices, along with activities like Yoga and Tai Chi, diminish the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, which manages our fight or flight responses. This leads to reduced blood pressure, heart rate, and levels of the stress hormone cortisol, ultimately alleviating depression and anxiety symptoms that can disrupt sleep.
However, these findings don’t suggest that other types of exercise lack value for those with insomnia. In fact, walking and jogging showed the most significant reductions in insomnia severity index scores, which assess sleep quality alongside its effects on mood, attention, and memory. Although walking and jogging didn’t seem to improve sleep duration, the reduced severity scores might indicate that mild aerobic activities assist in mitigating the daytime impacts of insomnia.
I truly appreciate this kind of research. I believe that exercise encompasses more than just pushing your body to its limits. If I’m not physically drained, I can find myself thinking that my workouts don’t matter, but that’s simply not accurate! Interestingly, reducing the intensity seems to have its unique advantages, including enhanced sleep quality. Plus, unrolling my yoga mat feels more manageable after a night of poor sleep than logging miles on the treadmill.
Grace Wade is a health reporter for New Scientist based in the US
Astronomers have been monitoring the largest black holes observed in space thus far.
Through a combination of two distinct measurement techniques, researchers have recently identified that these colossal black holes possess nearly 10,000 times the mass of the ultra-massive black holes at the center of our galaxy.
This colossal black hole is situated five billion light-years from Earth, at the core of the Cosmic Horseshoe, one of the largest known galaxies. This massive galaxy seems to gather all the galaxies in its vicinity, meaning both it and its black hole have reached their ultimate sizes.
The black hole itself weighs an astonishing 36 billion times the mass of our sun.
The discovery is particularly remarkable given that these black holes are inactive, lacking the typical surrounding luminous dusty disc.
Instead, a recent study published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society utilized a combination of two established methods to ascertain the size of this mega black hole.
“The ‘golden’ method generally depends on the kinematics of stars, meaning we measure how the stars move within the galaxy,” noted Carlos Mello in an interview with BBC Science Focus. He is a PhD student at a federal university in Brazil that led the research.
The speed of stars situated at the center of a galaxy correlates closely with the mass of its supermassive black hole. Scientists report that these stars are moving at astonishing velocities, around 400 kilometers (249 miles) per second, indicating an extraordinarily large black hole.
“However, this technique is most efficient for nearby galaxies where telescopes can better resolve the area surrounding the black hole,” Mello explained.
Given that the Cosmic Horseshoe is five billion light-years away, astronomers also employed a second method that utilizes the gravitational lensing effect of galaxies.
The Cosmic Horseshoe is known for the nearly perfect ring of light formed by a gravitational lens that bends light from a background galaxy – Credit: NASA/ESA
Gravitational lenses occur when light from a distant galaxy passes by a massive “lens” object, in this case, the black hole within the Cosmic Horseshoe. The gravity from this “lens” distorts the incoming light much like a magnifying glass, amplifying the light from the background galaxy while altering its appearance.
Astronomers can utilize this distortion to gauge the mass of the lensing object.
“The Cosmic Horseshoe is exceptional because it enables us to leverage both of these powerful methods simultaneously. This gives me greater confidence in the measurements of the black hole and its mass,” Mello remarked.
Both the galaxy and its black hole have achieved immense scales by merging with neighboring galaxies. This is the typical growth process for galaxies over time; ultimately, no surrounding galaxies can merge without reaching significant mass increases.
The Cosmic Horseshoe has reached this advanced stage, existing within a bubble of relatively few bright galaxies nearby.
“This discovery provides a unique insight into the culmination of galaxy and black hole formation,” Mello stated. “By examining this system, we can enhance our understanding of how other galaxies and their ultra-massive black holes evolve over cosmic time.”
About Our Experts
Carlos Mello is a doctoral student at a Federal University in Brazil.
The way couples first connect can influence their relationship quality
Good face/interpretation
A global study involving 50 countries reveals that individuals who meet their partners online report lower relationship satisfaction and less emotional connection compared to those who meet in person initially.
The rise of the internet has transformed relationship dynamics. For instance, while in the mid-20th century, heterosexual couples typically met through mutual friends, by the early 21st century, this trend shifted to online interactions as primary.
To explore how these changes impact relationship quality, Malta Kowal from the University of Wroclaw, Poland, and her team studied 6,646 individuals in heterosexual relationships across all continents except Antarctica.
Participants were asked whether they started their relationship online and to rate their satisfaction levels. Additionally, they were assessed on emotional intimacy (how well they feel understood by their partner), passion, and commitment (including whether they view their relationship as long-term).
Those who met their partners online scored an average of 4.20 out of 5 on the relationship satisfaction scale, whereas those who met offline scored 4.28—indicating a small but statistically significant difference. Online couples reported lower scores in intimacy, passion, and commitment.
According to Kowal, several factors might contribute to this disparity. Research suggests that partners who meet online often have less in common in terms of educational background and ethnicity compared to those who meet in person. Kowal and her collaborators propose that this might lead to differences in their everyday lives and shared values.
Kowal also points out the issue of “Choice Overload.” With dating platforms presenting numerous options, individuals may second-guess their choices, which can ultimately diminish satisfaction.
Moreover, she notes that some people tend to misrepresent themselves in online dating profiles. “You might see someone and think, ‘No way is he two meters tall; he’s more like 170 centimeters,'” Kowal explains. This kind of disparity can negatively impact relationship satisfaction.
Luke Brunning from the University of Leeds in the UK finds this research “fascinating” and “valuable” for future studies, particularly in considering how online dating may redefine relationship approaches or if shifting attitudes toward commitment drive these changes.
He further suggests that the overall difference between couples who meet online and offline is “relatively small.”
GPT-5 is the latest version of OpenAI’s flagship language model
Cheng Xin/Getty Images
OpenAI has recently unveiled GPT-5, their latest AI model, marking another step in AI evolution rather than a dramatic breakthrough. Following the successful rollout of GPT-4, which significantly advanced ChatGPT’s capabilities and influence, the improvements found in GPT-5 seem marginal, indicating that innovative strategies may be needed to achieve further advancements in artificial intelligence.
OpenAI has described GPT-5 as a notable advancement over its predecessor, boasting enhancements in areas such as programming, mathematics, writing, healthcare, and visual comprehension. The company claims a reduction in the incidence of “hallucinations,” instances where AI generates incorrect information as factual. According to their internal metrics, GPT-5 claims to excel in complex and economically significant tasks across various professions, asserting it matches or exceeds expert-level performance.
Notably, however, GPT-5’s results on public benchmarks are less competitive when compared with leading models from other companies, such as Anthropic’s Claude and Google’s Gemini. Although it has improved from GPT-4, the enhancements are subtler than the leap observed between GPT-3 and GPT-4. Numerous users have expressed dissatisfaction with GPT-5’s performance, citing instances where it struggled with straightforward queries, leading to a chorus of disappointment on social media.
“Many were expecting a major breakthrough, but it seems more like an upgrade,” remarked Mirela Rapata from the University of Edinburgh. “There’s a sense of incremental progress.”
OpenAI has disclosed limited details regarding the internal benchmarks for GPT-5’s performance, making it challenging to assess them scientifically, according to Anna Rogers from the University of Copenhagen.
In a pre-release press briefing, Altman emphasized, “It feels like engaging with an expert on any topic, comparable to a PhD-level specialist.” Yet, Rogers pointed out that benchmarks do not substantiate such claims, and the correlation between advanced degrees and intelligence is questionable. “Highly intelligent individuals do not always hold PhDs, nor does a PhD guarantee superior intelligence,” she noted.
The modest advancements in GPT-5 may reflect broader challenges within the AI development community. Once believed to be an inexorable progression, the capabilities of large-scale language models (LLMs) seem to be plateauing, as recent results have not supported the prior assumptions that increased training data and computational power would lead to significant enhancements. As Lapata noted, “Now that everyone has adopted similar approaches, it’s evident that we’re following a predictable recipe, utilizing vast amounts of pre-training data and refining it during the post-training phase.”
However, whether LLMs are nearing a plateau remains uncertain, as technical design specifics about models like GPT-5 are not widely known, according to Nicos Aretra from the University of Sheffield. “It’s premature to claim that large-scale language models have reached their limits without concrete technical insights.”
OpenAI is also exploring alternative methods to enhance their offerings, such as the new routing system in GPT-5. Unlike previous versions where users could select from various models, GPT-5 intelligently assesses requests and directs them to the appropriate model based on the required computational power.
This strategy could potentially be more widely adopted, as Lapata mentions, “The reasoning model demands significant computation, which is both time-consuming and costly.” Yet, this shift has frustrated some ChatGPT users, prompting Altman to indicate that efforts are underway to enhance the routing process.
Another OpenAI model has recently achieved remarkable scores in elite mathematics and coding contests, hinting at a promising future for AI. This accomplishment was beyond the capabilities of leading AI models just a year ago. Although details on its functioning remain scarce, OpenAI staff have stated that this success implies the model possesses improved general reasoning skills.
These competitions allow us to evaluate models on data not encountered during training, according to Aletras, but they still represent a narrow aspect of intelligence. Enhanced performance in one domain may detrimentally affect results in others, warns Lapata.
GPT-5 has notably improved in pricing, as it is now significantly cheaper compared to other models—e.g., Claude models are approximately ten times more expensive when processing an equal volume of requests. However, this could lead to financial issues for OpenAI if revenue is insufficient to sustain the high costs of developing and operating new data centers. “Pricing is extraordinary. It’s so inexpensive; I’m uncertain how they can sustain it,” remarked Lapata.
Competition among leading AI models is intense. The first company to launch a superior model could secure a substantial market share. “All major companies are vying for dominance, which is a challenging endeavor,” noted Rapata. “You’ve only held the crown for three months.”
Vaping offers a healthier alternative to smoking, yet it is not without risks.
Matthew Horwood/Getty Images
Fungal sequences linked to lung issues have been identified from e-cigarette mouthpieces.
While vaping is often recommended as a means to avoid smoking, the long-term health impacts remain largely unclear.
Devices designed for vaping utilize battery-powered coils to heat liquids that typically contain nicotine, generating vapors for inhalation by the user. The primary health concerns center around the toxicity of the liquid’s chemical components; however, the presence of microorganisms transferred from the device to the user’s airways has not been thoroughly investigated.
