A groundbreaking study examining various South American butterfly lineages and diurnal moths reveals that convergent evolution—where unrelated species develop similar traits—follows a consistent genetic pattern. This discovery has significant implications for understanding how species may adapt to climate change.
Ben Chehida and others. A flight study of Itomini, Isomini, and Heliconius butterflies, along with the Ketonga moth. Image credit: Ben Chehida et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003742.
“Convergent or parallel evolution serves as a natural experiment where unrelated species independently evolve similar traits in response to equivalent selective pressures,” states Kanchon Dasmahapatra, a professor at the University of York.
“This indicates how reproducible—and thus predictable—evolution can be.”
“Highly divergent lineages often display significant trait convergence, such as repeated colonization of habitats like land, water, and air, or the evolution of resistance against threats like pesticides, drought, and heat stress.”
According to the researchers, “Convergence in traits across different species can stem from genetic changes occurring in different genes or in the same gene (gene reuse).”
“Gene reuse is expected to be more prevalent among closely related lineages or when developmental pathways towards optimal fitness are limited.”
“Convergence may happen when the same allele is reused (allele sharing), either through independent mutations in one gene or through ancestral variation and introgression between species.”
In this study, the authors investigated various species of distantly related South American rainforest butterflies and moths that share similar wing color patterns for predator deterrence, a phenomenon known as mimicry.
The study aims to identify the genes responsible for these similar mimic color patterns among seven distantly related species.
Remarkably, researchers found that distinct butterfly and moth species reuse the same two genes—ivory and optics—which evolve into similar color patterns, despite being very distant relatives.
Genetic alterations in several butterfly species did not occur in the genes themselves but rather in similar “switches” that control gene expression.
Interestingly, one moth species utilizes an inversion mechanism where substantial DNA sequences flip directions, mirroring a genetic strategy used by a butterfly.
“Convergent evolution, where numerous unrelated species independently develop the same trait, is a widespread phenomenon across the tree of life,” says Professor Dasmahapatra.
“However, there is limited opportunity to explore the genetic foundation of this phenomenon.”
“By studying seven butterfly lineages along with diurnal moths, we demonstrate that evolution is surprisingly predictable and that both butterflies and moths have repeatedly employed the same genetic tricks to develop similar color patterns since the time of dinosaurs.”
The findings from this study reveal that evolution may not always be random and could be more predictable than previously believed.
Professor Joanna Meyer from the Wellcome Sanger Institute remarked: “All these distantly related butterflies and moths are toxic and unpalatable to birds that attempt to consume them.”
“Their similarities are advantageous; if birds recognize a specific color pattern as indicating ‘don’t eat us, we are poisonous’, it benefits other species to exhibit the same warning colors.”
“Our research illustrates that these warning colors are remarkably optimal. With a highly conserved genetic basis over 120 million years, evolving these similar color patterns could be quite straightforward.”
The results are published in the journal PLoS Biology.
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Y. Ben Chehida et al. 2026. Convergent mimic coloration in lepidopterans over 120 million years of evolution is underpinned by genetic parallelism. PLoS Biol 24 (4): e3003742; doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003742
Image processing by ESA/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA; M. Schirmer (MPIA, Heidelberg)
Centuries of scientific experimentation are paving the way for a breakthrough in the hunt for new particles, particularly those believed to constitute dark matter.
In 1773, British scientist Henry Cavendish initiated an experiment aimed at unraveling the mysteries of electromagnetism, involving the measurement of electrical potential on two nested metal shells to examine interactions of charged particles.
Now, Peter Graham, a professor at Stanford University, suggests reviving Cavendish’s historic experiment could illuminate the enigmatic particles forming dark matter.
Dark matter, which constitutes a significant portion of our universe, remains poorly understood. Numerous theories have emerged regarding its composition, and experiments range from particle colliders to advanced underground detectors.
Graham and his research team are focusing on a dark matter candidate known as milli-charged particles (mCPs). True to its name, mCP has an exceptionally small charge, rendering it suitable for Cavendish’s original experimental setup.
The team proposes recreating the nested shell design, applying a voltage to the outer shell and measuring the voltage difference to detect the presence of mCPs during the experiment.
Exploring Electromagnetism: Henry Cavendish’s 18th Century Experiments
Cavendish Institute
To enhance the experimental design, the team plans to incorporate an accumulator device to effectively extract all charged particles from the surrounding environment, maximizing the potential for mCP detection, according to Harikrishnan Ramani of the University of Delaware.
This innovative design is cost-effective compared to other mCP explorations, estimated at under $1 million—1,000 times less than operating a particle accelerator for a year. Preliminary calculations indicate it could be more sensitive than future collider experiments.
Researchers like Kevin Kelly from Texas A&M University believe this experimental approach could potentially outperform existing methods by a factor of 100 to 10,000, capable of detecting mCPs with even lower charges than previously thought.
According to Christopher Hill at Ohio State University, this technique may surpass some current experiments. He posits that it could accelerate the timeline for significant discoveries regarding the composition and functioning of our universe.
The research team is currently in the final stages of planning the experiment and securing funding. If successful, they aim to execute the project within two to three years, potentially offering a new avenue for studying mCPs.
Recent research utilizing data from NASA’s Juno spacecraft has resulted in the most precise measurements of Jupiter’s size in 50 years, revealing that the largest planet in our solar system is thinner and flatter than previously thought.
Hubble’s observations of Jupiter highlight an ever-changing landscape resulting from its turbulent atmosphere. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / Amy Simon, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / Michael H. Wong, University of California, Berkeley / Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
“The previous understanding of Jupiter’s shape was based on just six measurements made by NASA’s Voyager and Pioneer missions nearly 50 years ago, utilizing radio waves sent to Earth,” explained Dr. Eli Galanti from the Weizmann Institute of Science.
“While those missions laid the groundwork, we now have the unique chance to analyze 26 new measurements obtained from NASA’s Juno spacecraft.”
“By determining Jupiter’s distance and observing its rotation, we can accurately derive its size and shape,” stated Professor Yohai Kaspi of the Weizmann Institute of Science.
“However, to achieve highly precise measurements, we require more advanced techniques.”
“Juno’s passage behind Jupiter opens up new scientific opportunities,” commented Dr. Scott Bolton, Juno’s principal investigator and a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute.
“As the spacecraft navigates behind the planet, its radio communication signals become obstructed and bent by Jupiter’s atmosphere, enabling precise size measurements.”
“By tracking the curvature of these radio signals as they pass through Jupiter’s atmosphere, we were able to generate a detailed map of the planet’s temperature and density, providing the clearest insight yet into Jupiter’s dimensions,” explained Dr. Maria Smirnova, a student at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
The study revealed that Jupiter has a polar radius of 66,842 km, an equatorial radius of 71,488 km, and an average radius of 69,886 km—12, 4, and 8 km lower than prior estimates respectively.
“It’s time to update textbooks. While Jupiter’s size remains unchanged, our measurement techniques have significantly evolved,” noted Professor Kaspi.
“Those few kilometers matter. A slight shift in radius greatly improves how well our internal model aligns with both gravity data and atmospheric metrics,” commented Dr. Galanti.
“Our advanced models of Jupiter’s internal density structure illustrate how sophisticated geometries can help reconcile models with measurements,” said Dr. Marjan Ziv, also a student at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Previous estimates overlooked Jupiter’s powerful winds. By considering these winds in their calculations, scientists resolved a long-standing contradiction.
“It’s challenging to decipher details beneath Jupiter’s clouds, but radio data provides insights into the depths of Jupiter’s zonal winds and intense hurricanes,” stated Professor Kaspi.
The findings are documented in a study published in Nature Astronomy.
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E. Galanti et al. 2026. Jupiter’s Size and Shape. Nat Astron 10, 493-501; doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02777-x
Clinical Trial Compares Chewing Gum Types for Periodontal Health
PeopleImages/Shutterstock
Patients suffering from periodontal disease can experience immediate relief by chewing gum infused with nitrates, substances known to inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria.
Periodontal disease, commonly referred to as mild gingivitis, develops when plaque—a thin film of bacteria—accumulates on the teeth, leading to gum inflammation and bleeding.
Maintaining oral hygiene by brushing twice daily, flossing or using interdental brushes, and rinsing with antibacterial mouthwash are essential for preventing or treating this condition. However, these habits can be challenging to maintain regularly, notes Sean Green at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center in West Carson, California.
If untreated, this milder form of gum disease can escalate to periodontitis, resulting in painful oral abscesses and loss of teeth.
Prior studies indicate that consuming nitrate-rich foods like leafy greens and beets can enhance the growth of beneficial bacteria, mitigating gum inflammation. However, access to or enjoyment of such foods varies widely, adds Green.
To explore a different method of leveraging nitrate benefits, Green and his team enlisted 30 adults diagnosed with mild periodontal disease. Participants were randomly assigned to chew a nitrate-rich gum developed by the researchers or a nitrate-free gum of the same flavor for at least 15 minutes three times daily over three weeks. They were instructed to continue their regular oral care routines and dietary habits during the study period.
Before and after the trial, the researchers evaluated gum health by measuring bleeding around each tooth using a small metal rod. Participants chewing the nitrate-rich gum showed a decrease in bleeding from an average of 26% at the study’s onset to 15% by the end. In contrast, chewing nitrate-free gum did not produce any significant results.
“This marks a clinically significant improvement in gum health,” states Praveen Sharma, a researcher from the University of Birmingham, UK, who did not participate in the study.
Analysis of saliva samples indicates that the nitrate gum enhances levels of beneficial oral bacteria that convert nitrate into nitric oxide while reducing the presence of harmful plaque-forming bacteria, including Porphyromonas gingivalis.
The findings imply that this approach, supplemented by conventional treatments, could serve as an effective method for alleviating periodontal symptoms. “This serves as a solid proof of concept,” adds Francesco Daiuto at Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, UK. However, further research is necessary to determine the longevity of these effects and their efficacy in treating advanced periodontal disease.
David Attenborough and mountain gorilla on location in Rwanda Life on Earth
John Sparks
In celebrating David Attenborough’s 100th birthday on May 8th, we cannot overlook the powerful imagery associated with him.
Life on Earth, the pioneering 1979 series showcasing the iconic gorilla scene, opened the door to Attenborough’s
immersive narration and breathtaking visuals that have captivated audiences for decades. His documentaries span from ocean depths to the complexities of plant life, chronicling humanity’s fight against climate change.
Join us as we delve into the documentaries that have profoundly influenced our team and merit special recognition today.
David Attenborough on location by the Grand Canyon in Life on Earth
John Sparks/naturepl.com
Life on Earth holds special significance for many. Its iconic gorilla encounter and its pioneering approach set the foundation for future nature documentaries. Attenborough’s exploration of the Grand Canyon showcases a remarkable intersection of science and storytelling.
Reflecting on this series often evokes nostalgia, especially for those who first experienced it in their formative years, evoking the haunting opening music by Edward Williams.
Reporter Michael Le Page
Filming team led by David Attenborough on Ellesmere Island in The Private Life of Plants
Neil Nightingale/naturepl.com
Plants inhabit a realm unseen. Morning glories greet the sun, while brambles silently dominate the forest floor. Attenborough’s unparalleled storytelling takes us through the secret life of plants.
Although technology like time-lapse and high-speed photography existed, The Private Life of Plants pioneered their large-scale use. This innovation brought to light the hidden intelligence and mechanics of plant life.
Revisiting the series today evokes nostalgia from its playful graphics and unique visuals that enhance the captivating narratives. Don’t miss the behind-the-scenes episode of Life
showcasing the filmmakers’ dedication to their art. Watch it here.
Thomas Lewton, Features Editor
Pacific Ocean from the International Space Station
NASA
Blue Planet unravels the mysteries beneath the ocean waves, revealing rarely-seen wildlife. Attenborough’s storytelling continues to inspire a passion for marine conservation.
Twenty-five years later, the haunting memory of orcas hunting on a gray whale continues to resonate with viewers, emphasizing Attenborough’s impactful narrative style that draws us into the world of nature.
Despite lacking the extreme detail offered by newer imagery, Blue Planet redefined documentary filmmaking and ignited a lifelong passion for the ocean within many, including myself here at New Scientist.
Eleanor Parsons, Magazine Editor
David Attenborough at the launch of the third series of Planet Earth in 2023
Ian West/PA Image/Alamy
The haunting images of nighttime lions chasing a juvenile elephant have left a profound impression since the original series aired in 2006. Planet Earth set a benchmark for high-definition wildlife filmmaking.
Noteworthy moments include a starving polar bear stalking a walrus, an eagle preying on a crane, and dolphins beaching themselves to catch fish. This is true mastery of storytelling and visuals in television.
Each subsequent series has evolved, with the latest reflecting the contemporary issues of wildlife adapting to urban environments, showcasing animals alongside human activity.
While each series aims to inspire wonder rather than despair, it’s undeniable that our planet faces monumental changes.