For further insights, refer to Borna Mehrad and his team at the University of Florida, who studied 25 daily users of disposable vapes. Researchers isolated microorganisms from the mouthpiece of the devices and compared them with samples taken from the participants’ mouths.
Although the sample size was limited, researchers noted that more than half exhibited a “rich colonization” of fungal species distinct from those found in the participants’ mouths, with 80% of these species linked to potential illnesses in humans.
The predominant species identified was Cystobasidium minutum, which is associated with blood infections in immunocompromised individuals. To evaluate its impact on lung health, the research team exposed mice to C. minutum, mimicking the inhalation process associated with vaping.
“Our findings showed that the fungus most frequently found in vape samples induced characteristics of chronic bronchitis in mice,” explains Mehrad. This condition is characterized by airway inflammation and can result in flu-like symptoms.
Regarding the source of these fungi, some may be present in the environment or on our hands. However, Jason Smith indicated that while this has not been tested, it is possible that some microorganisms were already within the vaping liquid when purchased. “Residual material in the vape device can create a nutrient base for mold proliferation,” he adds.
Ian Musgrave from the University of Adelaide in Australia has noted that these fungi have also been detected in shisha (commonly referred to as hookah or waterpipe), which is known to contribute to lung diseases induced by microbes. “Notably, the microbiota documented in this study were predominantly composed of potentially pathogenic fungi that are uncommon in the oral microbiota,” he remarks.
Team member Katy Deitz expressed that the results were not surprising, considering that around one-third of participants who reported respiratory complaints, such as coughing, did not properly clean their vapes.
Musgrave advocates for regular cleaning of vaping devices but stresses that current evidence does not definitively indicate that these fungal species exist in sufficient quantities on vape mouthpieces to pose a health threat.
Microorganisms residing in your gut might be contributing to your insomnia, according to new research conducted in China. Conversely, your sleep patterns can also impact your gut health.
While earlier studies have hinted at a connection between sleep habits and gut health, a recent analysis featured in the journal General Psychiatry suggests that this relationship may indeed be causal. This implies that sleep can influence your gut directly, and vice versa.
Dr. Ph.D., who leads the research at an affiliated brain hospital of Nanjing Medical University in China, told BBC Science Focus that this study could “reshape our understanding of insomnia and spark interest in microbiome-based interventions.”
In the future, treatment for insomnia could involve gut-focused solutions such as probiotics (found in yogurt or sauerkraut), prebiotics (fiber sources), or even fecal transplants.
“Moreover, gut microbiomes may act as biomarkers, tracking the effectiveness of these treatments and enabling personalized care,” Shangyun noted.
Researchers employed a statistical approach known as Mendelian randomization (using genetic data to determine causal relationships) to explore the connection between insomnia and the gut microbiota.
They identified specific genes connected to insomnia and assessed whether individuals with these genes were more likely to harbor certain gut microorganisms.
The researchers also reversed the inquiry, examining whether specific gut microorganisms could affect the likelihood of developing insomnia.
For their analysis, scientists used data from 387,000 individuals with insomnia alongside gut microbiome data from 26,500 individuals, all sourced from European populations. Thus, these findings may not apply universally.
Intestinal microbiomes comprise the community of bacteria and yeasts inhabiting the digestive system – Credit: Tom Leach / Science Photo Library
The analysis suggested that 41 types of gut bacteria may contribute to insomnia, at least in part.
However, Shangyun indicated that certain microorganisms hold more significance than others. Notably, they identified 14 groups associated with a higher likelihood of insomnia, while others were linked to a lower chance.
In contrast, the research found that insomnia is associated with a decrease of 43-79% in a specific group of seven bacterial types.
Furthermore, insomnia correlated with a 65% increased likelihood of 12 bacterial groups being four times more prevalent in the intestines.
A particular class of bacteria, known as Odlibacter, was found to be closely tied to insomnia risk. This type of gut bacteria is often linked to improved gut health.
Overall, this study highlights a vicious cycle: certain gut bacteria may lead to insomnia, while a lack of sleep can alter gut microbiota.
Shangyun emphasized the need for further research before healthcare providers can recommend gut health strategies to enhance sleep quality.
Read more:
About our experts
Dr. Shi Shangyun is a scientist at the Faculty of Psychiatry, affiliated with the brain hospital at Nanjing Medical University in Jiangsu Province, China.
Researchers have successfully created a chromosomal-level genomic assembly of a sweet potato cultivar known as “Tanzania.”
“Tanzania” sweet potato variety. Image credit: Benard Yada from the National Crop Resources Institute in Uganda.
The sweet potato is a crucial global staple crop that supports millions of people, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Its inherent resilience to harsh climates significantly contributes to food security.
Despite its importance, this humble root vegetable has hidden its genetic complexities for many years.
Sweet potato DNA is exceptionally intricate. While humans have two sets of chromosomes from each parent, sweet potatoes possess six sets.
This phenomenon, known as Hexaploidy, involves deciphering genetic codes that aim to piece together a set of six distinct, albeit similar, encyclopedias mixed together.
Utilizing advanced DNA sequencing and other state-of-the-art technologies, Professor Zhangjun Fei and his team at the Boyce Thompson Institute have produced the first complete genetic blueprint of “Tanzania,” which is widely appreciated in Africa for its stress tolerance and high dry matter content.
The key challenge was organizing the 90 chromosomes of the plant into six original sets known as haplotypes.
The researchers succeeded in either completely or incrementally separating this intricate genetic puzzle.
“Having this complete gradual genome provides an unprecedented level of clarity,” Professor Fei noted.
“This allows us to explore remarkable details of the sweet potato’s genetic narrative.”
The research team found that the sweet potato genome is a mosaic formed from various wild ancestors, some of which remain unidentified.
Approximately one-third of the genome is derived from ipomoea aequatoriensis, a wild species from Ecuador believed to be a direct progenitor of sweet potato cells.
Another significant portion is similar to the wild species of Central America, Ipomoea batatas 4x, though actual wild donors have yet to be discovered.
Dr. Shan Wu, a researcher at the Boyce Thompson Institute, stated:
“In sweet potatoes, ancestral sequences are intermixed within the same chromosome, resulting in a unique genomic structure.”
This complex genetic heritage suggests that sweet potatoes can be tentatively classified as segmented allopolyploids—hybrids that effectively function as though derived from a single species while originating from different ones.
This genomic merging and recombination grant sweet potatoes exceptional adaptability and disease resistance, essential for subsistence farmers globally.
“The six sets of chromosomes in sweet potatoes also contribute to their resilience,” Professor Fei added.
“With multiple versions of key genes, these plants can retain backup copies that assist them in surviving droughts, resisting pests, and adapting to diverse environments. This phenomenon is referred to as the polyploid buffer.”
“However, to fully comprehend the genetic capabilities of sweet potatoes, we need to decode multiple varieties from various regions, as each can possess unique genetic traits absent in others.”
Survey results were published this month in the journal Nature Plants.
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S. Woo et al. Gradual chromosomal level assembly provides insight into the genomic architecture of hexaploid sweet potatoes. Nature Plants Published online August 8, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41477-025-02079-6
Textbooks frequently depict primates as having evolved and dispersed exclusively in warm tropical forests, largely based on fossil evidence found in tropical regions. However, a recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Reading indicates that the earliest primates may have thrived in North America’s cold climate, experiencing hot summers and frozen winters.
Primates have transitioned to historically diverse climates: (a) For all primates, transition between the main climates of temperate (top), arid (left), tropical (bottom), and cold (right). The size of the arrows represents the percentage of phylogenetic branches with each transition. (b) Climate transition of early primates living between 650,780,000 years ago. (c) Climate transition of species that lived between 47.8 and 2303 million years ago. (d) Climate transition of species that have lived from 2,303 million years ago to the present. Image credit: Avaria-llautureo et al. , doi: 10.1073/pnas.2423833122.
In this research, Jorge Avalia Lautulo from the University of Reading and his team harnessed statistical modeling alongside fossil data to reconstruct ancient environments and trace where the common ancestors of modern primates existed.
“For decades, the prevailing belief was that primates evolved within warm tropical forests,” stated Dr. Abaria Lautzleo.
“Our findings dramatically overturn this narrative. We discovered that primates did not originate in the lush jungles but in the cold, seasonal environments of the Northern Hemisphere.”
“Understanding how ancient primates adapted to climate change offers insights into how current species might respond to modern shifts in climate and environment.”
Primates, capable of relocating swiftly in response to rapid weather changes, excelled at reproducing, ensuring that offspring survived to establish new species.
As they migrated, primates moved towards entirely different, more stable climates. On average, those remaining in similarly unstable regions were about 561 km apart.
Early primates might have hibernated through the frozen winters, much like today’s bears, sleeping through the coldest months to slow their heart rates and conserve energy.
Some small primates continue this behavior today; for instance, the dwarf lemur in Madagascar digs underground, sleeping for several months during colder periods, shielded from freezing temperatures by layers of roots and leaves.
It wasn’t until millions of years later that primates reached tropical forests.
They began in cold habitats, gradually migrating through temperate zones, arid desert-like areas, and ultimately arriving at today’s hot, humid jungles.
As local temperatures and precipitation fluctuated drastically, primates were compelled to seek new habitats, which facilitated the development of new species.
“Our research indicates that non-tropical, changing environments exerted strong selective pressures on primates with greater dispersal capabilities, encouraging primate diversification and the eventual colonization of tropical climates millions of years post-origination,” the authors concluded.
Their paper was published on August 5th in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Jorge Avalia Rautreo et al. 2025. Radiation and geographical expansion of primates due to diverse climates. PNAS 122 (32): E2423833122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2423833122
An AMPD1 variant from Neanderthals reduces enzyme activity by 25% in lab-produced proteins and up to 80% in muscles of genetically modified mice. This variant is present in all sequenced Neanderthals but absent in other species. It entered the modern human gene pool through interbreeding approximately 50,000 years ago, leading to its presence in up to 8% of today’s Europeans.
Maccak et al. Research indicates that genetic variants inherited from Neanderthals impair essential enzyme functions in muscle performance. Image credit: Holger Neumann/Neanderthal Museum.