Reporter Michael Le Page
Frozen Planet”
data-credit=”BBC”/>
Polar bear in Frozen Planet
BBC
Frozen Planet offers a poignant glimpse into the unique species inhabiting Earth’s polar regions. Presented by Attenborough, the series combines stunning visuals and heartfelt narratives, equipping viewers with critical knowledge about climate change impacts.
Not only does the series point out the hazards of global warming, but it also cultivates genuine concern for these geographical wonders.
Bethan Ackerley, Associate Editor
A Life on Our Planet”
data-credit=”Netflix / David Attenborough: A Life On Our Planet”/>
Turtle swimming over a coral reef in A Life on Our Planet
Netflix / David Attenborough: A Life On Our Planet
David Attenborough’s extraordinary life serves as a lens through which we assess the changes our planet has undergone. The documentary A Life on Our Planet released amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, reflects on the Earth’s ecological degradation, showcasing the vibrant life observed during Attenborough’s career.
This film also thoughtfully discusses challenges faced by future generations, emphasizing climate change and biodiversity loss. Despite its somber themes, it also presents actionable solutions for the pressing environmental issues we face today.
Bethan Ackerley, Associate Editor
Prehistoric Planet”
data-credit=”Apple TV”/>
Rapetosaurus, a long-necked sauropod from Madagascar featured in Prehistoric Planet
Apple TV
Prehistoric Planet is a remarkable achievement in bringing extinct species back to life, recognized for its accuracy, and was developed with the endorsement of paleontologists.
The series showcases iconic dinosaurs and lesser-known species, allowing a fresh perspective on their lives, including fascinating behaviors like swimming and mating.
The latest series revisits the Ice Age, capturing a plethora of prehistoric creatures, though it’s worth noting that Tom Hiddleston now takes over narration from Attenborough, altering the series’ signature charm.
Reporter Michael Le Page
Wild London, on the London Underground”
data-credit=”BBC/Passion Planet Ltd/Simon De Glanville”/>
Pigeon, a star of Wild London on the London Underground
BBC/Passion Planet Limited/Simon de Granville
This recent addition to the David Attenborough collection has quickly become a household favorite after its debut on New Year’s Day. Wild London showcases remarkable wildlife findings in the urban landscape.
While introducing the expected foxes and pigeons, extraordinary moments reveal lionesses fighting in urban areas and pigeons commuting on the Tube, challenging our perceptions of city wildlife.
Shifts in urban wildlife dynamics, including peregrine falcons and other species flourishing in the city, add dimension to the narrative of London’s ever-changing ecology.
Local landscapes, from community gardens to parks, invite urban dwellers to appreciate the hidden natural beauty surrounding them, aligning with Attenborough’s own belief in the city’s charm.
In the realm of Star Wars, alien heroes confront villains wielding planet-destroying superweapons “a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away.” But what do scientists truly understand about alien planets in galaxies far beyond our own? These fascinating worlds are known as extragalactic exoplanets. Assuming the Milky Way galaxy is akin to other galaxies, it is predicted to harbor similar worlds. Yet, many galaxies remain distant, rendering modern exoplanet observation techniques inadequate for their detection.
Recently, astronomers studied a stream of over 700,000 stars potentially absorbed by the Milky Way from the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy. Given their remoteness, the team investigated if any of these stars hosted large exoplanets orbiting close to Earth, specifically hot Jupiters, which are generally easier to identify.
The researchers established three criteria for narrowing down their star selection. First, each star must be sufficiently bright as observed by a transiting exoplanet probe like TESS to ensure high accuracy in their data processing software. Second, each star should possess at least a 50% likelihood of originating from the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, based on motion and position measurements from the Gaia mission. Finally, the radius of each star needed to be less than twice that of the Sun to simplify the search for planets around smaller stars. These criteria helped refine the list to approximately 20,000 candidate stars.
Subsequently, the team utilized a software package to analyze public TESS catalog data, specifically the Eleanor TESS-Gaia light curve, also known as TGLC. Using these tools, they plotted the brightness of each star over time on a graph termed the light curve. The astronomers searched for periodic brightness dips, indicating an exoplanet passing in front of the star. This process eliminated several thousand stars affected by optical interference, refining their sample size to just over 15,000 stars.
To detect hot Jupiters, the team looked for brightness dips occurring at intervals of 14 hours to 10 days, the typical orbital periods for these planets. They employed geometric calculations to derive the radius of each exoplanet based on the proportion of starlight obscured. Candidates with dips corresponding to objects with radii more than twice that of Jupiter were excluded, as these dips likely resulted from orbiting companion stars rather than true exoplanets.
Among the examined stars, the most promising candidate for a hot Jupiter was identified as TIC 92223525. The researchers estimated that it could host an exoplanet with a radius 1.76 times that of Jupiter and an orbital period of 7.2 days. However, closer inspection of the star’s light curve indicated contamination from a neighboring star, TIC 92223526. The periodic brightness variations from this companion star mimicked those of an exoplanet, leading to a false positive in the initial screening. Consequently, the research team had to dismiss this candidate, leaving no confirmed exoplanets from their study.
The researchers drew significant conclusions from their inability to identify hot Jupiters within the Sagittarius Dwarf star sample. They estimated that if more than 1% of these stars hosted hot Jupiters, detecting at least one in a sample of over 15,000 stars would have been very probable. This limits the occurrence rate of hot Jupiters to around 1%. If accurate, future exoplanet-hunting endeavors may necessitate exploring over 11,000 stars to discover one, with reasonable scientific uncertainty suggesting at least 80,000 stars may need to be examined.
While this survey of the Sagittarius Dwarf yielded no conclusive results, the research team encourages subsequent researchers to continue their exploration of the Sagittarius Dwarf and other star streams from different galaxies. Scientists have identified over 20 such streams within the Milky Way. Investigations into these stellar streams may lead to the discovery of the first extragalactic planets or offer insights into whether other galaxies produce fewer hot Jupiters than our own. Let’s hope none of them stumble upon an extragalactic Death Star!
Since the groundbreaking debut of Ancillary Justice in 2013, Anne Leckie has emerged as a formidable talent in the realm of science fiction. Following swiftly were her acclaimed sequels, Auxiliary Sword and Imperial Mercy, completing the Imperial Radch trilogy which garnered numerous prestigious science fiction awards.
Leckie’s exploration of the genre continued with her shift toward independent novels set in the Radch universe. Although I have yet to dive into Raven Tower, I thoroughly enjoyed her intriguing standalone, Translation Status, which dissects both death and life through Leckie’s clever, yet chilling, Pleasure Aliens. Now, her latest addition to the Imperial Radch saga, Radiant Star, has just hit the shelves this month.
Radiant Star unfolds on the extraordinary planet Aaa, where its inhabitants have been compelled to dig into the underground city of Oioia after losing their sun.
This subterranean city is highly introverted, centering around a unique religious site known as the Temporal Location of the Shining Star, filled with enigmatic “saints” who may just be lifeless remains. Beyond this sacred site, the city teems with political nuances—marked by a peculiar dependence on onions (which becomes crucial as the story progresses).
“
The drama that unfolds as the Latch Empire collapses and famine strikes across the planet feels entirely believable. “
One fateful day, Radchai, the ruler of the Latch universe, decides to annex this sunless world. The sentient spaceship, the Justice of Alva, suddenly materializes from the “Gate Universe,” alerting Aaa’s residents to impending changes. Onboard is Governor Charak Suvo, who arrives to govern Aaa while utilizing enslaved human bodies as his enforcers. However, the story takes a turn when an incident isolates the planet from the galaxy, complicating Charak’s governance.
Is Radiant Star a worthwhile read? Absolutely. Leckie’s world-building, intricate details, and ability to quickly develop relatable characters shine throughout the narrative. Her writing exudes confidence, wit, and an authentic dialogue style that resonates. The unfolding events on Aaa are compelling as the Latch Empire crumbles, leading to famine gripping the planet.
However, this book may cater more to established fans rather than newcomers to the Radch universe. Oioia feels quite claustrophobic, with much of the plot unfolding through political meetings rather than adventurous exploits. The city’s layered political and religious factions, while impressively developed, might not be the most engaging companions when contrasted with characters like Ambassador Pleasure.
Personally, I would have preferred a deeper exploration of the ship’s Justice character or perhaps more focus on one of the quirky local inhabitants instead of the many less congenial natives. Still, as a devoted follower of Leckie, I eagerly absorb every word she presents. Her prowess positions her among the elite authors in science fiction, and Radiant Star stands as a quieter yet significant piece in her repertoire.
While this novel may not be the brightest star in the Imperial Radch galaxy, it certainly makes a notable addition to Leckie’s distinguished collection in this universe.
The latest installment in our beloved Murderbot series is launching this month. I find myself reading Murderbot’s inner thoughts in Alexander Skarsgård’s voice ( Adaptation on Apple TV), making it even more captivating.
Emily H. Wilson, author of the Sumerian series—Inanna, Gilgamesh, Ninshubar—currently published by Titan, is also working on her first science fiction novel. Formerly an editor at New Scientist, you can follow her on Instagram @emilyhwilson1.
What did the New Scientist Book Club think of Red Mars by Kim Stanley Robinson?
I set an engaging challenge for the New Scientist Book Club this April: reading through Kim Stanley Robinson’s epic novel Red Mars, a detailed 600-page journey into the complexities of colonizing Mars. In just 30 days, our members shared their thoughts on this literary masterpiece during our vibrant discussions on Discord.
There’s a personal element to this as well; Red Mars is one of my all-time favorites. After reading a compelling article by critic George Bass about the story’s beginning in 2026, I was motivated to revisit this captivating world with our passionate community of 25,000 readers. Robinson masterfully captures the vast, alien beauty of Mars, and I loved experiencing the narrative from multiple perspectives, particularly the character Anne — a passionate advocate for preserving Mars’s natural state — and Sacks, who is determined to terraform the planet swiftly. I found the perspective of Nadia, a pragmatic engineer, especially engaging, though I admit the love triangle between John, Frank, and Maya felt somewhat repetitive.
Some members returned to Red Mars for a second read, while others picked it up for the first time, and some were inspired to finally dive into a book they had long overlooked. DavidC reflected on his initial draw to the book, stating, “I found the phrase ‘but it all happened in the mineral unconscious’ really appealing right on the first page. Now I’m ready for the next 600 pages!”
However, Zagosia expressed dissatisfaction with the dramatic opening that resulted in an important character’s demise, stating, “I don’t like the concept of spoiling the ending in the first chapter. You don’t want to know where this is going?” I, along with other members, reassured her to continue reading.
My conversation with Robinson during a video interview shed light on his intriguing narrative choice: “This is a flash-forward. It creates a sense of tension as we learn that John is dead, but we don’t yet understand why. This adds depth to every seemingly mundane detail of the town’s development.” The suspense enriches the story.
Robinson recently reread Red Mars and found it resonated well, apart from some “laughable gaps” in his knowledge of 2026 and beyond. He discussed the current misguided dreams of colonizing Mars, critically stating, “These people don’t think through the implications.” He dismissed Elon Musk’s notion that colonizing Mars would “save Earth” as unrealistic.
Reactions from our readers varied; many praised Robinson’s beautifully crafted writing about Mars while some found it hard to connect with the characters. Zagosia noted, “The portrayal of nature and scale was remarkable, yet I struggled to empathize with the characters and often felt situations lacked logic.”
Annie Greenwood enjoyed the book but craved something more relationship-driven afterward, saying, “I wanted an injection of character complexity after ‘Red Mars.’ I felt the narrative leaned heavily on ideas more than deep interpersonal dynamics.” The high-quality writing is undeniable, yet it lacked the emotional engagement she sought.
Discussions arose about the fragile state of affairs on Mars and whether a better selection of astronauts could have prevented chaos. Barbara Howe noted, “I anticipated a tale of scientific triumph over adversity, but what I encountered was a melodrama rife with human politics and flaws.” Despite personal frustrations with the plot dynamics, she appreciated the vivid descriptions of the Martian environment and found a few characters, like Nadia and Arkady, compelling.
Overall, our book club members enjoyed the rich experience of reading, discussing, and analyzing this classic sci-fi novel. Personally, I was thrilled to rediscover Red Mars as one of my enduring favorites.
Join the New Scientist Book Club today and participate in the conversation! Visit us on Discord.
A Coin-Sized Device for Measuring Flatulence in Smart Underwear
Brantley Hall, University of Maryland
Research reveals that most people are unaware of their flatulence frequency. However, innovative smart underwear can accurately monitor this, assisting in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal issues like lactose intolerance.
Brantley Hall and his team from the University of Maryland have developed a compact hydrogen detection device that clips onto your underwear. “It’s approximately the size of a nickel and is attached near the perineum,” says Hall.
The research involved 37 participants who wore the device to track flatulence post-lactose ingestion. Many individuals remain unaware of their flatulence, especially those who are lactose intolerant, as their bodies lack the enzyme lactase to properly digest lactose, leading to fermentation by gut bacteria and subsequent gas production.
The team asked participants to follow a strict low-fiber diet for two days to establish a baseline before consuming 20 grams of either lactose or sucrose. There was a double-blind design, ensuring neither participants nor researchers knew what was ingested.