The enzyme AMPD1 is crucial for muscle energy production and overall muscle function.
A decrease in its activity due to genetic mutations is the leading cause of metabolic myopathy in Europeans, with a prevalence of 9-14%.
In a recent study led by Dr. Dominik Macak from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers compared ancient Neanderthal DNA with modern human genomes.
They discovered that all Neanderthals have specific AMPD1 variants absent in other species.
Enzymes produced in the lab with this variant exhibited a 25% decrease in AMPD1 activity.
In genetically modified mice, this reduction in muscle tissue activity reached 80%, negatively affecting enzyme performance.
Moreover, the study shows that modern humans acquired this variant from Neanderthals who lived in Europe and Western Asia before interacting with modern humans around 50,000 years ago.
Currently, approximately 1-2% of non-African individuals carry Neanderthal DNA.
The Neanderthal AMPD1 variant is found in 2-8% of Europeans today, indicating general acceptance in the gene pool.
“Interestingly, most individuals with these variants do not face serious health concerns,” noted Dr. McCuck.
“However, enzymes seem to significantly influence athletic performance.”
Analysis of over 1,000 elite athletes across diverse sports showed that those with non-functional AMPD1 are less likely to reach the highest athletic levels.
“Having defective AMPD1 enzymes decreases the chances of achieving elite athletic ability by half,” Dr. McCuck said.
While AMPD1 activity appears to have moderate significance in contemporary Western societies, it becomes crucial under extreme physical conditions, such as those faced by athletes.
Researchers highlight the need for studying genetic variation within physiological and evolutionary contexts to grasp biological implications.
“Cultural and technological advancements in both modern humans and Neanderthals may have lessened the necessity for extreme muscle performance,” explains Dr. Hugo Zeberg, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Karolinska Institute.
“Understanding how current gene variants influence human physiology can yield valuable insights into health, performance, and genetic diversity.”
Survey results were published in the journal Natural Communication on July 10, 2025.
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D. McCuck et al. 2025. Muscle AMPD1 exhibited reduced deaminase activity in Neanderthals compared to modern humans. Nat Commun 16, 6371; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-61605-4
Updown Cemetery Girl’s Skeletons Reveal West African Ancestry
M George et al.
The discovery of two unrelated young men buried in British cemeteries during the early Middle Ages suggests they may have had grandparents from West Africa. The exact means by which their ancestors arrived in the UK remains unknown, but this insight implies that Anglo-Saxon immigration was far more complex than previously assumed.
Following the Romans’ withdrawal from England in 410 AD, the British Isles were invaded and settled by Germanic tribes including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. To explore the possibility of migration from other regions, Duncan Sayer and his colleagues from The University of Central Lancashire conducted an analysis of ancient DNA obtained from skeletons in two 7th-century cemeteries located on the southern coast of England.
One of these cemeteries is found in Kent, where a wealth of traded artifacts from various regions were unearthed, including Frankish pottery, buckles, and brooches. Burial customs at this site indicate that items such as cookware, cutlery, and combs were included with the dead.
The other site is the Matravars cemetery in western Dorset, which had fewer individuals interred with Romano-British practices.
While the majority of individuals buried here had ancestry from Northern Europeans or Western British and Irish, both the Updown girl and the young man from Worth Matravers exhibited genetic ties to West Africa, likely from grandparents.
In both cases, mitochondrial DNA, inherited maternally, traced back to Northern Europe; however, the autosomal DNA, inherited from both parents, revealed 20-40% ancestry from West African groups such as Esan, Yoruba, Mende, and Mandinka.
This indicates that the West African DNA likely traces back to their grandparents, marking the first known genetic link between Britain and Africa during the early Middle Ages.
Both individuals were interred as typical members of their community. DNA analysis revealed that the Updown girl had relatives—a grandmother and an aunt—buried in the same cemetery, who were approximately 11-13 years old when she died.
Examination of the carbon-nitrogen isotope ratios in the bone samples of the young man from Worth Matravers, who lived between the ages of 17 and 25, suggested insights into his diet during his growth period.
“His dietary habits suggest he was born and raised in the UK,” notes team member Ceiridwen Edwards from Huddersfield University.
Edwards indicates that evidence of West African DNA in York existed during the Roman period; however, Sayer contends that the proportion of West African DNA in these individuals is significantly lower than that of descendants from the Roman era. “This finding pertains to grandparents, rather than survivors of the Roman legions or administrators stationed for centuries,” he asserts.
Moreover, there is no evidence to support the notion that these individuals were enslaved, according to Sayer:
Instead, it suggests a context of transactions and mobility of people and goods. At some point, West Africans may have arrived in England aboard trade ships and settled here.
Sayer speculates that their arrival could have been tied to North Africa’s connection with the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century, driven by military interests in accessing gold from sub-Saharan Africa. “The revitalization of this trade route coincides with a time when we can identify these grandparents,” he remarks.
“This research underscores the dynamic state of what we refer to as post-[Western] Rome and the early medieval period in England,” comments Marina Soares da Silva at the Francis Crick Institute in London. “The authors propose a trade route supported by Byzantine governance in North Africa, which I consider a plausible scenario.”
According to Sayer, 7th-century England was not merely a collection of isolated communities in a ‘dark age,’ but rather dynamic societies engaging in trade and genetic exchanges with West Africa and beyond.
Historic Herculaneum – Discover Vesuvius, Pompeii, Ancient Naples
The exploration of history and archaeology takes you on an intriguing journey where the past comes alive through Mount Vesuvius and the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Antibiotic resistance poses a significant challenge to humanity, emphasizing the urgent need for new antibiotics. While the majority of antibiotics are derived from fungi and bacteria, Archaea presents largely untapped sources for discovering new antibiotics. In a recent study, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania employed deep learning techniques to investigate paleozoans. By analyzing the proteomes of 233 archaeal species, we discovered 12,623 potential antibacterial compounds.
Torres et al. Synthesized 80 alkierins, 93% of which showed antibacterial activity in vitro against Acinetobacter baumannii, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus spp. Image credits: Torres et al, doi: 10.1038/s41564-025-02061-0.
“Previous attempts to discover new antibiotics have mainly focused on fungi, bacteria, and animals,” stated Dr. Cesar de la Fuente, a researcher at the University of Pennsylvania.
“Historically, we have leveraged AI models to identify antibiotic candidates across various sources, from the DNA of extinct organisms to the compounds found in animal venom.”
“We are now applying these methodologies to a new dataset: hundreds of proteins from ancient microorganisms.”
“There are undoubtedly other life forms waiting to be investigated.”
In contrast to bacteria and eukaryotes (which include plants, animals, and fungi), Archaea represents a distinct branch on the evolutionary tree.
While they may resemble bacteria under a microscope, archaeal organisms differ fundamentally in their genetics, cell membranes, and biochemistry.
These unique features enable them to thrive in some of Earth’s most extreme environments, such as heated seabed vents and scalding hot springs like Yellowstone National Park.
Archaea typically flourish in isolation from other organisms, and their biology has evolved in unprecedented ways, with limited evolutionary pressure, exposure to toxic substances, and extreme temperatures.
This presents a promising, yet largely uncharted, source for novel molecular tools, including compounds that may act like antibiotics but function differently than existing treatments.
“Our interest in archaeal organisms stems from their biochemical adaptations to extreme environments,” remarked Dr. Marcelo Torres from the University of Pennsylvania.
“We hypothesized that having survived billions of years under such conditions, they might possess unique strategies to fend off microbial rivals.”
To uncover antibiotic compounds within Archaea, the researchers utilized artificial intelligence.
They adapted an upgraded version of APEX, an AI tool initially designed to identify antibiotic candidates from ancient biological sources, including proteins from long-extinct animals like woolly mammoths.
With thousands of peptides (short amino acid chains) known for their antimicrobial properties, the AI can predict the likelihood that a given amino acid sequence will exhibit similar effects.
By re-calibrating APEX 1.1 to incorporate data from thousands of additional peptides and pathogenic bacteria, the scientists established tools to forecast which peptides in Archaea might inhibit bacterial proliferation.
Upon scanning 233 archaeal species, over 12,000 potential antibiotic candidates were identified.
The authors labeled these molecular compounds, and chemical analysis indicated they differ from known antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), notably in their charge distribution.
The team subsequently selected 80 archaeal compounds for further testing against live bacteria.
“Finding new antibiotic molecules individually feels like searching for needles in a haystack,” commented Famping Wang, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Pennsylvania.
“AI accelerates the search by pinpointing the location of the needle.”
Antibiotics can function through various mechanisms. Some disrupt bacterial membranes, while others inhibit protein synthesis within the organism.
Notably, the researchers found that unlike many known AMPs that target the outer defenses of bacteria, Alcaeasen operates by disrupting internal electrical signals that are vital for cell survival.
Tests on drug-resistant bacteria revealed that 93% of the 80 alkadeins exhibited antibacterial activity against at least one bacterial strain.
The team chose three alkaiersins to evaluate in animal models.
Four days following a single dose, all three alkaiersins halted the spread of drug-resistant bacteria commonly acquired in hospitals.
One of these compounds exhibited activity on par with polymyxin B, an antibiotic often used as a last resort against drug-resistant infections.
“This study underscores the vast potential for discovering new antibiotics within Archaea,” stated Dr. De La Fuente.
“As the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria rises, exploring unconventional sources for new antibiotics is essential.”
A paper detailing the results was published today in Nature Microbiology.
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MDT Torres et al. Deep learning reveals antibiotics in the archaeal proteome. Nat Microbiol. Published online on August 12, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41564-025-02061-0
On July 24, 2025, with 4,608 Mars Days, or Sols, into the mission, NASA’s Curiosity rover captured a stunning image of a wind-shaped rock resembling coral formations in Gale Crater on Mars.
This image of Papsolok was captured on July 24, 2025, by Curiosity’s Mahli instrument. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.
One of the rocks shaped by the wind was photographed by Curiosity’s Mars Hand Lens Imager (Mahli), which is located on the end of the rover’s robotic arm.
“At the time this image was taken, it was known as Paposo, and the rock was roughly 5 cm (2 inches) from the Mahli,” a member of the Curiosity team stated.
On the same day, Curiosity observed another coral-like rock through a remote microimager, which is part of the ChemCam instrument.
This image of the wind-shaped rock was captured by Curiosity’s remote microimager on July 24, 2025. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.
“Curiosity has identified many small features like these, which originated billions of years ago when liquid water existed on Mars,” the researchers noted.
“Minerals dissolved in water permeated the rock’s cracks, eventually drying and leaving behind hardened minerals.”
“Over years of wind erosion, surrounding rocks have been worn down, resulting in these distinctive shapes.”
“This natural process is commonly observed on Earth and also results in fascinating rock forms on Mars, including those that resemble flowers.”
Curiosity Rover took this selfie on October 11, 2019, at Glen Etive, where it drilled twice. Just to the left of the rover are two drill holes labeled Glen Etive 1 (right) and Glen Etive 2 (left). Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.
Launched on November 26, 2011, Curiosity is the fourth rover the United States has dispatched to Mars.
The mission, overseen by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, involves nearly 500 scientists from the US and around the world.
Curiosity is exploring a 154 km (96 miles) wide crater and collecting rock, soil, and air samples for analysis.
The car-sized rover, comparable in height to a basketball player, utilizes its 2.1 m (7 feet) long arms to place tools near selected rocks for research.
Human Y (right) and X chromosomes observed with scanning electron microscopy
Power and Syred/Science Photo Library
A recent study involving over 30,000 individuals has revealed that men who experience a loss of Y chromosomes in a substantial number of immune cells are at a higher risk for narrower blood vessels, a significant factor in the development of heart disease.
“The loss of Y chromosomes greatly impacts men,” states Kenneth Walsh from the University of Virginia, who was not involved in the research. “Men’s lifespan averages six years shorter than women’s, primarily due to the instability of sex chromosomes.”
Loss of the Y chromosome is one of the most prevalent mutations following conception in men. This phenomenon typically occurs in leukocytes, the immune cells responsible for attacking and eliminating pathogens, as the rapidly multiplying stem cells that generate white blood cells undergo division. The cells without Y chromosomes accumulate and become more frequent as individuals age; approximately 40% of 70-year-old men show detectable losses.
This issue gained traction in 2014 when Lars Forsberg from Uppsala University in Sweden and his colleagues noted that elderly men with significant Y chromosome loss in their blood typically had a lifespan that was five years shorter than those without it. Walsh later linked this loss to heart disease.
Forsberg and his research team have now uncovered further connections between Y chromosome loss and specific cardiovascular issues. They analyzed data from Swedish cardiopulmonary bioimaging studies, which provided detailed vascular scans of 30,150 volunteers aged between 65 and 64. None of the participants exhibited symptoms of cardiovascular disease; however, they were assessed for vascular stenosis or atherosclerosis.
Among the male participants, 12,400 possessed the necessary genetic information to evaluate their Y chromosome loss. They were categorized into three groups: those with no detectable Y loss in leukocytes, those with less than 10% loss, and those with over 10% loss. Atherosclerosis scores for these groups were then compared with each other and with a female cohort in the study.
The researchers discovered that approximately 75% of men who had the highest Y chromosome loss exhibited narrowed blood vessels, while around 60% of those with less than 10% loss showed similar findings.
Despite some atherosclerosis being observed even in those with undetectable Y loss, about 55% of men and roughly 30% of women in this category had been affected. “Clearly,” Forsberg noted, “[loss of Y] involves other factors.”
In the coming months, Thimoteus Speer and colleagues from the University of Goethe in Frankfurt studied men undergoing angiography, an X-ray technique for examining blood vessels due to suspected cardiovascular disease. They found that over the next decade, individuals who lost Y chromosomes in more than 17% of their immune cells were more than twice as likely to die from a heart attack compared to those with less affected cells.
“The findings of Lars Forsberg and our study are quite consistent,” Speer remarked. “He observes increased coronary atherosclerosis, correlating it with a higher risk of mortality from myocardial infarction [heart attack], emphasizing the relationship with coronary atherosclerosis.”
Walsh acknowledges that neither study definitively proves that Y chromosome loss directly causes these outcomes. However, statistical analyses suggest its independent effect aside from smoking or aging— the primary risk factors for mutations.
The pressing question remains: how does Y chromosome loss impact health? Previous research by Walsh indicated that removing chromosomes from mouse immune cells adversely affects the cardiovascular system by driving fibrosis, which is the formation of scar tissue. However, heart attacks and atherosclerosis are typically more associated with inflammation and lipid metabolism defects than fibrosis. Both Speer and Walsh assert that more research is essential to unravel this relationship.
With a deeper understanding of the underlying processes, Speer hopes that future blood tests for Y chromosome loss will guide proactive interventions. “[These tests] may help in identifying patients who could particularly benefit from specific treatments,” he concludes.
The impact of social media polarization transcends mere algorithms. Research conducted with AI-generated users reveals that this stems from fundamental aspects of the platform’s operation. It indicates that genuine solutions will require a re-evaluation of online communication frameworks.
Petter Törnberg from the University of Amsterdam and his team created 500 AI chatbots reflecting a diverse range of political opinions in the United States, based on the National Election Survey. Utilizing the GPT-4o Mini Large Languages Model, these bots were programmed to engage with one another on simplified social networks without commercial influences or algorithms.
Throughout five rounds of experiments, each consisting of 10,000 actions, the AI agents predominantly interacted with like-minded individuals. Those with more extreme views garnered greater followership and reposts, increasing visibility for users attracted to more partisan content.
In prior research, Törnberg and his colleagues explored whether different algorithmic approaches in simulated social networks could mitigate political polarization. However, the new findings appear to challenge earlier conclusions.
“We expected this polarization to be largely driven by algorithms,” Törnberg states. “[We thought] the platform is geared towards maximizing engagement and inciting outrage, thus producing these outcomes.”
Instead, they found that the algorithm itself isn’t the primary culprit. “We created the simplest platform imaginable, and yet we saw these results immediately,” he explains. “This suggests that there are deeply ingrained behaviors linked to following, reposting, and engagement that are at play.”
To see if these ingrained behaviors could be moderated or counteracted, the researchers tested six potential interventions. These included time series display only, diminishing the visibility of viral content, concealing opposing viewpoints, amplifying sympathetic and rational content, hiding follower and repost counts, and obscuring profile bios.
Most interventions yielded minimal effects. Cross-partisan engagement shifted only by about 6% or less, while the prominence of top accounts changed by 2-6%, but some modifications, like concealing bios, worsened polarization. While some changes that reduced user inequality made extreme posts more attractive, alterations aimed at softening partisanship inadvertently drew more attention to a small group of elite users.
“Most activities on social media devolve into toxic interactions. The root issues with social media stem from its foundational design, which can accentuate negative human behavior,” states Jess Maddox of the University of Georgia.
Törnberg recognizes that while this experiment simplifies various dynamics, it provides insights into what social platforms can do to curb polarization. “Fundamental changes may be necessary,” he cautions. “Tweaking algorithms and adjusting parameters might not be sufficient; we may need to fundamentally rethink interaction structures and how these platforms shape our political landscapes.”
This excerpt is from our human stories newsletter, focused on the archaeological revolution—sign up to receive it monthly.
In human stories, I aim to address common questions about human evolution. In February 2021, I tackled a query that many find perplexing—whether Neanderthals and modern humans are distinct species (short answer: species boundaries are ambiguous).
This month, we confront another frequently asked question: Do Denisovans, the extinct human group once prevalent in Asia, have a designated species name? If so, what should that name be?
The debate regarding the “official” name of the Denisovans has been lively since their discovery in 2010. Notably, in June, the skull of Harbin, dubbed the Dragon Man from northern China, was classified as Denisovan through molecular evidence. This marked the first acquisition of a Denisovan skull, giving us insights into their facial features.
While participating in New Scientist discussions, host Rowan Hooper asked why Denisovans lack a species name. Why can’t we refer to them as Homo Denisovanensis, similar to how Neanderthals are called Homo Neanderthalensis?
I preferred a straightforward explanation: insufficient information has hindered a definitive classification of Denisovans. Their DNA shows significant divergence from Neanderthal DNA; yet, we require detailed insights into their anatomy and skeletal structure.
However, this inquiry is multifaceted. First, we must identify which fossils unequivocally belong to Denisovans. This involves analyzing numerous specimens and decades of research, complicating the resolution. Secondly, we need to determine which of the assigned names should take precedence under our classification norms—a legal question that adds to the complexity.
Who’s Included and Who’s Excluded?
A brief reminder about Denisovans: they are an enigmatic group of humans initially identified in 2010 from fragments of a finger bone discovered in the Denisova Cave in Siberia’s Altai Mountains. Genetic analysis revealed they were distinct from both modern humans and Neanderthals. Moreover, many contemporary individuals, especially in Southeast Asia and Melanesia, carry Denisovan DNA.
This suggests that Denisovans were quite widespread in East Asia over the past several hundred thousand years. So, where are the Denisovan fossils?
Fifteen years later, a handful of Denisovan fossils have been actively categorized. For example, mandibles discovered on the Tibetan Plateau were identified through fossil proteins and sediment DNA. Similarly, a jawbone retrieved from the Pengle waterway off the coast of Taiwan was confirmed as Denisovan in April.
Nonetheless, we still lack a complete skeleton. Identifying the Harbin skull as Denisovan brought us closer to understanding their appearance, yet many more discoveries are necessary.
Numerous human fossils in East Asia potentially belong to Denisovans. However, categorizing these remains has proven challenging, as they often do not resemble established species like modern humans, Neanderthals, or even Homo Erectus. If adequate specimens surface, thus confirming their Denisovan identity, our understanding could significantly improve, leading to a formal classification.
But how do we determine which fossils are Denisovan? Ideally, we seek molecular evidence of preserved DNA or protein for comparison with the original Denisovan remnants. However, many fossils remain unanalyzed or inaccessible.
One notable effort to address this issue was a preliminary study submitted by a team led by Xijun Ni from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in March 2024. By comparing 57 human fossils for various physical traits, they constructed familial relationships between these findings.
The team found three primary groups among Eurasian hominins: Modern Humans, Neanderthals, and a third group composed of the original Denisovan fossil, the Tibetan cave jawbone, the Pengle jawbone, and the Harbin skull. This third category appears to represent those we refer to as Denisovans.