Results from the study indicated that 24 out of the 37 participants who consumed lactose exhibited a significant increase in flatulence—more than 1.5 times their baseline levels. Notably, in 22 of these individuals, higher gas production correlated with greater lactose intake.
Despite these findings, an additional study showed participants could only accurately identify their gasiest days about 50 percent of the time, akin to flipping a coin. “People aren’t reliable narrators of their flatulence patterns,” Hall added.
Hall plans to present the findings at Digestive Disease Week 2026 in Chicago, highlighting the device’s potential to help diagnose conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome and evaluate treatment efficacy for excess gas production.
This non-invasive approach using smart underwear for measuring flatulence is promising, especially as technology acceptance grows. Tom Van Gils from the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, noted the link between subjective feelings of bloating and objective measures, saying, “This could improve our understanding of physical changes involved in gastrointestinal disorders.”
A recent investigation by Hall et al. revealed that healthy adults experience between 4 to 59 farts daily, with an average of 32 farts per day.
“Our study may skew towards those who fart more frequently, so this number could reduce over time,” Hall commented. “We aim to establish baseline flatulence patterns in healthy individuals and assess common triggers.”
In a captivating crime scene, two individuals and three DNA profiles emerge.
A woman with a gunshot wound to her head was discovered in China, but investigators were baffled. Forensic analysis uncovered a perplexing detail: a second DNA profile, this time male, present in her bloodstream.
Initially, researchers explored common explanations such as DNA transfer from lab contamination or recent contact. Yet, 17 repeated tests confirmed the presence of the male DNA across various organs and blood samples.
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A second DNA profile was intertwined throughout her body, suggesting that within her lay the remnants of a long-lost twin.
Chimera’s DNA retains genetic echoes of its ‘vanished’ twin – Image courtesy of Getty Images
The intricate details of this case were detailed in a 2026 study published in Forensic Medicine International: Genetics. Unbeknownst to her, the woman was a genetic chimera.
Typically, living organisms harbor a single set of DNA that guides their development and function. However, chimeras possess dual DNA sets, potentially shaping their bodies in unique ways.
While rare, chimerism could be more common than documented cases suggest. Estimates indicate that you may know a chimera—or might even be one yourself!
Understanding Chimerism
It’s not unusual for cells to differ from one’s main DNA. Most of us have traces of “microchimerism” from exchanging genetic material with our mothers during pregnancy.
Moreover, organ transplants or blood transfusions also introduce donor DNA into recipients.
Congenital chimerism occurs differently at conception, resulting in a significant second DNA set that can impact bodily formation.
A typical pregnancy starts when a single sperm fertilizes an egg, blocking entry to others. This fusion results in a single genetic spindle that replicates and develops.
However, if two sperm enter simultaneously, a rare condition can lead to a triploid fetus carrying genetic material from the egg and both sperm. Normally, this results in miscarriage.
In rare cases of chimerism, an atypical spindle survives, leading to a viable pregnancy—a phenomenon termed heterogonic chimerism.
“Such occurrences are extremely rare due to the body’s regulatory systems,” she explains.
Identifying Chimerism
What’s remarkable is that this Chinese woman likely carried DNA from two sperm that were genetically different—one with an X chromosome and another with a Y chromosome.
These two DNA profiles appeared in varying degrees throughout her body. In some chimeras, the distribution is even, while in others, one DNA set predominates, leading to diverse genetic traits in different body parts.
Physical signs of chimerism, though uncommon, can surface, including patchy skin pigmentation. Taylor Mule, a chimerism advocate, showcases this with distinctive skin patterns dividing two colors on her abdomen.
Taylor Mule’s skin pigmentation reflects her unique chimerism – Image credit: Getty Images
In an XX/XY chimera scenario, a fusion of female and male cell lines can result in ambiguous genitalia, although the murder victim displayed no obvious signs of chimerism.
Chimerism often remains hidden within our DNA until revealed through comprehensive genetic testing. It typically comes to light during mother-child examinations or in forensic contexts.
Prevalence of Chimerism
The more common variant of chimerism is known as the “tetragametic phenomenon,” occurring when two eggs are released simultaneously and fertilized by different sperm. In chimerism, this leads to the fusion of two embryos into one.
If twins exist in a family, the chances of chimerism increase significantly, according to genetic counselors and “DNA detectives.” Kayla Mandel Sheets from Vibrant Gene emphasizes the importance of family histories involving multiple births and assisted reproductive technology.
However, chimerism doesn’t always leave physical traces, making its prevalence difficult to ascertain. Estimates suggest that up to 10 percent of the population may be chimeras, although this is considered a significant overestimation by some experts due to the low incidence of chimeras among individuals in UK genetic databases.
“It’s exceedingly rare,” she states. “I analyze blood samples daily, and I’ve never encountered a chimera.”
Ultimately, the actual incidence of chimerism will require large-scale, costly studies to unravel.
Looking ahead, the rise of in vitro fertilization (IVF) could lead to an increased occurrence of biological chimerism, as more embryos are created and occasionally fuse. Increased IVF rates could further contribute to this phenomenon.
“With the surge in IVF and fertility treatments, fraternal twin pregnancies are climbing, leading us to suggest that congenital chimerism may also rise,” says Sheets.
Chimerism and Daily Life
So, how might being a chimera impact your life? One significant challenge is proving parentage for oneself or one’s children.
A notable case in 2002 involved Lydia Fairchild, who was informed that her cheek swab revealed no match with her child’s DNA while applying for state benefits. This led to a fraud accusation.
To resolve this, officials ordered a blood sample at the birth of her third child. Yet, testing still showed no genetic match, raising the threat of her children being taken by the state.
Fortunately, a lawyer who had read a recent study requested a new sample from Fairchild’s cervix.
In Fairchild’s situation, her reproductive tissue sourced DNA from a different lineage than her blood and saliva. Testing her cervical cells ultimately revealed a match with her children.
Families with twins may frequently experience chimerism – Image courtesy of Getty Images
“Each pregnancy was a roll of the dice concerning which egg would be viable,” Sheets notes, emphasizing that it was the missing twin’s egg that often prevailed.
This implies that chimeric children may carry genetic traits from individuals who never existed at all. In Fairchild’s case, she turned out to be a kind of biological aunt to her kids, potentially having “impregnated” them in the absence of her vanished twins.
Chimerism and Crime
Imagine a scenario: DNA evidence collected from a crime scene fails to match any suspect, including the individual identified by the victim, enabling the true perpetrator to escape.
This situation resembles a plotline from a crime drama, but it’s increasingly relevant in real legal cases involving chimerism. Concerns exist that chimerism may complicate criminal investigations.
“It’s a factor to consider in these cases,” Cindercombe-Court explains. However, forensic analysts have trained protocols to account for DNA mixtures resulting from contamination, transplants, or chimerism.
A surge of chimerism reports in the 1990s raised questions about DNA’s reliability in court for establishing relationships.
Kayla Mandel Sheets’ research on chimeras published in the Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics – Image credit: Kayla Mandel Sheets
The genetic test known as Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis has been the standard in forensic science since the 1980s. However, it has limitations that might yield incorrect results, leading to misidentification of relationships.
Many chimeras could remain undetected due to the complexities of their mixed DNA. As technology evolves, there’s potential for identifying familial connections more accurately.
Experts predict that advancements will lead to the recognition of chimerism more frequently in legal contexts, helping to prevent individuals from losing parental rights or facing other consequences tied to mistaken identity.
Therefore, should DNA evidence be dismissed in court? Not necessarily. However, perhaps it’s time to reconsider its perceived infallibility.
Curiosity often leads us to explore places deemed off-limits, yet these areas have compelling reasons for their restricted access.
From hazardous materials to priceless artifacts, uncover the science behind some of the world’s most restricted zones.
Elephant’s Foot
The Elephant’s Foot is a two-ton mass of molten material under reactor 4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. Image courtesy of Getty Images.
Known as one of the most radioactive substances in history, the Elephant’s Foot is a two-ton mass of molten material found beneath reactor 4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine.
Composed of a rare mixture known as corium, it combines molten reactor core and nuclear fuel.
When discovered in 1986, its extreme radioactivity posed a lethal threat, with exposure times less than three minutes dangerous.
Although radioactive decay reduces its risk over time, it remains hazardous. Large-scale steel and concrete barriers have been erected to contain radiation, and access to the site is strictly controlled.
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
This secure underground facility protects some of the world’s most vital biological samples.
Located beneath permafrost on a mountainside in Spitsbergen, the Global Seed Vault safeguards over one million seeds.
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in the Arctic contains 1.4 million seeds from over 6,000 species. Very few seeds are removed. Image courtesy of Getty Images.
Its mission is to preserve the genetic material of crops and wild species, providing a backup in case other seed banks globally suffer damage from disasters, wars, or diseases.
Lascaux Cave
Located in southern France, access to the Lascaux Cave is restricted to a select few authorized individuals, due to its archaeological significance.
The Lascaux Caves feature over 600 rock paintings dating back around 17,000 years to the Upper Paleolithic period. Image courtesy of Getty Images.
The rise in carbon dioxide levels and heat from visitors created an ideal environment for fungi and lichens, further threatening the artwork.
In 1963, the caves were closed to protect the delicate rock art, and air conditioning was installed for preservation.
Zone Rouge
Covering over 1,200 km2 in northeastern France (Zone Rouge), this region has been closed since World War I.
These former battlefields are filled with unexploded ordnance, and the soil is contaminated with heavy metals like mercury and arsenic from discarded weaponry.
The ‘Zone Rouge’ still bears the scars of World War I, filled with unexploded ordnance. Image courtesy of Alamy.
In the most affected regions, the soil contains up to 300 shells per hectare, and cleanup crews estimate it will take at least 300 years for complete remediation.
Surtsey Island
Access to this uninhabited island in the Atlantic Ocean is exclusive to a select number of scientists.
Surtsey Island was formed in 1963 following the eruption of an underwater volcano. Image courtesy of Getty Images.
Happy 50th birthday, Apple! As we approach April 2026, let’s dive into some of the tech giant’s most iconic products, the challenges that shaped them, and what exciting innovations lie ahead.
Iconic Products
#1 Apple II
The Apple II, launched in 1977, was pivotal in transforming Apple from a budding startup to a technology powerhouse.
VisiCalc, the first mainstream spreadsheet application, launched on Apple II – Image credit: Getty Images
Unlike the DIY computer kits of its era, the Apple II arrived fully assembled, featuring color graphics and connectivity to home televisions.
Its success was fueled by software innovations, most notably VisiCalc, which became a staple in small and medium-sized businesses. This revenue surge financed Apple’s ascent during the 1980 stock market boom and paved the way for future innovations.
#2 Macintosh 128K
While the Apple II laid the foundation, the Macintosh 128K, introduced in 1984, fundamentally redefined user interaction with computers.
Its revolutionary graphical user interface replaced complex text commands with intuitive mouse control, catalyzing a desktop publishing revolution.
The Macintosh 128K played a pivotal role in shaping Apple’s identity – Image credit: Getty Images
Though sales were modest, the Macintosh solidified Apple’s reputation for sleek design and enhanced user experience, distinguishing it from IBM competitors.
#3 iMac G3
The iMac G3, designed by Jony Ive, revitalized Apple under Steve Jobs – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Launched in 1998, the iMac G3 emerged as Apple faced significant financial struggles. This all-in-one computer was instrumental in reviving the brand, featuring vibrant colors and innovative USB connectivity.
The controversial “hockey puck” mouse became iconic, and the iMac G3 solidified Apple’s reputation by merging functionality with modern design.
#4 iPod (1st Generation)
When the iPod debuted in 2001, it catapulted Apple into the musical spotlight, changing the way we consume music forever.
The iPod transformed music purchasing and listening habits – Image credit: Getty Images
With an intuitive scroll wheel and seamless integration with iTunes, the iPod outperformed its competitors, setting new music consumption standards and laying the groundwork for future mobile technologies.
#5 iPhone 3G
While the original iPhone marked Apple’s entry into smartphones, the iPhone 3G, released in 2008, truly revolutionized mobile technology.
With major upgrades including 3G connectivity and the introduction of the App Store, the iPhone 3G redefined mobile usability.
The iPhone 3G epitomized Apple’s vision for smartphones – Image courtesy of Alamy
Developers quickly flocked to create thousands of apps, skyrocketing sales and launching the modern smartphone era.
Notable Missteps
Apple III
In its rush to compete with IBM, Apple released the Apple III without comprehensive testing, leading to overheating and stability issues that tarnished the brand’s credibility.
Apple Pippin
Apple’s attempt to merge gaming with the Macintosh experience fell flat with the Pippin, unable to compete due to its high price and limited game library, selling only 42,000 units against a target of 500,000.
Apple Vision Pro
Despite its innovation, high costs have hampered the Vision Pro’s success – Image courtesy of Apple
The Vision Pro, featuring advanced optics and software, impressed critics but struggled with sales due to its steep price and limited practicality for the average consumer.
The Future of Apple
What lies ahead for Apple? Speculations abound regarding AI-driven smart glasses, smart home displays, and even proprietary security cameras. However, the most buzz surrounds the rumored “iPhone Fold,” possibly set for release this year.
The iPhone Fold aims to eliminate the creases that plague current foldable tech – Image credit: Getty Images
The anticipated “iPhone Fold” is expected to transition from a 5.5-inch display to an iPad mini-sized screen, a “book-style” foldable design.
While competitors like Google and Samsung have forayed into this territory, Apple’s history suggests that innovation often comes with its own timing.
However, this foldable device won’t come cheaply; reports suggest a price tag of around $2,500 (£1,900).
The Earth’s magnetic field originates from moving charges. In a typical bar magnet, these moving charges are electrons orbiting in atoms. However, inside the Earth, the magnetic field is produced by electrons in circulating flows of molten iron.
The exact processes are not fully understood. Essentially, the hot material in the Earth’s outer liquid iron core expands and rises as it becomes less dense than its surroundings. As it cools, it should sink again; yet, Earth’s rotation complicates this process.
Consequently, fluid circulation occurs around the core, generating friction between the various layers, similar to a plastic comb rubbing against a nylon sweater. It’s this movement of charges that ultimately creates the Earth’s magnetic field.
Thus, two essential factors for planetary magnetism are a liquid core and rotation. This is evident because, despite Venus being nearly the size of Earth and having a liquid core, it lacks a significant magnetic field due to its slow rotation speed of once every 243 Earth days.
Why Do the Earth’s Magnetic Poles Move?
Tracking the true position of magnetic north is essential for accurate navigation – Credit: Alamy
The Earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet with distinct north and south poles; however, the processes that generate it are complex and lead to fluctuations in the magnetic poles.
Historically, the North Pole has shifted approximately 15 km (9 miles) annually. Since the 1990s, this acceleration has intensified, with the pole currently moving towards Siberia at a rate of about 55 kilometers (34 miles) per year. Speculatively, this shift might signal an impending magnetic reversal, where the magnetic north and south poles swap positions—an event recorded 171 times over the past 71 million years.
Satellite observations suggest that these movements arise from competing clusters of unusually strong magnetic fields deep within the Earth. Despite various theories, the exact reasons for the reversal of Earth’s poles remain uncertain.
What Happens If the Magnetic Field Disappears?
Auroras visualize magnetic fields that protect us from harmful radiation – Credit: Getty
Scientists discovered the concept of magnetic reversal by studying fields on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where molten rock emerges and solidifies. As it does so, crystals align with the Earth’s magnetic field, leaving a historical record of reversals.
The reversal is believed to take place over a period of 1,000 to 10,000 years, during which the magnetic field can shrink to zero before re-emerging with the opposite polarity. This process implies that there may be extended periods when Earth had no magnetic field.
This absence poses risks for life, as the magnetic field extends far into space, creating a protective bubble that shields the Earth’s surface from harmful solar wind particles and cosmic rays.
These particles usually funnel toward the poles, resulting in stunning auroras. Without this protective shield, the increase in radiation could elevate mutation rates in living cells and potentially lead to cancer in various organisms. Despite these challenges, life has withstood many such magnetic field events.
How Stable Is Earth’s Magnetic Field?
Earth’s core is as hot as the sun’s surface – Credit: Getty
The reliance of the Earth’s magnetic field on electrical currents flowing through molten material means that the field is inherently variable. This variability is evident in the current movement of the magnetic north pole, while the south pole’s movement is less pronounced.
Nonetheless, it’s crucial to recognize that the magnetic field remains relatively stable 99.9% of the time. This stability has played a key role in protecting life on Earth for nearly 3.8 billion years.
How Do Animals Use Magnetic Fields for Navigation?
Pigeons can sense Earth’s magnetic field, enhancing their incredible homing instincts – Credit: Getty
Many animals exhibit remarkable navigation abilities, leading to the hypothesis that they possess a magnetic sense to detect magnetic field lines. However, identifying the underlying mechanisms has proven challenging.
In the 1970s, American researcher Richard Blakemore observed that certain single-celled organisms responded to magnetic fields, leading biologists to discover that these organisms contain small sacs of magnetic iron oxide or sulfide.
Currently, Noboru Ikeya and Jonathan Woodward from the University of Tokyo have demonstrated that magnetic fields can induce chemical changes affecting cell behavior. They found that the presence of a magnet could alter cellular chemicals by up to 3.5%, shedding light on the connection between magnetic fields and biological responses.
Research involving numerous European bird species—including great tits, house sparrows, and blackbirds—indicates that these birds can differentiate between male and female humans, responding accordingly. However, the underlying reasons for this behavior remain elusive.
Western Wagtail (Motacilla flava), small birds from the order Passeriformes and the family Motacilidae. Image credit: Sci.News.
“When facing potential predators, flight is the primary response across various animal species,” stated Daniel Blumstein, a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles.
“Evaluating the costs and benefits of escape is vital for managing predation risks.”
“Flight Initiation Distance (FID) is often utilized to explore the cost-benefit dynamics associated with these risks.”
“FID serves as a reliable measure of fear, reflected in the distance between the observer and the target animal when it decides to flee.”
“In urban birds, FID can effectively gauge predator-related apprehension, even in situations where humans approach without aggressive intent.”
In a recent study across five European nations (the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Poland, and Spain), participants—both male and female—walked directly towards birds located in urban parks and green spaces.
The study revealed that male observers could approach birds an average of 1 meter closer before the birds took flight compared to female observers.
These findings were consistent among the 37 bird species examined in all participating countries, ranging from fast-fleeing species like magpies to slower species like pigeons.
“Adjusting for other variables influencing FID, our research indicates that birds generally flee from a distance roughly 1 meter farther when approached by females compared to males,” the researchers stated.
“This suggests a lower tolerance among birds for female approaches, a trend observed consistently across diverse geographical locations.”
This leads to the conclusion that urban birds can perceive the gender of approaching humans.
However, the specific traits that prompt this detection and the reasons behind the heightened aversion to women remain unclear.
“We firmly stand by our findings that urban birds react distinctively to the gender of human observers, yet we currently lack a definitive explanation,” noted Professor Blumstein.
“Utilizing advanced comparative analysis techniques, we confirmed consistent results across various cities and species, leaving us puzzled regarding the underlying factors.”
Dr. Janina Benedetti from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague remarked, “As a female researcher in the field, it was surprising to see differing reactions from the birds.”
“This study sheds light on how urban wildlife perceives humans, which holds significant implications for urban ecology and the representation of diversity in scientific research.”
“Many behavioral studies presume human observers are neutral; our study illustrates this assumption doesn’t hold true for urban birds.”
The research team has proposed several hypotheses regarding potential factors, such as pheromones, body shape, and gait.
“This aspect of our study is particularly intriguing,” commented Dr. Federico Morelli, a researcher at the University of Turin.
“We’ve identified an interesting phenomenon, yet the reasons remain unclear.”
“Our findings highlight the birds’ advanced capabilities in environmental assessment.”
“Urban birds evidently react to subtle cues that often go unnoticed by humans,” concluded Benedetti.
Future studies could focus on individual aspects such as behavior patterns, olfactory signals, and physical traits, allowing for a more targeted investigation into the specific cues that birds may recognize.
For further information, refer to the findings published in the February 2026 issue of the journal People and Nature.
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Federico Morelli et al. 2026. Sex matters: European urban birds flee faster when approached by females than when approached by males. People and Nature 8 (2): 316-326; doi: 10.1002/pan3.70226
Newly discovered Neoazhdarchian pterosaur footprints in South Korea unveil critical insights into the hunting behaviors of some of the largest flying reptiles.
Life reconstruction of Jinjuichnus procerus and its tetrapod trackmaker, showcasing how Neoazhdarchian pterosaurs hunted small vertebrates. Image credit: Jun Soon-yi.
Pterosaurs, recognized as the first vertebrates to achieve powered flight, are often portrayed soaring over ancient oceans.
However, paleontologists have long posited that many pterosaur species spent considerable time on land, pursuing prey similarly to modern wading birds.
Despite this, concrete evidence supporting such behavior has remained scarce.
“Pterosaurs played vital roles in the Mesozoic ecosystem, flourishing from the late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous,” stated Dr. Jeongyun Jeong from the University of Texas at Austin, along with collaborators from the Korea Dinosaur Research Center at Chonnam University.
“They occupied diverse ecological niches and showcased varied dietary adaptations.”
Specifically, Neo Azhdarchia species, including Thalaminoptera, Hemiptera, and Azhdarchidae, are thought to be primarily terrestrial carnivorous hunters based on their anatomical features and fossil evidence.
“These insights suggest some groups may have utilized hunting strategies akin to modern terrestrial stalkers such as storks and cranes.”
Nonetheless, the fossil record has not yet yielded direct evidence of pterosaurs preying on land.
Jinjuichnus procerus footprints and associated small vertebrate tracks preserved on a single slab. Image credit: Chong et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-48019-y.
The newly identified footprints, dating back 106 million years, are preserved in the Jinju Formation, potentially shedding light on this behavioral gap.
These large, asymmetrical tracks with elongated fingers are attributed to Neoazhdarchian pterosaurs, specifically Jinjuichnus procerus.
The footprints are situated in close proximity to other tracks likely made by small terrestrial animals, such as salamanders or lizards, suggesting possible prehistoric interactions.
The animal’s track indicates a sudden change in direction and a noticeable increase in stride length, hinting at a fast burst of movement.
Pterosaurs displayed impressive speed for their size, moving at approximately 0.8 meters per second.
This aligns with the theory that Neoazhdarchians were highly adapted as terrestrial predators.
However, the possibility of coincidental association between these tracks cannot be dismissed.
“This correlation presents significant ichthyological evidence of terrestrial vertebrate interactions with pterosaurs,” the paleontologists concluded.
“Yet, direct communication between the trackmakers remains difficult to ascertain, as alternative interpretations of these tracks exist.”
“Paired trackways offer valuable insights into factors to consider when evaluating potential interactions involving trackmakers.”
“While scenarios like predation remain uncertain, they highlight the complexities involved in interpreting behavioral associations preserved in ancient trackways.”
The research team’s study is published in the journal Scientific Reports.
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J. Jung et al. 2026. New large pterosaur footprints from Korea and implications for terrestrial behavior. Scientific Reports 16, 12363; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-48019-y
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have obtained a stunning image of the spiral galaxy NGC 3137, situated in the constellation Antolia.
This Hubble image showcases NGC 3137, a spiral galaxy approximately 53 million light-years away in the constellation Antolia. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / D. Tilker / PHANGS-HST Team.
NGC 3137, also known as LEDA 29530, UGCA 203, and ESO 435-47, boasts a diameter of 140,000 light-years.
This magnificent galaxy was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on February 5, 1837.
Experts from Hubble state, “At the heart of NGC 3137, enveloped by a network of fine, dusty clouds, lies a black hole estimated to be 60 million times the mass of the Sun.”
“This spiral galaxy’s unique tilt offers an exceptional view of its elegant, feather-like spiral arms.”
“While the myriad of features is astonishing, it’s the galaxy’s brilliant star clusters that truly captivate observers.”
“Dotted with dense clusters of luminous blue stars and radiant red gas clouds, this galaxy indicates the presence of lively young stars still enveloped in their birth nebulae.”
“Unsurprisingly, these star clusters have drawn Hubble’s keen eye.”
This captivating image of NGC 3137 was captured as part of the PHANGS (Physics at High Angular Resolution in Nearby Galaxies)-HST program, which is dedicated to studying 55 star clusters in nearby galaxies.
The data gathered assists astronomers in identifying star clusters and the glowing nebulae surrounding them, providing insight into the ages of stars within galaxies like NGC 3137.
These observations reveal a detailed panorama of stellar life in spiral galaxies, from nascent stars undergoing formation to ancient stellar populations that developed in the early epochs of their galactic host.
“NGC 3137 is particularly intriguing for astronomers as it moves through space alongside a group of galaxies thought to resemble the Local Group, which includes our Milky Way,” they noted.
“Similar to the Local Group, the NGC 3175 group comprises two large spiral galaxies: NGC 3137 and NGC 3175, which Hubble also examines.”
“The major constituents of the Local Group include the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy.”
“In addition to these two prominent spiral galaxies, both groups contain numerous small dwarf galaxies; however, the precise number of small galaxies within the NGC 3175 group remains uncertain.”
“By investigating this nearby galaxy group, astronomers can glean valuable insights into the dynamics of our galactic home.”
This summer was unforgettable. July struck hard, with 62 recorded heatstroke fatalities in Seoul, compounded by a disgraceful failure of a GS-100 security android that collapsed outside the Unified Chosun Bank. A street cleaner swept the remains into a pile, leaving behind its head, which continued chirping warnings about the heat.
Then came the monsoon season. Undeterred, hundreds of Red Devils supporters packed the World Cup stadium, waving flags of a unified nation, only to have their hopes dashed in the first round: Mexico triumphed 7-0 over the Republic of Korea. The following day, the sun reemerged, casting a white glow over a salvage yard as an aged Grumman A-1 bomb disposal unit maneuvered in a figure-eight pattern. It made way for a young girl named Louisier, who exuberantly threw her arms back as if celebrating, while dragging a woman by her ankles.