This is an intriguing proposition, but others disagree.
A collection of contentious fossils from Hualongdong, southern China, offers a wealth of material: an almost complete skull, 14 teeth, an upper jaw, six isolated teeth, and additional fragments dating back around 300,000 years.
While the NI team classified the Hualongdong specimens as part of the Denisovan group, a study led by Xiujie Wu in July suggested that these teeth did not show clear correlations, proposing instead that they may belong to a different hominin group. Another interpretation could be that the Denisovans at Hualongdong were somewhat disparate from those in other regions.
In the meantime, other intriguing fossils from Asia continue to emerge. Among them are specimens from Dariscal and Jinniushan, both around 260,000 years old, which Ni’s team has suggested might also belong to the Denisovan lineage.
As the list of contending Denisovan fossils grows, we must decide how to categorize them.
The Harbin Skull
Hebei Geo University
Homo — What Does It Mean?
Interestingly, I was part of the team that described the Harbin skull in 2021, and we named it Homo Longhi. So, could that be the name we assign to Denisovans?
However, last year a competing proposition was put forth by Woo and Christopher Beh from the University of Hawaii, who suggested that we should center around fossils from Xujiayao in northern China, proposing to call this new species Homo Jurensis—fossils that would include the original Denisovan findings.
This idea’s strength lies in the resemblance of Xujiayao fossils to Denisovan remains, a point also observed by the NI team. However, Bae and Wu aimed to designate the Xujiayao fossils as “type specimens.”
This raises two issues: the classification of fossils and the naming protocols. Let’s examine each aspect separately.
In classification, the Homo Jurensis proposal faces challenges. Bae and Wu classify the Harbin skull as Homo Jurensis or Denisovan, yet it lacks sufficient resemblance to warrant such designation. A study published in June demonstrated molecular evidence clearly linking the Harbin skull to Denisovans. Hence, identifying those fossils as Denisovan would contravene objective realities, making Homo Jurensis seem unfounded.
What about taxonomy? This area is intricate. A crucial factor is the concept of priority, where the first proposed name tends to gain precedence. Hence, Homo Longhi might likely take precedence over Homo Jurensis as it was suggested three years earlier.
Are there alternative names for Denisovans?
The excavators of Denisova Cave never formally classified Denisovans as a distinct species. Anatoly Derebianco, part of that team, suggested the name Homo Sapiens Altaiensis, implying they would serve as a modern human subspecies—yet this proposal lacked formal status, rendering it typically insignificant.
This year, Derebianco has published a series of papers discussing what Denisovans could be. His references include locations in Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Iran, referring to them collectively as Homo sapiens denisovan. I remain unsure if formal explanations were provided, as only abstracts were published, and if completed, it occurred post the naming of Homo Longhi.
Lastly, it’s possible that one of the names was assigned to an Asian human fossil within an obscure publication decades ago. If the fossil is ultimately identified as Denisovan, the name takes precedence (assuming it was adequately introduced). Nevertheless, Wu, Bae, Ni, and others assessed this notion in 2023 and concluded that many crucial fossils were not appropriately named. For instance, there was a suggestion to label Dali’s skull as Homo Dariensis, yet such ideas amounted to informal statements rather than formally recognized classifications.
Your head might be swirling from this cascade of names and species classifications, so let’s recap: the critical takeaway is our evolving understanding of Denisovans, which brings us closer to officially designating their name.
Given our comprehension of taxonomic norms and their significance, Homo Longhi could emerge as the official designation. Although I can’t influence the decision, they will always remain Denisovans in my mind.
The landscape of the internet is shifting, moving away from traditional users and towards automated web-browsing bots. A recent report indicates that, for the first time this year, non-human web browsing bots make up the majority of all traffic.
Alarmingly, over half of this bot traffic stems from malicious sources, including those harvesting unsecured personal data online. Yet, there’s a rising trend in bots designed by artificial intelligence companies, aimed at gathering data for model training and responding to user interactions. Notably, OpenAI’s ChatGPT-User accounts for 6% of total web traffic, while Claudebot, created by Anthropic, represents 13%.
AI firms argue that data scraping is crucial for keeping their models updated, while content creators voice concerns about these bots being tools for vast copyright violations. Earlier this year, Disney and Universal took legal action against AI company Midjourney, claiming that its image generators were reproducing characters from popular franchises such as Star Wars and Despicable Me.
Given that most creators lack the financial means for prolonged legal battles, many have turned to innovative methods to protect their content. They implement online tools that complicate AI bot scraping, with methods like misleading bots, causing AI to confuse images of cars with cows. While this “AI addiction” tactic helps safeguard creators’ work, it may also introduce new risks on the web.
Copyright Concerns
Historically, imitators have profited off artists’ work, which is primarily why intellectual property and copyright laws exist. The advent of AI image generators like Midjourney and OpenAI’s DALL-E has exacerbated this issue.
A key concern in the U.S. is the fair use doctrine, allowing limited usage of copyrighted materials without permission under certain circumstances. While fair use laws are designed to be flexible, they hinge on the principle of creating something new from the original work.
Many artists and advocates believe that AI technologies blur the lines between fair use and copyright infringement, harming content creators. For example, while drawing an image of Mickey Mouse in The Simpsons universe for personal use may be harmless, AI can rapidly produce and circulate similar images, complicating the transformative aspect and often leading to commercial exploitation.
In an effort to protect their commercial interests, some U.S. creators have pursued legal action, with Disney and Universal’s lawsuits against Midjourney being among the latest examples. Other notable cases include an ongoing legal dispute involving the New York Times and OpenAI regarding alleged misuse of newspaper stories.
Disney sues Midjourney over its image generator.
Photo 12/Alamy
AI companies firmly deny any wrongdoing, asserting that data scraping is permissible under the fair use doctrine. In an open letter to the US Bureau of Science and Technology Policy in March, OpenAI’s Chief Global Affairs Officer, Chris Lehane, cautioned against strict copyright regulations elsewhere in the world. Recent attempts to enhance copyright protections for creators have been critiqued for potentially stifling innovation and investment. OpenAI previously claimed it was “impossible” to develop AI models catering to user needs without referencing copyrighted work. Google shares a similar stance, emphasizing that copyright, privacy, and patent laws create barriers to accessing necessary training data.
For now, public sentiment seems to align with the activists’ viewpoint. Analysis of public feedback on copyright and AI inquiries by the U.S. Copyright Office reveals that 91% of comments expressed negative sentiments regarding AI.
The lack of public sympathy for AI firms is attributed to the overwhelming traffic their bots create, which can strain resources and may even take some websites offline—and the content creators feel powerless to stop them. While there are methods to exclude content-crawling bots, like tweaking a small file on a website to prevent bot access, these requests are sometimes ignored.
Combatting AI Data Addiction
Consequently, new tools have emerged, empowering content creators to better shield their work from AI bots. This year, CloudFlare, an internet infrastructure company known for protecting users from distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, launched technologies to combat harmful AI bots. Their approach involves generating a labyrinth of AI-generated pages filled with nonsensical content, effectively distracting AI bots from accessing genuine information.
A tool called AI Labyrinth is designed to manage 50 billion requests per day from AI crawlers, according to CloudFlare. The objective of AI Labyrinth is to “slow, confuse, and waste the resources of AI crawls and other bots that disregard the ‘no crawl’ directive.” Following this, CloudFlare introduced another tool that compels AI companies to pay for accessing their websites or restricts raw content usage.
An alternative strategy involves allowing AI bots to access online content while subtly “poisoning” it, rendering the data less useful. Tools like Glaze and Nightshade, developed at the University of Chicago, serve as a focal point of resistance. Both tools are freely available for download from the university’s website.
Since its 2022 launch, Glaze defends by introducing imperceptible pixel-level modifications, or “style cloaks,” to artists’ works, causing AI models to misidentify art styles (e.g., interpreting watercolors as oil paintings). Launched in 2023, Nightshade degrades image data in a way that leads AI models to create incorrect associations, such as linking the word “cat” with images of dogs. Both tools have been downloaded over 10 million times.
Nightshade Tool alters AI perceptions of images.
Ben Y. Zhao
Tools designed to combat AI data addiction are empowering artists, according to Ben Zhao, a senior researcher at the University of Chicago involved with both Glaze and Nightshade. “These companies have trillion-dollar market caps, and they essentially take what they want,” he asserts.
Using tools like these allows artists to exert more control over the use of their creations. “Glaze and Nightshade are interesting, innovative tools that demonstrate effective strategies that don’t rely on changing regulations,” explains Jacob Hoffman Andrews from the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a U.S.-based digital rights nonprofit.
Self-sabotaging content to deter copycats is an old strategy, notes Eleonora Rosati from Stockholm University. “For instance, cartographers might include fictitious place names, making them evidence of plagiarism if rivals replicate them. A similar tactic was noted in music, where the lyrics website Genius claimed to have embedded unique apostrophes to prove Google’s unlicensed use of their content. Google denies this claim, and the lawsuit was dismissed.
The term “sabotage” raises eyebrows, says Hoffman Andrews. “I don’t view it as disruptive; these artists are modifying their content, which they have every right to do.”
It remains uncertain how many unique measures AI firms are implementing to handle data tainted by these defensive tactics, yet Zhao’s findings indicate that 85% of these methods maintain their efficacy, suggesting AI companies may deem dealing with manipulated data more troublesome than it’s worth.
Disseminating Misinformation
Interestingly, it’s not just artists experimenting with data poisoning tactics; some nation-states might employ similar strategies to disseminate false narratives. The Atlantic Council, a U.S.-based think tank, recently revealed that the Russian Pravda News Network has attempted to manipulate AI bots to spread misinformation.
This operation reportedly involves flooding the internet with millions of web pages masquerading as legitimate news articles, aiming to boost Kremlin narratives regarding the Ukraine war. A recent analysis by NewsGuard, which monitors Pravda’s activities, found that 10 out of 10 major AI chatbots have output text aligning with Pravda’s viewpoints.
The effectiveness of these tactics emphasizes the challenges inherent in AI technology: the methods employed by well-intentioned actors can inevitably be hijacked by those with malicious intent.