This woman, once enchanting with her pink lips and shimmering blonde hair, had seen better days. Her visage was a mosaic of ruins, held together by one cloudy blue eye, while her torso resembled a translucent bioplastic vest. Ruijie pressed the power button on the woman’s neck, but alas, the robot was lifeless.
Yet, those legs—so exquisitely beautiful—caught Mr. Louisier’s attention, and he intended to take them home.
She paused to check her robowear’s battery. Two hours remained. A cutting-edge, battery-powered titanium brace was affixed to her leg, designed to enhance her mobility, a testament to the love that surrounded her.
Nearby, Japanese pampas grass swayed at the edge of the collection lot. Abandoned war machines from the Unification War lay dormant, resembling ancient beasts. Among them rested the SADARM-1000, notorious for its terrifying legacy. Once active, it unleashed a barrage of bladed robots that sliced through the air with abandon.
Decades later, SADARM remained dormant, lying on its side as if in a deep slumber, its gut torn open and robbed of valuable parts. Louisier pulled on the woman’s leg, but when her head struck a piece of buried metal, one blue eye popped out. Cursing, he chased it through the grass until it finally slowed to a crawl at the base of SADARM’s belly.
Ruijie paused for a moment, her heart racing as a swarm of wasps stood still, their wings flickering. From the melted remnants of another machine, perhaps there lay the remnants of a golden drone, or a yellow jacket awaiting to pounce—real or virtual, which posed a greater threat?
Real entities displayed no restraint.
She aspired to achieve perfection, to become as still as a robot. Yet, robots require no enhancements to move. They are discarded when they outlive their utility.
In that instant, a hum emanated from deep within SADARM. The hornets rustled, their wings buzzing with rising indignation, but a unique sound submerged their anger. It was a melodic hum, oscillating like the tide, echoing the gentle rhythm of a temple bell. Hmm, hmm. The vibrations disrupted her robowear and sent chills across her arms.
Silence enveloped the hornets.
Someone is inside. Even her thoughts lowered to whispers, and this must be a person of wonder to be lulled to sleep by the drone of a wasp’s nest.
RUIJIE was treasured by both sides of her family. Her relatives in Fuzhou lovingly called her Rui Rui and Mingzhu, particularly her father, who saw her as a priceless gem.
Her symptoms first arose in fourth grade while her father proudly shared Ruijie’s award-winning science project, “The Great Silence and Why I Think We’re Listening,” during dinner, leading her mother to jest that the table itself could benefit from some silence. Amidst laughter, Louise inhaled pungent shacha sauce through her nose, reaching for a glass of water when it slipped from her grasp.
Days passed, and she dropped her chopsticks. They crashed to the floor, dragging slippery noodles along. Her father commented on her clumsiness. Ruijie, shy but rebellious, remembered those moments and often felt trapped within her own body.
The tremors intensified. Her fingers resisted the urge to clench. Embracing this, she found strength to fend off annoying classmates, yet simple tasks like holding a pen became insurmountable. Hospital visits escalated, tests unveiled potential scares—ALS, PMA, MMA, but they were no martial arts to her. Sleepless nights came, gripped by an iron band tightening on her body. In despair, her parents would sneak in, kneeling beside her as they wrapped sandalwood beads around her hands and prayed for relief.
Thereafter, she was fitted for her first robowear. A rectangular ivory disc was affixed to her hip—a sensor and motor guiding her movements like a gentle nudge on a swing. Louisier stood unassisted for the first time in weeks. Her father praised her as “super,” while her mother captured the moment, touching the photo delicately as if to save its fleeting worth.
Doctors maintained a somber tone—preparations were in order. But Ruijie, a triumphant presence in science fairs, remained optimistic about miracles. She believed in the intricate connections between beings and the universe. She was one with everything. Matter and spirit melded, resembling a swimmer’s fluidity within the sea and the precision of an archer’s shot. With this belief, she envisioned waking up, walking forward, and inhaling the luminous energy of a universe alive with fluctuating light—her body undergoing decay, yet thriving, igniting her internal cosmos, where stars flickered in radiant harmony.
This is an excerpt fromBright, written by Sylvia Park, published by Oneworld, May 2026.Join the New Scientist Book Club and be part of our discussions on Discord.
Wildfires in Patagonia, Argentina, are a significant concern in 2026 due to extreme weather conditions.
Credit: Thomas Cuesta/AFP via Getty Images
Experts predict that 2026 could become the hottest year on record, attributed to climate change and the emerging El Niño phenomenon, which is expected to elevate temperatures even further.
Records indicate that these temperatures will surpass the 1.5°C threshold above pre-industrial levels by 2024.
In the latter half of 2026, the onset of the El Niño phenomenon will likely be felt. This natural climate stage, characterized by the warming of equatorial Pacific waters, influences global temperatures. Some predictions suggest a “Super El Niño,” potentially the strongest recorded, could result in unprecedented temperature spikes in 2027.
Renowned climatologist James Hansen from Columbia University warned Congress in 1988 about human-induced climate warming. Current discussions among his colleagues reflect concerns that 2027 may become even hotter than forecasted.Read more here.
Currently, La Niña, the global climate phenomenon that cools temperatures, temporarily mitigates warming. The initial months of 2026 were approximately 0.1°C cooler than the same period in 2024. To outdo 2024, the latter half of this year must be exceptionally warm.
Based on projections from early 2026, Zeke Hausfather at Berkeley Earth estimates that 2026 will be around 1.47°C above the pre-industrial average, making it the second hottest year recorded.
However, Hansen and his team believe this is an underestimation. They argue that lowering air pollution, which allows more sunlight to warm the planet, is accelerating global warming beyond current models.
In their recent analysis, they highlighted that sea surface temperatures—which are less influenced by short-term weather fluctuations—are now 0.17 degrees Celsius warmer than in 2023. This increase is more substantial than the 0.11 °C rise observed in 2024 compared to 2023.
“The temperature gap is significant enough to suggest that 2026 may indeed become the hottest year recorded,” they assert.
Not all scientists share this certainty. The UK’s Met Office, as predicted in December, projected that 2026 temperatures would reach 1.46°C above pre-industrial levels, with variability between 1.34°C to 1.58°C. Thus, it’s still uncertain if 2026 will surpass the 1.55°C registered in 2024, according to Adam Scaife of the Japan Meteorological Agency.
“Given the temporal uncertainties, providing a probability is wise,” Scaife commented. “Absolute confidence is impossible.”
As the equatorial Pacific continues warming and El Niño probabilities increase, the likelihood of record-breaking global temperatures rises. Yet forecasters still anticipate a wide array of potential outcomes, says John Kennedy from the World Meteorological Organization. “Hansen’s projection is definitive, but it represents one of many forecasting methods.”
In a recent blog post, Hausfather revealed a 26% chance that 2026 will set a new temperature record, alongside a 56% chance of being the second hottest year.
Scaife underscores Hansen’s legitimate concern regarding rapid warming, suggesting that the increased sensitivity of the climate to carbon dioxide emissions may outpace predictions. “If humanity’s climate sensitivity is higher than assumed, we could witness serious implications for future climate patterns,” he remarked.
No matter the precise figures on Earth’s temperatures, the world is likely bracing for more extreme weather conditions as El Niño impacts escalate. Regions such as Australia, Southeast Asia, south-central Africa, India, and the Amazon rainforest are poised to face severe heatwaves, droughts, and wildfires.
“A consensus exists that El Niño will trigger unprecedented levels of global warming,” one expert concluded. “The combination of these factors could lead to extraordinary weather events later this year.”
As our affection for pets becomes increasingly refined, the concept of parenthood often feels more like an obligation. In a world facing economic and environmental challenges, exacerbated by AI, traditional milestones appear elusive.
To express my appreciation, bright, emphasizes that this narrative originated as a children’s book. A family tragedy altered its path. Over several years, I experienced a succession of losses. The first was the death of a beloved dog.
He was fragile, charming with his silky fur and long eyelashes, drawing attention wherever he went. Despite being adored, he was also challenging—he had a distinct aversion to children. Yet, whenever we returned home, he danced about joyously. When we had to say goodbye, his suffering manifested as seizures, the first signs of a brain tumor.
The loss of a pet is fundamentally disruptive. Logically, one might anticipate this eventuality. Bringing an animal into our lives carries an implicit acknowledgment of its finite existence. We tell ourselves, “I know you will eventually depart.”
We often deceive ourselves. Headlines reveal how many have embraced the role of caregivers for these beloved animals—“fur babies,” we call them. The strollers we buy are not for infants but for our older furry companions. What could be more unnatural than losing something akin to a child?
This unnatural aspect inspired my exploration into the realm of robotics, particularly in the context of childhood. In my novel, a robot child goes missing, and her older guardian confronts the degradation not just of her sense of loss, but of her very identity. Aging takes its toll, evident in her diminished mobility; she grapples with the profound void left by the absence of her ‘daughter’, along with the loss of her housekeeper and assistant—all embodied in the robot child.
As robots become integral to our lives, our love for them might eventually be viewed as unconventional. The eeriest aspect is that these artificial beings, which elicit our affections, may not even possess consciousness. Yet, love them we will—just as we have done with countless living beings.
I sought to explore this emotional attachment and sorrow. How does one navigate grief for something deemed socially unacceptable? Not long ago, mourning a pet publicly was often met with the suggestion to “just get another one.” Today, jokes abound about taking time off work for a deceased pet. Grief complicates existence, especially when it lingers. We discuss “processing” grief as though it’s a task to be completed. In a society driven by productivity, being too sad to work renders one ‘unproductive,’ particularly for childless women with a love for animals. The attachment we develop for robotic children may soon face similar scrutiny.
And rightly so; we need to be cautious. Consider the ethics surrounding companies marketing these artificial relationships. Imagine robots cleaning, cooking, and even nurturing the elderly, perhaps embodied as a child designed to love and never leave us.
But what if that love isn’t genuine?
bright May 2026 article by Silvia Park (Oneworld). New Scientist Book Club. Join the conversation here.
In recent years, water bottles have grown substantially, driven by health influencers advocating for increased water intake for benefits such as glowing skin, enhanced brain function, and improved athletic performance. But is it essential to drink excessive amounts of water daily? And can you actually drink too much? Tamara Hugh Butler, a physiologist with over 20 years of hydration research under her belt and the medical research director for California’s Western States Endurance Run—one of the toughest ultramarathons—aims to debunk prevalent hydration myths.
1. Myth: Everyone should drink at least 6 to 8 glasses of water daily.
The required water intake varies considerably among individuals and fluctuates day by day. Common advice suggests everyone needs to drink around two liters or eight glasses daily. However, there’s no universal rule. A person weighing 45 kg who remains seated all day doesn’t need the same amount as a 100 kg rugby player outdoors in the sun.
Your hydration needs should align with your daily fluid loss. Although we’re not aware of how much water we lose, it is our body’s signal for thirst. The brain constantly monitors blood composition, sensing when hydration is required, prompting thirst to prevent dehydration. Ignoring thirst will only amplify the urge to drink.
A common misconception is that thirst indicates severe dehydration; in reality, it simply signals that more water is needed. Personally, I only hydrate when thirsty, which aligns with the principle for 98% of people.
2. Myth: Plain water is superior to coffee for hydration.
As someone who doesn’t enjoy plain water, I often opt for coffee, watery soups, fruits, vegetables, and smoothies for hydration. I only drink plain water when outdoors and in need. You can attain adequate hydration from various beverages and water-rich foods.
Contrary to belief, coffee isn’t a significant diuretic; the need to urinate after drinking coffee results from the liquid itself, not the caffeine. On the other hand, alcohol does act as a diuretic, leading to increased urination after consumption.
3. Myth: Drinking water when not thirsty offers extra health benefits.
Consuming more water than necessary doesn’t contribute additional health benefits except possibly curbing appetite for weight management. Your body tightly regulates hydration levels, meaning excess intake only leads to more frequent urination. There is minimal scientific evidence supporting claims that excessive water intake enhances skin health, alleviates constipation, or boosts immunity.
However, while harmless in moderation, overhydration can be risky. My own research emerged following incidents of runners who passed away from excessive water consumption during marathons. Overdrinking can dilute sodium levels in the blood, resulting in hyponatremia, which may cause brain swelling and, in extreme cases, death.
Research indicates that consuming 3 to 4 liters of water within an hour can lead to symptoms of hyponatremia, including headaches, nausea, and bloating.
4. Myth: Sports drinks are essential for rehydration during exercise.
Many believe sports drinks are necessary for hydration during physical activity due to the electrolytes like sodium and potassium they contain, which replace those lost through sweat. However, studies reveal that these extra electrolytes are typically only needed for prolonged, intense exercises, such as running for 17 hours in extreme heat. Even with regular workouts lasting a couple of hours, the electrolyte loss can generally be compensated by regular meals afterward. While sports drinks can be beneficial for carbohydrate replenishment during intense exercise, most individuals do not require them.
NHS England is swiftly retracting all software it developed from public access, due to concerns over potential hacking threats from advanced artificial intelligence. However, security experts deem this decision unnecessary and counterproductive.
The software produced by NHS has historically been open source, available on GitHub, allowing organizations to innovate and enhance services without duplicating efforts due to funding from public resources.
In light of recent developments, NHS England has issued new directives shared with staff. According to New Scientist, existing and forthcoming software must remain private. “All source code repositories must be private by default. Public access is only permitted under exceptional circumstances,” the guidance states, with a deadline for compliance set for May 11.
Recent reports highlighted that the AI system developed by Anthropic, called Mythos, could detect vulnerabilities in nearly any software, raising concerns about potential cyber breaches.
NHS England cites Mythos as a primary motivator for these new regulations, warning that public repositories heighten the risk of exposing sensitive information that savvy hackers may exploit. “This directive establishes a default closed posture for code while ensuring that organizations evaluate the impact of these changes,” they wrote.
Contrarily, the UK government-backed AI Security Institute (AISI) has found that Mythos primarily targets “small, poorly defended and vulnerable corporate systems,” indicating that truly secure software remains unharmed.
The recent measures contradict NHS service standards, mandating that software originating from public resources be open source. “Public services, funded by taxpayers, should remain reusable and modifiable by others unless deemed necessary otherwise,” as outlined in previous guidelines.
Open source software enhances trust and transparency in public services. The Horizon IT system utilized by the UK Post Office, which caused unjust accusations of theft, might have avoided turmoil if its code had been publicly accessible. Read more about the scandal here.
Terrence Eden, a British civil servant with experience in public data accessibility, criticized the recent move as illogical. “Is it possible for Mythos to scan a repository and identify a bug? Absolutely. But will it lead to a security issue in running NHS services? Highly unlikely,” Eden asserts. “This reaction seems to reflect a panic based on exaggerated fears about Mythos’s capabilities.”
Eden argues that open source solutions are actually more secure due to greater scrutiny from the community. Furthermore, NHS software has long been publicly accessible, meaning it exists in various backups regardless of new restrictions.
“Restricting access now is akin to closing the barn door after the horse has bolted,” Eden comments. “NHS staff are perplexed, uncertain about where this policy aims to lead.”
A spokesperson for NHS England stated: “To bolster our cybersecurity, we are temporarily limiting access to certain NHS England source code while we assess the rapidly evolving AI landscape. We will continue to share source code publicly where necessary.”
Colombian and Dutch ministers Irene Vélez Torres and Stientje van Veldhoven embrace at the conclusion of a significant meeting in Santa Marta, Colombia.
Ivan Valencia/Associated Press/Alamy
In November, nations convened in Brazil for the annual UN climate change summit COP30, with aspirations to develop a comprehensive roadmap for transitioning away from fossil fuels. However, due to resistance from oil-dependent nations, the final document failed to even address fossil fuels.
In response, Colombia and the Netherlands launched a pivotal conference on the transition away from fossil fuels this week, hosting 57 countries at Colombia’s coal export hub in Santa Marta. This “coalition of the willing” featured not only frontrunners in climate action like the European Union and the United Kingdom, but also prominent oil-exporting nations such as Canada, Nigeria, and Norway.
The summit reinforced the necessity for countries to intensify their investment in renewable energy as a countermeasure to the energy crisis exacerbated by the war in Iran. While this signifies progress, some experts remain skeptical about whether verbal commitments will translate into tangible international action.
Johan Rockström, a professor at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany, noted that the conference focused on actionable strategies rather than debating the validity of the climate crisis. “This marks a significant move toward implementation,” he commented.
Global investment in renewable energy has doubled, with transitions to low-carbon energy sources effectively replacing fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal. However, projections indicate that without significant change, global temperatures may rise over 2°C by 2100.
Participants of the summit are preparing for a follow-up conference next year in Tuvalu, with a pre-meeting set for Ireland to discuss national roadmaps for transitioning away from fossil fuels.
While these roadmaps are voluntary, their intention is to encompass both domestic consumption and exports of fossil fuels, which are often excluded from COP climate targets.
At the Santa Marta conference, scholars announced that Colombia aims to reduce its energy emissions by 90 percent by 2050, potentially yielding an economic benefit of $280 billion.
The event also marked France as the first high-income nation to unveil a roadmap for transitioning away from fossil fuels, focusing on expanding solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear energy, while enhancing public transport, electric vehicles, and heat pumps.
The proposed timeline calls for a phase-out of fossil fuel energy: coal consumption by 2030, oil by 2045, and gas by 2050. In contrast, many countries only project net-zero targets, which may still allow for fossil fuel emissions supplemented by carbon capture technologies.
The conference aims to eliminate fossil fuel subsidies in the financial sector, redirecting funds toward renewable energy and overcoming the debt crises that hinder low-income countries from investing in sustainable energy.
“We can create pathways to dissolve fossil fuel subsidies and allocate that money towards climate finance,” said Jenny Miller from the Global Climate and Health Alliance. “This can only happen through open discussions among countries about necessary reforms.”
Simon Sharp, of S-Curve Economics, emphasizes that while addressing debt is crucial, the fossil fuel roadmap’s impact will be limited unless there’s a decrease in demand for oil and gas. He advocates for incentives to decarbonize lagging sectors like steel rather than simply limiting fossil fuel outputs.
“Diplomacy is important, but we must engage with the right stakeholders,” Sharp remarked, noting the absence of major developing countries such as China, India, and South Africa from Santa Marta.
The true efficacy of the conference will hinge on the ability of participants to transform their aspirations into actionable agreements at COP31 in Turkey, as emphasized by Joanna Depledge from Cambridge University.
“Are we simply echoing our beliefs?” she asked. “Or will we strive harder for consensus at COP? The essence of COP is to inclusively engage all stakeholders, including fossil fuel-exporting nations.”
Two Oak Trees in Spring Showcasing Leaf Growth Variations
Sven Finberg
After extensive leaf consumption by caterpillars in one season, oak trees experience a delay in bud opening by three days the following spring. This phenomenon ensures that when caterpillars hatch, their food source is scarce, resulting in a significant reduction in caterpillar survival and, consequently, leaf availability.
As spring approaches, warmer days trigger oak trees to flourish anew, with buds blossoming and young leaves unfurling. Many species sync their life cycles with this seasonal event. For instance, specific caterpillar species emerge precisely when new leaves appear, allowing them to feed on tender, nutrient-rich foliage immediately.
Researchers, including Somen Maric from the University of Wurzburg in Germany, have identified a defense mechanism employed by oak trees. By analyzing a large area of northern Bavaria using Sentinel-1 radar satellite data from 2017 to 2021, they discovered that the condition of oak canopies reveals critical insights.
This research focused on stalked oaks and sessile oaks (Quercus serrata and Quercus petraea), assessing 27,500 pixels of satellite imagery, where each pixel corresponds to an area of about 10 by 10 meters—approximately equal to the size of a tree’s crown.
A significant outbreak of gypsy moths (Lymantria Disper) occurred in 2019, causing severe damage as these caterpillars voraciously consumed the trees’ leaves.
The satellite data revealed a critical pattern: oak trees heavily infested by caterpillars exhibited a three-day delay in leaf emergence compared to healthier trees. This delay led to a striking 55% decrease in tree damage from the previous year, as caterpillars emerged to find their food source depleted.
This adaptation allows oak trees to withstand caterpillar infestations by preventing these pests from having immediate access to nutritious young leaves, ultimately leading to higher mortality rates among caterpillars, as stated by Malick.
Caterpillar Resting on an Oak Leaf Bud
Sven Finberg
Oak trees possess leaves that are challenging for herbivores to consume. Research suggests that these trees may release aromatic compounds that attract natural predators to caterpillars. “Delaying bud flowering appears to be a more effective defense mechanism than other strategies,” states Malick.
According to James Cahill from the University of Alberta, while the correlation between bud delay and caterpillar emergence is clear, further studies are needed to establish causation. The delay might result from diminished tree health due to leaf loss, necessitating more data across multiple outbreaks.
Professor Malick points out that while the delay may arise from physiological challenges, its consistency across various tree populations suggests it is an adaptive response that significantly mitigates herbivory.
“Understanding this mechanism is crucial and warrants further investigation,” notes James Blande from the University of Eastern Finland.
Observations indicate that forests may green later in spring than what current climate models predict. Malick emphasizes the importance of recognizing that plant responses extend beyond just climate change effects.
“It’s vital that we understand plants’ adaptive strategies in response to climate variations,” Cahill adds.
Credit: Erich Karkoschka, NASA and the University of Arizona
While the rings of Uranus may appear similar visually, their compositions reveal surprising differences. Understanding these rings is critical for uncovering the mysteries of Uranus’s unique and dynamic system.
The outer rings of Uranus, known as the Mu and New rings, are notably dark and challenging to observe given their vast distance. Researchers, including Imke de Pater from the University of California, Berkeley, utilized nearly 20 years of data from the Keck Telescope, Hubble Space Telescope, and James Webb Space Telescope to conduct a thorough analysis.
The team discovered that the outermost ring, Mulling, appears blue, suggesting it consists of minute ice grains. Conversely, the New ring takes on a reddish hue, rich in dust and complex organic molecules known as thorin.
The ice particles within Mulling likely originate from Uranus’s small moon, Mab, implying that Mab is composed of ice rather than rock, unlike other neighboring moons. However, the mechanism by which these tiny ice fragments escaped Mab to form the ring remains uncertain.
This scenario shares similarities with Saturn’s E ring, which is sustained by the icy moon Enceladus, known for its substantial water plumes. In contrast, Mab, which measures approximately 12 kilometers in diameter, is not expected to produce similar plumes.
“We don’t anticipate plumes on small moons like Mab, though the comparisons are intriguing,” says Tracy Becker, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Texas who was not involved in the study. Instead, it is probable that micrometeorites have collided with Mab’s surface, propelling ice grains into space.
It is not surprising that the New ring is laden with dust, yet the rocky bodies responsible for this dust have yet to be identified, suggesting they are relatively small. The researchers also noted that the brightness of the New ring fluctuated over time—its brightness was halved between 2003 and 2006. This may indicate a significant collision event prior to 2003, causing a temporary increase in brightness.
The key question is not just why the two rings differ so significantly but why the objects that contribute to them exhibit such variance, despite orbiting similar regions around Uranus. “All rocky bodies might originate from a moon that fragmented, but Mab stands apart,” De Pater remarked. “This points back to the origins of the entire system and historical events.” Mab might be debris from a larger moon of Uranus, yet the factors that led to this process remain unclear.
“We are able to add two or three critical pieces to the puzzle that enrich our understanding of the Uranus system,” Becker emphasized. “This suggests that the puzzle is far more complex than we previously believed and that additional pieces are necessary for a complete understanding of the system.”
As a proud dog owner, I can wholeheartedly say that my love for my dogs often surpasses my affection for most humans. It might sound odd, but if that’s being brainwashed, then I’m all for it! Who wouldn’t?
Many dog owners invest significant time and effort into training their pets. We encourage good behavior through rewards, such as treats and praise, leading to more consistent positive actions over time.
Your furry friend will learn essential commands like “come” and “sit.” However, the same training techniques can sometimes backfire.
For instance, my dog has picked up on the fact that the moment I sit down to work, he becomes a master at begging for attention. The only surefire way to quiet his antics is to reward him with treats.
In this delightful game of cause and effect, I feel trained—or dare I say brainwashed—but just look at how adorable he is; it’s hard to care!
Interestingly, some dogs are quite clever. According to one study, dogs can distinguish between “cooperative” people who provide treats and “competitive” ones who hoard them.
During the experiment, dogs guided cooperative individuals to food boxes while leading competitive ones to empty boxes, indicating a conscious choice to deceive potential non-supporters.
So, while our dogs seem to brainwash us, MRI studies reveal that they trigger activation in brain areas associated with rewards and social connections when interacting with their owners. Research suggests that dogs truly understand how to bond with us.
Thus, while neuroscientists may not definitively state that “dogs love us,” their findings imply a strong emotional connection.
This article responds to Alicia Salt’s question emailed to us: “Is my dog brainwashing me for treats?”
If you have any questions, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out on Facebook, TwitterorInstagram (please include your name and location when contacting us).
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Do you envy those early risers who bounce out of bed at dawn? Or perhaps you’re one of the fortunate ones! It’s widely believed that the early bird catches the worm, with pop culture echoing the sentiment that early risers achieve more, get more done, and generally exude positivity.
Numerous articles suggest that waking up just an hour earlier can unlock hyper-productivity akin to the world’s most successful entrepreneurs.
If you identify as a night owl, relishing late nights and cozy mornings, you might be hoping that this notion isn’t entirely accurate. However, research into “chronotypes” largely supports the stereotype of energetic morning people versus laid-back night owls. Yet, the reality is often more complex.
Your chronotype not only dictates when you hit the hay but also affects your peak performance times. Larks generally excel in the morning, while owls thrive later in the day, providing an edge in professions with evening shifts.