However, solutions do exist, asserts Zhao, though they may not align with AI companies’ interests. Rather than arbitrarily collecting online data, AI firms could establish formal agreements with legitimate content providers to ensure their models are trained on reliable data. Yet, such arrangements come with costs, leading Zhao to remark, “Money is at the heart of this issue.”
As per the textbook definition, we have lost the capability to synthesize vitamin C. However, studies on animals indicate that this loss may have actually provided a survival advantage by helping their ancestors combat parasitic infections.
Most animals produce vitamin C using an enzyme known as Gulo. Yet, in our primate ancestors, the Gulo gene underwent mutation approximately 60 to 70 million years ago, leading to the loss of this capability. Similar losses are observed in various other animal groups, including certain bats and rodents like guinea pigs.
The conventional theory posits that if an animal consumes adequate vitamin C in its diet, mutations affecting the Gulo enzyme do not pose a disadvantage, which is why natural selection hasn’t preserved the enzyme. This mutation is considered neutral.
It appears that there is an additional advantage. For animals with functional enzymes, blood levels of vitamin C stay stable, while in humans, these levels may drop significantly, especially if individuals go without food for several days.
If producing vitamin C carries benefits, why do some animals lose this ability? The common evolutionary explanation is that such losses could enhance protection against diseases and parasites.
These freshwater parasites can penetrate the skin and develop within the host. Many symptoms associated with schistosomiasis stem from the immune response to the eggs laid by adult worms, causing the resulting disease.
To investigate whether vitamin C deficiency could bolster protection against parasites, Agathocleous and his colleagues deleted specific Gulo genes in mice.
When these mice were fed a low vitamin C diet, they did not exhibit the typical fecal symptoms or excrete feces after being infected with schistosoma. In contrast, mice with functional Gulo enzymes released numerous eggs, most of which did not survive.
“What we demonstrated provides evidence of a potential benefit,” Agato Creos states. Although it remains unproven that the loss of Gulo in our ancestors was a conscious evolutionary choice to fend off disease, these findings suggest that such a scenario is plausible.
“Many textbooks illustrate this as a ‘use or lose it’ case concerning a gene. Many scientists, including myself, contend that there is enough evidence to affirm this evolutionary advantage related to gene loss.” Deborah Good at Virginia Tech, who did not participate in the study, remarked, “Parasite protection could indeed be a factor in this.”
Weaver Ant chains can easily surpass all other creatures.
Weaver Ants (Oecophylla smaragdina), found from India to northern Australia, create long chains to gather leaves and construct nests. They grip one another by holding onto the abdomen of the ant in front using their mandibles.
To assess their strength, Chris Reed from Macquarie University in Sydney and his team provided the Weaver Ants with paper leaves instead of real ones for nesting. They attached a transducer to the tip of the paper leaf to measure the force exerted by a group of up to 17 ants while rolling the paper.
Researchers discovered that individual ants could generate an average pulling force of 60 times their body weight, while in teams of 15, each ant was capable of pulling over 100 times their weight. Consequently, the average power contribution per ant nearly doubled in group settings.
This finding seemingly contradicts the well-established principle of teamwork known as the Ringelmann effect, which posits that larger groups tend to diminish individual productivity due to loss of coordination and motivation.
The researchers did not calculate how Weaver Ants compare to humans in terms of strength, but Reid noted that even without scaling up to human size, they would pose formidable opponents in a tug-of-war. “Even a guinea pig-sized Weaver Ant could outpull a human,” he remarked. “Their key advantage lies in having six legs, which provides excellent traction.”
This might explain their ability to counteract the Ringelmann effect, according to Reid. The precise mechanism behind their collective strength remains unclear, but one theory suggests that some ants are anchored to the ground while others are pulling, effectively creating a force ratchet.
“When comparing Weaver Ants with other species, their ability to exert force on the ground is extraordinarily high, significantly surpassing that of other ants,” Reed stated.
Insects and Ecosystem Expedition Safari: Sri Lanka
Embark on a journey to the heart of Sri Lanka’s diverse biodiversity on this unique entomology and ecosystem-focused expedition.
Flammability assessments on western juniper trees (Juniperus occidentalis)
Rebecca Koll
In a laboratory at the University of Exeter, UK, Rebecca Koll is examining conifer species to explore critical questions related to future forest fire dynamics.
Wildfire severity is on the rise globally as temperatures continue to increase. This is largely attributed to heightened heat, prolonged drought, and stronger winds, all of which elevate the risk of igniting timber when sparks occur.
Yet, Koll is among a team of researchers who believe that factors beyond drought are influencing fire risk. “Is climate change actually altering the properties of the plants? I’m quite certain it is,” she shares.
She posits that climate stress factors could be modifying leaf chemistry. With an increase in UV radiation, plants may produce more volatile compounds as a stress response.
While global initiatives aimed at restoring the ozone layer may mitigate UV radiation risks, studies indicate that climate change, especially the uptick in hot, clear days in Northern and Eastern Europe, has resulted in rising ground-level UVB levels in recent years. Models predict that this may escalate later in the century.
Koll is currently engaged in a project examining changes in leaf chemistry and flammability by exposing 87 conifer species to elevated UVB levels. Using climate-controlled chambers with optimal temperature and moisture regimens, they simulate exposure levels tripled compared to current conditions. After 4 to 8 weeks, the trees undergo analysis and combustion tests to evaluate their flammability.
“It’s designed to be an ideal environment. These plants are in a very favorable climate, except we bombard them with radiation,” Koll explains. “We’re observing early signs of yellowing in areas that should remain green. Their biochemical reactions during various tests are altering the chemistry of their leaves,” she elaborates.
The pivotal question remains whether these biochemical shifts will lead to heightened flammability and if they elucidate the increasing intensity of forest fires. “We’re already elevating UV levels in our natural settings,” Koll notes. “This may imply that the risk extends beyond drought to include the direct impacts on plant biology.”
Uncovering these insights could provide scientists with a clearer understanding of wildfire risks in the predominantly coniferous regions of the Northern Hemisphere. “This is fundamentally what leads to severe home destruction,” Koll states. “The natural surroundings are becoming increasingly flammable.”
This project is among the initial experiments conducted at the University of Exeter’s Global Weather Simulator, a newly established facility dedicated to plant research that opened this year. The climate control chambers can recreate variations in wind, precipitation, heat, and atmospheric variables to analyze how plants and insects respond to rapid climatic shifts.
Matthew Robson of the University of Cumbria emphasizes that this research may confirm the significance of leaf compound changes in determining certain tree species’ flammability. “The relative impact of these climatic factors on volatile and combustible carbon-rich compounds has not been thoroughly explored, which makes the current research at Exeter particularly intriguing,” he states.
Lamer noted that detailed analyses and FEMA’s approximate maps can often exaggerate flood risk, which tends to be what clients typically seek.
“I was asked, ‘Please prove we aren’t in the flood plain.’ We’re working 30 feet above the river,” Lamer shared regarding FEMA’s initial mapping. “That’s the flaw in these maps.”
It’s a nationwide practice to adjust FEMA maps both before and after they are officially confirmed.
Syracuse Professor Prall, who has researched flood policy, alongside academic Devin Lee, analyzed five years of data on modifying the FEMA map. They found over 20,000 buildings in 255 counties across the U.S. were remapped outside special flood hazard zones from 2013 to 2017 via various appeal processes. Despite this, more than 700,000 buildings remain within the special hazard flood areas in those counties.
According to Prall, the agency has approved the majority of map revisions, with Lamer, who has processed hundreds of applications, noting only one rejection. Thus, achieving a 92% success rate with the Camp Mystic exemption is actually standard.
“If it’s not likely to be approved, we won’t submit it,” Lamer remarked. There’s little financial motivation for clients to pursue the process further unless the data demonstrates reduced flood risks compared to FEMA’s findings.
FEMA’s high-risk flood zones often expand after agents finalize new maps; however, property owners and communities can subsequently mitigate those zones.
A study by Pralle and Lee in their work, Risks of Public Policy, Crisis, reveals that alterations to special flood hazard zones are increasingly frequent.
Their research indicates that the appeal system presents consistent incentives for decreasing federal flood map designations.
“FEMA lacks the resources to double-check everything,” Prall stated.
A FEMA spokesperson mentioned that the agency reviewed the Camp Mystic case and submitted elevation data following its protocol, asserting that the approval of the amendment “will not significantly alter the reality of flood risks and dangers.”
Storms like those that have impacted Camp Mystic are projected to occur more frequently in a warming world. To address existing knowledge gaps, independent organizations are creating data-driven tools for better predicting heightened heavy rain risks.
For instance, First Street utilizes a global climate model to anticipate extreme weather events and integrate this data into risk maps. The firm provides information and analysis notably to individuals, banks, investors, governments, and more.
The national analysis revealed that more than twice as many buildings fell within the 100-year flood plain when compared to FEMA’s mapping. Porter noted that this inconsistency stemmed from heavy precipitation risks that FEMA maps failed to capture.
The company’s 100 Years of Flood Zone mapping for Camp Mystic indicates that events like this will impact both old and new campsites. In certain locations, flood zones extend beyond both Hewitt and the FEMA’s unenforced 100-year flood plain, while in other spots, they are much narrower and closer to the engineering work of Hewitt.
Steubing from the flood plains association mentioned that indications suggest the July 4 flood was anticipated to be the first significant event in 800 years, but emphasized that more assessments are necessary, as some engineering firms continue to evaluate the flood’s extent. It’s still unclear how accurately the flooding corresponds to various risk maps.
While First Street’s mapping includes climate risks, it too has its limitations, lacking the detailed river analyses completed by Hewitt.
“I don’t have boots on the ground,” Porter remarked.
In an ideal scenario, flood mapping would merge comprehensive ground engineering, current rainfall and river flow data alongside forecasts of future climate risks. According to Steubing, flood plain managers need more adaptive tools to represent different flood scenarios accurately. These should differentiate between rapid surface run-offs and slow, sustained storms, ultimately leading to better risk assessment for individual communities.
Texas is working to address various historical data gaps to move toward this goal, Steubing explained.
However, many regions, including some near Camp Mystic, have never been thoroughly studied or mapped.