Interestingly, studies show that women are more likely to be larks while men often identify as owls.
Night owls are often more extroverted – Photo credit: Getty
Age also plays a crucial role; during adolescence, many shift towards an owl chronotype, but as we age, we tend to become more lark-like.
When it comes to happiness, research reveals a correlation between being a morning person and increased life satisfaction.
Around 60% of people fall between larks and owls – Photo credit: Getty
This disparity may be partly due to the challenges that night owls face, such as less sleep or more sleep disturbances, rather than an inherent advantage to being a lark.
Potential factors enhancing the lark’s advantage include superior emotional regulation and a more positive perception of time compared to owls.
These insights prompt us to consider the origins of our lark and owl tendencies, and crucially, whether they can be altered.
Research from the University of Warwick indicates that chronotype is linked to personality traits. Morning people often score higher in conscientiousness—one of the Big Five personality traits associated with discipline and ambition. Conversely, night owls typically exhibit extraversion and openness.
The promising news is that neither personality traits nor chronotype are fixed. Both are influenced by factors beyond genetics, including home environment and daily responsibilities.
As the Warwick study suggests, this plasticity implies that “…it may be possible to intentionally adjust one’s chronotype.”
To transition into a lark, consider basic strategies such as avoiding screens in the evening, gradually shifting your bedtime earlier, and rewarding yourself with enjoyable morning activities like a warm cup of coffee or a relaxing walk.
This suggests that merely changing your sleep schedule might not be a quick path to happiness. You may need to adopt a comprehensive approach rather than just setting a morning alarm.
The relationship between chronotype and happiness may also flow in reverse—if you lead a fulfilling life, finding it easier to retire early at night can make it simpler to awaken as a lark each morning.
Scanning Electron Micrograph of Bacteria on Human Tongue
Credit: Science Photo Library/Alamy
Our dietary habits significantly impact our health, and the microorganisms residing in our mouths are equally crucial. A groundbreaking study investigating the relationship between the oral microbiome and metabolic health indicates that these findings could eventually help identify risks for obesity, prediabetes, and fatty liver disease.
“This represents one of the most ambitious efforts to correlate the oral microbiome with metabolic health across various organ systems,” noted Lindsay Edwards from King’s College London, who was not involved in the research.
The oral microbiome, the second largest microbial ecosystem in the body after the gut, has been linked to various health conditions. Previous research mainly focused on limited participants or single conditions, utilizing 16S ribosomal RNA profiling. While this method identifies broad microbial groups, it cannot specify bacterial strains or the genes they may carry.
In contrast, Imran Razak and his colleagues at the Mohammed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence analyzed oral swabs from 9,431 participants using whole metagenomic sequencing, allowing for a comprehensive examination of all microbial DNA present. They paired this microbiome data with liver ultrasound scans, continuous blood glucose monitoring, and body composition analysis to create a robust statistical atlas. This atlas relates specific oral bacteria and their genes to 44 metabolic traits, such as liver fat, blood sugar fluctuations, and visceral fat, all relevant to conditions like high blood pressure, prediabetes, obesity, and fatty liver disease.
Many bacteria identified in this study have appeared in previous research. For instance, in early 2023, Ashish Jha from New York University Abu Dhabi reported that Streptococcus parasanguinis and Oribacterium sinus were more prevalent in obese individuals. Razak’s study corroborates these findings, linking these bacteria to increased BMI and body fat.
Additionally, new research has provided insights into microbial functions that may influence disease processes. For example, polyamine biosynthesis, associated with worse liver health and blood sugar control, as well as microbial pathways related to ceramide breakdown (lipids known to contribute to insulin resistance), were linked to adverse glycemic control.
Although the study does not definitively state that these bacteria cause health issues, Razak emphasizes that “bacteria serve as reliable indicators for future mechanistic studies.” The researchers hypothesize that the oral microbiome might not merely be a passive marker but may actively influence metabolic diseases.
Jha discusses potential pathways through which oral microbes might affect metabolic health, including the translocation of bacterial products into the bloodstream through inflamed gums, which can cause further inflammation. Oral microbes can also alter gut microbiota ecology and secrete chemicals that impact processes like blood sugar regulation and cardiovascular health.
Overall, the prevailing hypothesis suggests that it is not individual oral bacteria that lead to obesity or metabolic disorders, but rather “dysbiosis” of the oral microbiome, contributing to chronic inflammation and metabolic burdens through repeated microbial exposure, oral-gut transit, immune activation, and microbial metabolite production, as noted by Jha.
A puzzling aspect of this research is understanding why some individuals harbor potentially harmful microorganisms. Razak suggests that factors such as gum health, age, gender, smoking, and diet may all play a role. Notably, many associations persisted even when considering common oral health issues like periodontal disease.
Future studies that confirm these findings could enable the use of microbial signatures in the oral cavity as metrics for assessing metabolic risk. The prospect of a simple oral swab offering early warnings for conditions like fatty liver disease and blood sugar imbalances is particularly compelling, especially given the rising prevalence of metabolic disorders and the urgent need for non-invasive diagnostic tools, as highlighted by Edwards.
Adjusting the balance of these microorganisms may eventually become a viable therapeutic approach, Razak suggests.
While further research is needed to deepen our understanding of these associations and validate them across diverse populations, this study marks a significant advancement in microbiome research at a population level. It reinforces the growing recognition that the oral cavity is not only a reflection of oral health but may also act as a sentinel of systemic physiology, according to Edwards.
Chia, marketed as an eco-friendly alternative to Bitcoin, is facing scrutiny for its energy consumption, which is reported to be 18 times higher than what its developers initially claimed. Chia Network has admitted that this figure is “not far off.”
Unlike Bitcoin, which depends on energy-intensive mining through a proof-of-work system, Chia employs a space-time proof mechanism that doesn’t require massive computations but rather relies on unused hard disk space. Currently, Bitcoin consumes around 157 terawatt-hours annually, roughly equivalent to the energy usage of all of Poland. In contrast, Chia miners earn new coins based on the amount of space they allocate for data and the duration they maintain that allocation.
Getting started with Chia involves two main processes: plotting and farming. Plotting is a CPU and memory-intensive task that generates data for storage, while farming involves simply storing data and confirming its existence to the network. High-speed solid-state drives (SSDs) are typically used for plotting, whereas economical, slower hard drives are used for farming.
A study by Soraya Jerab and her team at Algeria’s High School of Computer Science and Digital Technology revealed that the plotting phase consumes a significant number of SSDs, contributing to Chia’s carbon footprint. Their research involved precise power measurement of devices engaged in various Chia tasks, revealing that Chia’s annual CO2 emissions are likely between 0.584 million and 1.402 million tonnes. This estimate vastly exceeds the claimed 50,000 tonnes, indicating emissions two orders of magnitude larger than other mainstream blockchains like Ethereum.
“The primary emissions are from hardware production,” notes Jerab. “To use Chia, new hardware must be purchased, and this production process consumes energy.”
The researchers found that running the plotting process just 160 times could lead to the rapid degradation of a new SSD, and Chia’s alternative plotting methods might further increase emissions by requiring more RAM and GPUs, which are also energy-intensive.
As co-author Clementine Gritty stated, “While it’s still better than Bitcoin, it won’t save the planet.”
Gene Hoffman, CEO of Chia Network, argues that the study’s findings overstate the network’s environmental impact. “We are being charged for the carbon footprint of building drives that would’ve gone to landfill after four years of use. Chia farming has created a market for otherwise discarded hardware,” he said.
In any case, Hoffman is optimistic about upcoming changes to the Chia network. The anticipated Proof of Space 2.0 is expected to significantly reduce emissions and improve energy efficiency. “We believe we’re doing a good job, and Proof of Space 2.0 will be even more effective,” he asserted.
Over the past century, the cranial structure of Japanese individuals has evolved significantly, resulting in rounder heads, narrower cheekbones, broader upper jaws, and thinner, more prominent noses.
Although variations outside Japan may exist, global trends suggest similar morphological changes are likely happening worldwide. Shiori Usui from the Chiba Prefectural Science Police Research Institute emphasizes that this is a natural progression as lifestyles modernize globally.
Scientists traditionally use measurements from human remains from the 19th and early 20th centuries to establish baseline comparisons for “modern” humans. Usui explains that today’s populations are generally taller and larger due to advancements in health, diet, and environmental factors, which may also provide insights into head shape changes.
To investigate these changes, researchers utilized CT scans to analyze skulls from 34 men and 22 women who died of natural causes between 1900 and 1920, with their remains donated to Kyoto University School of Medicine for research purposes. They also examined 29 men and 27 women who passed away between 2022 and 2024. Autopsy imaging is increasingly common in Japan, contributing to extensive “virtual skeleton collections,” notes Usui.
Using 3D skull images, researchers identified subtle yet consistent shifts over time. Notably, contemporary individuals are becoming more brachycephalic, as the oval-shaped skulls of the early 20th century are being replaced by rounder forms. While earlier hypotheses suggested these trends, CT scans revealed unexpected differences, including changes in cheekbone structure, nose shape, and forehead contour, which has become shorter and slightly concave over time.
Additionally, the mastoid process, located behind the ear, has increased in size and prominence. Usui emphasizes that these changes are too recent to be attributed to genetic evolution; rather, they likely result from lifestyle factors, such as improved childhood nutrition and the consumption of softer foods requiring less chewing.
Interestingly, the disparities between male and female skulls have intensified compared to a century ago, with male skulls exhibiting stronger brow ridges, larger mastoid areas, and more pronounced facial features than female skulls. “This finding was unexpected,” Usui admits. The team assumed that similar lifestyles between genders would diminish physical differences, leading them to anticipate more “androgynous” facial features, yet their analysis revealed increasing sexual dimorphism.
A recent 2024 US survey indicates that both men’s and women’s facial structures evolve similarly over time. However, a 2000 US study noted a contrasting trend, with head shapes becoming more oval than round, potentially due to earlier studies’ technical limitations, as well as significant changes in the ethnic makeup of the U.S. population due to immigration.
“We aspire to conduct more global research to comprehend how different populations uniquely adapt to rapid environmental modernization,” Usui adds.
Francesco Capello from the University of Palermo highlights that even relatively recent human populations are not fixed; they continue to evolve. “This invites crucial questions regarding the interplay between genetics and environment, especially for traits like bone structure that were once considered stable,” he notes.
The findings underscore the need for scientists to reassess the criteria used for identifying human remains, says Kimberly Plomp from the University of the Philippines Diliman. “The significant changes in modern human skull morphology suggest that existing identification methods may no longer be as reliable as previously thought,” she warns. “This has vital implications for biology and forensic anthropology.”
The years 2023 and 2024 are projected to be the warmest on record, coinciding with a significant Pacific climate event known as El Niño. This phenomenon raises surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean, resulting in excessive heatwaves in the Amazon and heavy rainfall across the southern United States. Conversely, the La Niña event introduces cooler temperatures, bringing wetter conditions to the northern United States.
Typically, during an El Niño, the warm water in the eastern Pacific weakens the trade winds, creating a self-reinforcing cycle that amplifies the warming. However, the El Niño of 2023 is distinct; despite rapid ocean warming, the trade winds have remained strong. Researchers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, led by Qihua Peng and Shang-Ping Xie, have explored this unique occurrence.
To understand the changes, the team monitored pressure variations across the Pacific using the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) established by NOAA. Typically, as the eastern Pacific warms during an El Niño, the pressure differences across the Pacific decrease. However, in 2023, while eastern Pacific temperatures soared more than 3°F (2°C) above average, the pressure drop was only about 31% stronger than anticipated. Additionally, alterations in wind speed and direction accounted for only about 30% of the warming. What then accounts for the robust El Niño in 2023?
To answer this question, researchers expanded their analysis beyond the Pacific, examining satellite data for sea surface temperatures from NOAA. They discovered that the North Atlantic and Indian Oceans also recorded unprecedented heat in 2023, with North Atlantic temperatures exceeding 2°F (1°C) above normal, marking an unusual occurrence. This indicates that El Niño events can be influenced by oceanic conditions globally, not simply confined to the Pacific Ocean.
The team employed a computer program to simulate atmospheric responses to oceanic temperatures using a community atmosphere model. This simulation helped assess how heat from the North Atlantic and Indian Oceans affects the Pacific. Results indicated that heat generated large columns of hot air in these regions, which then cooled at high altitudes before descending over the central Pacific. This enhanced updraft and downdraft loop directed the trade winds westward, fortifying the easterly trade winds by about 30% compared to what Pacific warming would alone suggest. If trade winds remained strong, why was the eastern Pacific so warm in 2023?
To uncover this, researchers scrutinized NOAA’s ocean temperature and sea level data over three consecutive years of La Niña from 2020 to 2023 using the Global Ocean Data System. During this period, the strengthening trade winds transported heat into the western Pacific, leading to thermal expansion of the warming waters, creating a “mountain” of warm water in the western Pacific — the highest level of heat storage recorded since 1982. When the weakening La Niña diminished the trade winds, this accumulated warm water surged eastward, paving the way for the El Niño event.