To fill these gaps, the state is funding a new FEMA program called Basic Level Engineering. This initiative aims to estimate basic flood levels in under-researched areas using high-resolution LIDAR data and contemporary modeling techniques. The new mapping is intended to complement existing FEMA maps rather than replace them, and the updated mapping is now accessible statewide, including regions near Camp Mystic, representing an advancement that will aid in mitigating future disasters.
Paleontologists have discovered a variety of animals, including saber-toothed predators, burrowing foragers, and large salamander-like creatures that flourished in southern Pangaea about 252 million years ago, just prior to the mass extinction of the Permian period.
Artistic rendering of an evening about 252 million years ago during the Late Permian Epoch in the Luangwa Basin, Zambia. This scene features several sabertooth Golgonopsians and Dishnodons in the beak. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
“The extinction at the end of the Permian was catastrophic for life on Earth,” stated Professor Christian Saidal of the University of Washington.
“Yet, we do not have a complete understanding of which species managed to survive.
“The fossils we gather in Tanzania and Zambia provide a broader perspective on this remarkable period in our planet’s history.”
All new fossils were uncovered in three basins in southern Africa: the Roof Basin in southern Tanzania, the Luangwa Basin in eastern Zambia, and the Zambezi Central Basin in southern Zambia.
The majority were found by team members during several month-long excavation trips to the region over the past 17 years.
Others were analyzed from specimens excavated decades ago, preserved in museum collections.
“These regions in Zambia and Tanzania are home to incredibly well-preserved fossils from the Permian era,” Professor Saidal remarked.
“They provide us with an unparalleled glimpse into terrestrial life leading up to the mass extinction.”
The Permian period marks the conclusion of what paleontologists term the Paleozoic era.
During this time, animal life, which first emerged in our oceans, began to colonize land and developed complex terrestrial ecosystems.
The Permian epoch saw a diverse range of amphibians and reptile-like creatures inhabit environments ranging from early forests to arid valleys.
The mass extinction at the End-Permian wiped out many of these ecosystems, paving the way for the Mesozoic era, which witnessed the evolution of dinosaurs, the first birds, flowering plants, and mammals.
For decades, scientists relied on the Kalu Basin in South Africa for their best understanding of the Permian, the corresponding extinction, and the onset of the Mesozoic Era, which boasts nearly complete fossil records from before and after that mass extinction.
However, since the 1930s, paleontologists have noted that the fossil records in the Tanzanian and Zambian basins are comparably pristine.
This excavation represents the most extensive analysis of the local fossil record from the period surrounding the Permian mass extinction to date.
“The quantity of specimens found in Zambia and Tanzania is extraordinarily high, and their condition is so exquisite that paleontologists are able to draw species-level comparisons with those in South Africa,” Professor Sidor explained.
“We recognize that there is no better location on the planet to make such precise conclusions and comparisons to glean sufficient detail about this era.”
In the Series of 14 Articles published in Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, researchers have detailed numerous new species of dicynodonts.
These small, burrowing, reptile-like herbivores first emerged during the Central Permian.
By the time of the mass extinction, the Dishnodons had beak-like snouts featuring two small tusks; many of them dug holes and became the dominant plant-eating animals on land.
The findings also uncover several large saber-toothed predators known as Golgonopsians, along with new species of amphibians, such as large salamanders.
“We can analyze two distinct geographical regions of Pangaea and observe the happenings before and after the Permian extinction,” Professor Saidal concluded.
“This allows us to explore critical questions regarding which species survived and which did not.”
In a new paper published in the journal Iscience, astrophysicists at the University of Fudan have explored the potential for sending nanocrafts from Earth to black holes located 20-25 light years away. This mission aims to investigate the properties of strong gravitational fields and the fundamental aspects of physics.
Black holes represent the strongest gravitational fields known in the universe and serve as ideal laboratories for testing Einstein’s general theory of relativity under extreme conditions. Professor Bambi discusses the speculative nature and challenges of launching small spacecraft to the nearest black hole, yet emphasizes that it remains a plausible endeavor. Image credit: Cosimo Bambi, doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.113142.
“While we lack the necessary technology today, it may be feasible in 20 or 30 years,” stated Professor Cosimo Bambi, an astrophysicist and black hole specialist at the University of Fudan.
“Two significant challenges lie ahead: identifying a nearby black hole and developing a probe that can survive the journey.”
Currently, the closest recognized black hole to Earth is Gaia BH1, which was discovered in September 2022 and is located 1,560 light-years away.
However, it is anticipated that many undiscovered black holes may exist closer to Earth.
Simple estimations suggest that, despite significant uncertainties, the closest black hole could potentially be within only 20-25 light years.
“Our understanding of stellar evolution implies that black holes might be hidden just 20 to 25 light years from Earth, but detecting them is not straightforward,” noted Professor Bambi.
“Since black holes do not emit or reflect light, they are nearly invisible to telescopes.”
“Scientists typically rely on observing nearby stars and their interactions with light to identify and study these elusive objects.”
“New methods have been developed for detecting black holes, and I believe it is reasonable to expect the discovery of something nearby within the next decade.”
Once a target is located, the subsequent challenge will be reaching it.
Traditional spacecraft powered by chemical fuels lack the efficiency needed for such long journeys.
Professor Bambi suggests nanocraft as a promising solution—tiny probes consisting of microchips and light sails.
Lasers from Earth would propel the sails using photons, accelerating the craft to one-third the speed of light.
“At that speed, a craft could arrive at a black hole 20 to 25 light years away within about 70 years,” he explained.
“The data collected would then take roughly another 20 years to return to Earth, leading to a total mission duration of approximately 80-100 years.”
“When the craft nears a black hole, researchers could conduct experiments to answer some of the most pivotal questions in physics.”
“Does a black hole truly possess an event horizon? Can light escape the gravitational pull beyond that point?”
“Do the laws of physics alter in proximity to black holes?”
“Is Einstein’s general theory of relativity upheld in the universe’s most extreme conditions?”
“The laser system alone could cost 1 trillion euros, and currently, we lack the technology to fabricate nanocrafts,” Professor Bambi stated.
“Nevertheless, in 30 years, those costs might decrease, and technological advancements could align with these ambitious concepts.”
“While it may sound quite outlandish and resembles science fiction, past disbeliefs—like the detection of weak gravitational waves or imaging black hole shadows—have been proven wrong over time.”
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Cosimo Bambi. Interstellar missions to test astrophysical black holes. Iscience. Published online on August 7th, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.113142
Paleontologists have discovered a new species of Dromaeosaurus dinosaur from a nearly complete and unique skeleton found in Mongolia during the 2000s.
Reconstruction of Sri Lapax. Image credit: Connor Ashbridge / CC by 4.0.
This newly recognized dinosaur lived during the Campanian stage of the Cretaceous period, approximately 75 million years ago.
Based on various derived traits of the skull, vertebrae, and overall skeletal structure, this species can be classified within a group of bird-like theropods known as Dromaeosauridae.
It has been named Sri Lapax, marking it as the second species in this genus, following Sri Devi, which was identified in 2021.
“Dromaeosauridae represents a clade of small to medium-sized theropod dinosaurs that have been found in various Cretaceous deposits across North America, Asia, Europe, South America, and extending as far as Antarctica and Madagascar.”
“Remnants of feather-like structures, true pennaceous feathers, and gastrointestinal remains can be observed in well-preserved Dromaeosaurus specimens from the Lower Cretaceous period, such as Daurong Wanggi, Sinornithosaurus millenii, and Micro Raptor Zhaoianus.”
“Together with Troodontids, Dromaeosaurids are generally acknowledged as the closest modern relatives of birds.”
The nearly complete skeleton of Sri Lapax was discovered in the Djadochta Formation in Mongolia.
“This Dromaeosaurus specimen was illegally collected prior to 2010 and subsequently passed through private collections in Japan and the UK before being obtained by a French company,” noted paleontologist Eldonia.
“The precise location of the discovery remains unknown.”
“We plan to propose a tentative origin for it in the Mongolian Ukhaa Tolgod region based on documentation relating to the specimen.”
Holotype of Sri Lapax prior to preparations at the Royal Institute of Natural Sciences in Belgium in 2010. The arrows denote single femurs reconstructed using parts from both original femurs (which were separated during preparation). Image credit: Moutrille et al., doi: 10.1080/08912963.2025.2530148.
Sri Lapax exhibits a unique combination of vertebral and pelvic characteristics along with notably robust hands.
“One of the most distinctive features of Sri Lapax,” the researcher remarked.
“When adjusted for equal length, the phalangeal elements of the Pollex are about 150% more robust laterally compared to homologous elements in other Djadokhtan Dromaeosaurids, and these hands are stockier than those found in other known Dromaeosaurids.”
“We propose that frequent interactions with the Serratopsians, along with aggressive behaviors from those species, may have driven the development of more robust forelimbs and stockier hands in several Djadokhtan velociraptorines.”
“Assuming that Sri Lapax shared predatory habits with its close relative Velociraptor mongoliensis, the more robust construction of its hands suggests an adaptation for hunting larger and sturdier prey compared to typical Velociraptor diets.”
A study detailing this discovery was published online in the journal Historical Biology on July 13, 2025.
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Léa Moutrille et al. New bird-like dinosaurs from the Mongolian Upper Cretaceous period indicate niche diversification among belosirapthrins with particularly robust hands. Historical Biology published online on July 13th, 2025. doi:10.1080/08912963.2025.2530148
Dakar, Senegal – the largest meteorite discovered on Earth – a 54-pound (25 kilograms) rock that fetched over $5 million at a New York auction last month, setting a world record.
However, in a West African nation where rusty red rocks have been excavated from the Sahara desert, authorities have initiated an investigation into what they describe as “illegal international trafficking,” suggesting it may have been smuggled from the country.
Here’s what you should know about meteorites and legal controversies:
How was it discovered
According to Sotheby’s, the rock, designated NWA 16788, was dislodged from the surface of Mars by a massive asteroid collision and journeyed 140 million miles (225 million kilometers) to Earth.
It was uncovered in the Sahara, northwest Niger by an unnamed meteorite hunter in November 2023, as per the auction house’s report. The identities of buyers remain undisclosed.
In the arid regions of the Sahara like Niger, meteorite hunting is on the rise. While meteorites can fall anywhere on Earth, the Sahara has emerged as a prime location for their discovery due to its climate, which is conducive to conservation.
Hunters often seek space rocks to sell to collectors and scientists. The most coveted and valuable meteorites are from Mars and the Moon.
As reported by the Heritage Academic Journal, the rock was sold to international dealers and eventually made it to a private gallery in Italy. Last year, a team of scientists from the University of Florence examined the rock to determine its structure and origins before it fell to Earth.
The meteorite was briefly showcased in Rome before appearing at the New York auction last month.
Why Niger is investigating
Following the sale, Niger raised concerns about how the meteorite was made available for auction.
Last month, the Niger government launched an inquiry into the discovery and sale of meteorites, stating that it resembles “illegal international trafficking.”
Last week, President Abdullah Hamanetiani halted the export of precious stones, semi-precious stones, and meteorites to ensure proper traceability.
In a statement to the Associated Press, Sotheby’s maintained that the meteorite was exported from Niger and transported in line with all applicable international regulations.
“In selling this item, all necessary documentation was obtained at each stage of the journey, consistent with best practices and the requirements of the involved countries,” the statement indicated.
Niger authorities did not respond to inquiries from the Associated Press.
What international law says
Patti Garstenblis, a cultural heritage attorney and expert on illegal trade, noted that rare minerals like meteorites are recognized as cultural property under the UNESCO Cultural Property Treaty, which both Niger and the United States have ratified.
However, Garstenbliss pointed out that Niger needs to establish ownership and that the meteorite was stolen.
“I doubt Niger could reclaim the meteorite if it wasn’t stolen and was properly declared upon entering the U.S.,” she stated to the Associated Press.
Paleontologist Paul Sereno, who has spent years uncovering dinosaur fossils in Niger’s Sahara, is advocating for the return of the nation’s cultural and natural heritage, including meteorites.
“When laws clearly state that rare minerals like meteorites are cultural artifacts, unique and valuable items cannot just be claimed without consideration for the country,” he told the AP.
“We are no longer in a colonial era,” he added.
In certain countries, including Morocco, a major source of meteoritic specimens for international markets, if an object is found on their territory, compensation is required. Nonetheless, due to the expansive desert regions and the informal trading networks, enforcement remains challenging.
Myrna (Jennifer Dale) perhaps experienced a more favorable blind date. Her appetizer of edible flowers appear somber. The two tables are surrounded by an oddly shaped shroud of Vitrine covering the setting. After a brief conversation with her date, Karsh (Vincent Cassel), who owns the restaurant, it becomes evident that the environment is intricately linked to the cemetery in architectural, economic, and intellectual aspects.
This cemetery isn’t just a place; it includes gravestones equipped with screens. The deceased are enveloped in a technologically advanced, camera-laden shroud, allowing visitors to witness their loved ones from afar as they undergo life-changing events.
Over his five-decade career, David Cronenberg has perfected the craft of delivering narratives at an unconventional pace. On paper, as well as within the context of “Plesis,” his films might read as satire. Their whimsical nature is apparent, considering the characters’ last names—Karsh is “Relikh,” and Myrna is “Shovlin.” By treating this scenario earnestly, one can discern the potential for conversations with AI-created avatars of the deceased, engaging in various money-driven ventures alongside lists of “grief technology” startups.
Yet, Cronenberg seldom writes pure satire; he crafts narratives that resonate deeply with what we could genuinely experience.
Although Karsh’s date with Myrna is uneventful, he finds solace (and more) with Terry, a digital personification resembling his late wife, Becca. Diane Kruger portrays both the role and voice of the unreliable digital assistant, Honey, created by Terry’s ex-husband, Molly (played by the cunning Guy Pearce).
After many projects, it is evident that sorrow fuels the entirety of David Cronenberg’s artistic journey.
By night, Becca battles bone cancer, navigating her illness without arms. Are these nocturnal encounters mere reflections or figments of his imagination? Amidst everything, Karsh’s affections remain unwavering for his wife, raising the question: will he become more human? Or will they truly care for him?
Kirsh grapples with conflicting emotions—guilt, rage, and longing—as Becca might be deceiving him with her past professor and first love. Yet, these layers serve as mere facades, obscuring more significant, political conspiracies involving China, Russia, or Budapest. Meanwhile, Terry, who enjoys the unfolding drama, finds herself in the position of encouraging Kirsch’s obsessive behaviors.
Carolyn Zeyfman, Cronenberg’s spouse, passed away in 2017. Shroud emerges as a product of profound emotional sharing, delving into every stage of grief through an exceptional portrayal by Kassel—armed with unresolved, fantastical plot elements twisted by delusional technological visions. Is there a chance that China could exploit our physical forms for surveillance? Or did Morley code this metamorphosis?
Meanwhile, Shroud firmly establishes that sorrow remains the pivotal force driving Cronenberg’s cinematic catalog. It resembles a constructed film where characters articulate complex revelations to one another while maneuvering through intricate conspiracy theories, perpetually shrouded. Nothing significant evolves because, ultimately, we confront… death. It unfolds at a calm, steady pace, relentlessly.
This ranks among the catastrophic productions great directors occasionally create when they have nothing left to prove, and the only narrative to convey.
I would also recommend Simon’s works…
Asphyx Peter Newbrook
The two Edwardian Tinkers (Robert Stephens and Robert Powell) attempt to invent a method for the Grim Reaper to freeze mid-strokes.
Ring Nakata Fumi
No one consulted us about our desire to live. This thriller explores mortality through cursed videotapes that ensnare viewers within a week.
Simon Sings is a novelist and science writer. Follow him on X @simonings
The Arts and Science of Writing Science Fiction
Join us this weekend to explore new dimensions in science fiction writing, dedicated to crafting innovative worlds and artistic expressions.
As a child, my Malaysian grandmother would take me to the local market. There, we would spend time inspecting every piece of fruit and vegetable, just as only an Asian grandmother knows how. She would weigh the papayas, analyze the patterns on every watermelon, and pull the leaves of pineapples to assess their quality.
Fast forward over 30 years, and I see $200 yoga pant influencers on social media using many of her techniques at farmer’s markets.
Nowadays, these techniques are not only simple but also scientifically sound. However, it’s the vibrant ones that tend to go viral. One popular tip circulating on my social media feed claims that the number of bumps at the base of a pepper is indicative of its flavor. Supposedly, “female” peppers with four bumps are sweeter and better raw, while “male” peppers with three bumps are sweeter and ideal for cooking.
To clarify, peppers are not strictly divided into “male” and “female” in a biological sense. Pepper fruits are the fertilized ovaries of flowering plants, which, like 90% of all plants, contain both male and female components.
However, this explanation doesn’t entirely negate the cultural aspect of categorizing these plants. In traditional remedies, numerous plant varieties are designated as “male” or “female.” Genetics suggests that various plants indeed appear subtly different.
Moreover, the number of lobes in a pepper is largely a genetic trait of the variety. While it is far from a strict binary classification, peppers can have anywhere from one to six or more lobes.
So, do four-lobed peppers really taste sweeter than those with three lobes? After extensively reviewing the literature, we were unable to find any studies correlating sugar content with the number of lobes in pepper fruits.
What we do know is that, like most fruits, their sweetness is closely linked to ripeness. Ripening, from green to red, affects flavor, and bitter-tasting alkaloids may mask sweetness as well.
Ironically, these bitter compounds are concentrated in the placenta, which is the white membrane found between the folds of each pepper. Thus, the more lobes a pepper has, the less likely it is to taste sweet. Sorry, influencers.
James Wong is a botanist and science writer with a keen interest in food crops, conservation, and the environment. Trained at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, London, he lives in a small flat filled with over 500 houseplants. You can follow him on X and Instagram @BotanyGeek.
For more projects, please visit newscientist.com/maker
Should players identify a character from a set of 24 through guessing?
Shutterstock/Jayanthi Photo
You can enhance your odds of winning a board game. By employing a strategy crafted by mathematicians, you may encounter some challenging logical puzzles.
Originally launched in 1979, Zenkon allows players to secretly choose characters from a collection of 24 distinct figures. Players then take turns questioning each other to deduce a yes or no or make a guess about the hidden character.
Numerous individuals engage in a variant of the game, successfully narrowing down their opponent’s character to a single option to win. Mathematicians have explored the optimal approach for this variant, which involves posing two-part questions.
However, official game guidelines stipulate that victory can only be achieved by directly guessing the secret character, rather than merely eliminating incorrect options from the board.
David Stewart from The University of Manchester, UK, and his team devised techniques for winning within the parameters of official rules. They discovered that, in most situations, both players must utilize two-part questions to divide potential suspects into equal or unequal groups based on the remaining suspects. This approach results in the first player winning about 65% of the time. Nevertheless, certain scenarios exist where the number of remaining characters necessitates alternative strategies.
“Mathematics often presents peculiarities. What appears to be a straightforward setup, stripped of all visuals, turns into a mere collection of n objects; you’re striving for efficiency. It’s fascinating to uncover these exceptional cases.
To unearth the best strategy, he and his colleagues began with the most basic scenario, such as having two characters left for each player, calculating optimal strategies for each case, and progressively tackling more intricate scenarios through a method known as mathematical induction. They also created Online Games, a platform for applying the strategies outlined in their research.
The research team identified that when four, six, or ten characters remain on the board and only four players are left, specific rules must be followed—like asking questions that split the four possibilities into one and three. While this is a riskier approach, the potential rewards are significant in these situations.
“It’s intriguing that this isn’t always applicable to games where outcomes seem purely random,” remarked Daniel Jones at the University of Birmingham, UK.
Stewart and his collaborators also uncovered an even quicker method to win the game: “Is your character blonde? If the answer is no, and the character has brown hair, the opponent cannot respond with ‘yes’ or ‘no.’ This creates a contradiction, as the question’s response contradicts itself. By posing this type of question, players gain more insights than with standard two-part inquiries, though it bends the rule that all questions must yield a YES or NO answer.
This method may prove effective for professional mathematicians and computer scientists, yet tends to challenge amateurs. Brian Laverne, a software engineer who developed this clever tactic, notes, “It requires some effort and practice. While you can conceptualize each step, keeping everything organized in your mind simultaneously is the real challenge, even though each step is quite simple.”
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