To ascertain if the stored heat alone could trigger El Niño, researchers utilized a computer simulation to model ocean-atmosphere interactions with a coupled general circulation model. They input observed sea temperatures from April 1, 2023, when La Niña ended, omitting all subsequent wind alterations. Their model adeptly replicated 87% of the observed warming from June to December 2023, indicating that only 13% of the warming resulted from trade wind influences. The stored heat migrated eastward via massive underwater waves along the equator, forcing deeper cold ocean water upwards, which warmed the surface layers. This oceanic dynamics thus enabled the 2023 El Niño to emerge without the typical wind feedback.
The research team posits that in an increasingly warmer world, substantial heat reservoirs in the western Pacific may become more prevalent, potentially leading to a rise in the frequency of strong El Niño events. However, since their analysis focused on this singular phenomenon, the frequency of El Niño occurrences driven purely by oceanic processes remains uncertain. Ultimately, their findings reveal that the ocean is not merely a passive player in El Niño events but can actively influence their development.
J. Craig Venter, a groundbreaking scientist renowned for his pivotal role in decoding the human genome and a trailblazer in modern genomics, passed away on Wednesday, as announced by his institute.
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He was 79 years old.
The J. Craig Venter Institute shared a statement on Wednesday confirming that he died in San Diego after being hospitalized due to cancer complications.
Venter was a pioneering scientist who significantly influenced the field of genomics. His institute asserted that he championed the idea that scientific advancements should provide “real-world impact.” He also played a crucial role in establishing synthetic biology.
Venter served as a naval officer in Vietnam from 1967 to 1968. He later earned his BS in biochemistry and PhD in physiology and pharmacology from the University of California, San Diego.
His influential research primarily focused on genomics. Venter stated that his institute “moved genome science from a slow, gene-by-gene discovery process to scalable, data-driven science, paving the way for demonstrated genome design and construction.”
Venter led efforts to create one of the first draft sequences of the human genome. His team published the first “high-quality” diploid human genome, emphasizing the importance of measuring genetic variations inherited from parents.
The human genome is a comprehensive set of genetic information, stored as DNA within nearly every cell nucleus in the body, as described by the J. Craig Venter Institute.
In the 1990s, Venter and his team at the National Institutes of Health developed expressed sequence tags (ESTs), which facilitated the rapid discovery of new genes.
In 1995, Venter and colleagues utilized “whole-genome shotgun sequencing” to sequence the DNA of Haemophilus influenzae, marking it as the first free-living organism analyzed.
In 1998, Venter co-founded Celera Genomics.
His team at Celera competed against the National Institutes of Health-supported Human Genome Project, which received funding from the US government and UK research partners.
As president of Celera in 2000, Venter and the public consortium announced they had compiled the first draft of the human genome, a landmark achievement in biological science.
Beyond genomics, Venter directed the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition in Metagenomics, revealing remarkable microbial diversity.
Scientists globally paid tribute to Venter, acknowledging his remarkable contributions to the field.
“Craig Venter was a force of nature, a controversial yet profoundly impactful figure,” remarked Sir John Hardy, a neuroscience professor at University College London. He stated in a press release. “The race to finish sequencing the human genome was marked by competition between American and British consortia. This rivalry undeniably accelerated the process, but ultimately, both teams published their findings simultaneously in Science and Nature.”
Dr. Roger Highfield, scientific director at the Science Museum Group, commented that Venter was an “adventurous and tireless pioneer” in genome sequencing and synthetic biology.
“I was in correspondence with him only weeks ago about a new writing project,” Highfield shared. He mentioned a recent diagnosis, but the news came as a shock. While Craig was a polarizing figure, he was undeniably passionate and driven by science.”
Throughout his illustrious career, Venter received numerous accolades, including the 2008 National Medal of Science, the 2002 Gardner Foundation International Award, the 2001 Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Awards, and the King Faisal International Science Award.
Feedback is New Scientist. Your source for cutting-edge science and technology news. Share your insights with us at feedback@newscientist.com.
Zack GPT: The Future of Feedback
Feedback has seen its fair share of bosses—some commendable, others not. It’s a diverse history, yet none were artificial intelligence until now.
Meta, the parent company of Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp, is reportedly crafting an AI version of CEO Mark Zuckerberg. This AI, known as ZuckGPT, aims to interact with employees by emulating Zuckerberg’s public persona, policies, and even his mannerisms. This initiative is spearheaded by Meta’s Superintelligence Labs, dedicated to developing lifelike AI interactions.
The intent is to foster a deeper connection between employees and Zuckerberg. However, opinions may vary on the desirability of such a digital interaction.
From Feedback’s perspective, this concept raises concerns. Historically, my bosses had a tendency to be elusive, attending meetings or being out of the office. Their absence allowed for a degree of flexibility—sometimes extending beyond mere work.
Conversely, the digital ZuckGPT has the potential to be omnipresent, maintaining an online presence at all hours. Yet, this approach could lead to a lack of genuine human connection.
Interestingly, there’s a chance this AI initiative may not succeed. Long-time readers might remember Meta’s ambitious yet ultimately disappointing foray into the Metaverse, where they struggled with basic avatar interactions.
Should the venture into an AI Zuckerberg fall short, it may be due to technical challenges, such as animating facial movements correctly.
The Mystery of Theoretical Chocolate
Another thought-provoking topic has emerged under the banner of “Unexpected Questions”. Unlike lighter inquiries into trivia, this one could potentially transform the chocolate industry.
Reader Toby Pereira was inspired by Tom Gold’s comic on confectionery structures and inquired about the existence of a fourth type of chocolate—one devoid of cocoa powder and milk. Such a chocolate might only consist of cocoa butter and sugar, which could prove problematic for digestion. The existence of this hypothetical concoction remains a mystery.
The quest for this elusive type of chocolate continues, and we invite readers to share their insights!
Seeking Words for Unseen Concepts
This section invites reader contributions to a linguistic conundrum: identifying words that describe certain scenarios we feel lack proper nomenclature. This request closes the column, encouraging fresh engagement.
Our exploration brings us to the Ship of Theseus paradox regarding identity. The entity raises questions about continuity through the replacement of components. Interestingly, the Wikipedia page discussing this topic has undergone numerous substantial edits, leading to a fascinating inquiry: Is it still the Ship of Theseus?
In essence, the Wikipedia page illustrates the paradox itself. If you have a suitable term to encapsulate this phenomenon, we urge you to share!
Have a story for Feedback?
You can share your article with us at feedback@newscientist.com. Don’t forget to include your home address. Explore this week’s highlights and past feedback on our website.
Renowned biologist Craig Venter, instrumental in decoding the human genome and advancing synthetic biology, has passed away.
According to the J. Craig Venter Institute, Venter died “after a brief hospitalization due to unexpected side effects from treatment for a recently diagnosed cancer.” He was 79 years old.
Venter’s legacy is vast and impactful, marked by significant advancements in genomics and biodiversity. His career also highlighted the commercialization of biological research and the competitive nature of modern science.
Venter’s journey into research was unconventional; after high school, he was an uninterested student drawn to sailing and surfing. His experience in the US Navy during the Vietnam War inspired him to turn his life around. Upon returning home, he pursued higher education, eventually becoming a biomedical researcher at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the 1980s.
Venter’s fascination with the human genome led him to utilize automated sequencing machines, significantly accelerating research. He began with sequencing short DNA fragments called expressed sequence tags, igniting controversy when he claimed NIH would patent these sequences, leading to heated debates within the scientific community.
The Official Human Genome Project (HGP) launched in 1990, but Venter deemed their methods too slow. In 1998, he founded the for-profit company Celera Genomics to expedite the sequence, competing against the publicly funded HGP.
While HGP employed Sanger sequencing, which involved mapping and piecing together the genome, Venter introduced the shotgun sequencing technique. This novel method involved breaking the genome into random pieces followed by sequencing and computer analysis. In 1995, he successfully sequenced the whole bacterial genome, laying the groundwork for targeting the more complex human genome.
The race culminated in a draw, with both teams publishing draft sequences in 2000, followed by their finalized results the next year. The HGP released all of its data publicly, while Venter’s Celera initially withheld some for commercial benefit.
Despite backlash from the genetic community, Venter moved forward with his innovative research. From 2004 to 2006, he sailed aboard his yacht, the Sorcerer II, collecting seawater samples and sequencing vast amounts of DNA, resulting in the identification of over 1000 new protein families.
Venter’s ambition extended to creating synthetic life forms, asserting that manipulating organisms could yield significant advantages in fields ranging from medicine to agriculture. In 2010, his team synthesized a novel cell.
Starting with the bacterium Mycoplasma mycoides, they synthesized an artificial genome by combining lab-generated DNA strands and replaced the original genome with an artificial one, allowing the cell to thrive and multiply instead of dying.
Venter clarified that he did not create life from scratch but engaged in generating a new form of life whose genome was entirely computer-generated, lacking biological ancestry. His team humorously inscribed their names onto the genome, symbolizing the successful transfer of genetic data.
Venter faced skepticism from fellow synthetic biologists who questioned the purpose of his flashy experiments, suggesting that alternative approaches may yield more practical outcomes. However, he persisted in refining his work, stripping away non-essential genes to develop organisms with “minimal genomes,” revealing many unknown essential gene functions and underscoring the complexity of life.
It will take extensive analysis for historians to evaluate Venter’s full impact on science. Nevertheless, his contributions are undeniably profound and transformative.
If this revolutionary method proves effective, it represents a monumental advancement in genetic science. Researchers from South Korea have developed a magnetically controlled switch designed to activate genes within cells, potentially paving the way for groundbreaking medical therapies. However, skepticism remains regarding the validity of their findings, particularly due to concerns about inconsistencies such as altered images in published research.
The pivotal concern is whether these results can be replicated by independent groups. Critic Andrew York, a physicist, stresses the necessity for verification prior to publication. “This assertion is so unprecedented that it warrants external validation to confirm reproducibility,” York noted, emphasizing a proactive approach to scientific scrutiny. He highlighted that the study has been in review for three years, ample time to confirm its findings with external research institutes.
The lead researcher, Kim Jong Pil, a professor at Dongguk University in Seoul, has indicated ongoing collaborations with various biotech firms and research organizations, with a commitment to releasing joint datasets in upcoming publications.
Existing methods, such as optogenetics, utilize light to influence biological processes by engineering cells to produce light-responsive proteins. This technology facilitates the firing of nerve cells when exposed to specific light frequencies, proving especially useful in research targeting certain visual impairments.
However, a critical limitation of optogenetics is its inability to penetrate deeply into body tissues. To address this, global researchers are exploring magnetic fields as alternative control signals for biological processes, with significant implications for both scientific research and clinical practices. Magnetic-based gene control may enable the manipulation of cellular functions to produce therapeutic proteins in a targeted manner.
In a study published in the esteemed journal Cell, Kim’s team asserts they have achieved “magnetogenetics,” utilizing a switch that activates genes in genetically modified cells, responsive to specific magnetic signals that can permeate the human body. Kim further clarified that the switch’s effect is negligible on non-modified genes, which supports its potential safety for medical applications.
Kim’s team employed a 4-kilohertz electromagnetic square wave with an intensity of 2 milliTesla, pulsing at 60 times per second. Their findings indicate that this signal prompted calcium ion oscillation within cells, with a cycle of less than one minute, due to interactions with cytochrome B5. Essentially, calcium ions demonstrated cycles of movement approximately every 50 seconds.
The exact mechanism by which these electromagnetic signals influence cytochrome B5 and induce this oscillation is still under investigation. “The biophysical processes involved are actively being researched,” Kim stated.
This biochemical oscillation purportedly activates the gene’s promoter sequence, LGR4, initiating the expression of subsequent genes. This sequence effectively creates a magnetically-controlled gene activation mechanism. The paper details the switch’s functionality across different cell types in both murine and human models.
York emphasizes the transformative potential of the findings, contingent upon validation. “It could fundamentally reshape our understanding of mammalian responses to electromagnetic fields.” However, he expressed concern over the seeming incongruity of a 60 Hz signal triggering such prolonged biological oscillations. “The physiological implications are extraordinary,” York concluded.
In response, Kim asserts that the oscillation duration is dictated by internal cellular signaling mechanisms, rather than external frequency inputs. “The subsequent oscillatory behaviors arise from intrinsic cellular processes,” he explained.
York also highlighted the substantial amplitude of these calcium oscillations, comparing their significance to a notable temperature fluctuation. “Such a profound physiological response should influence numerous cellular activities,” he remarked, even as the paper claims its effects are isolated to a single gene.
Kim refuted this assertion, maintaining that the magnitude of the signal remains within a considerate physiological range. In one notable experiment, researchers linked an electromagnetic switch to a gene encoding a luminescent protein. Harvard University investigator Adam Cohen pointed out discrepancies in the data, suggesting the engineered cells exhibited luminescence prematurely before activating the switch. Kim attributes this to “computational artifacts resulting from curve smoothing.”
On the PubPeer platform, commenter Yong‐Chang Zhou noted an image duplication concern in Figure S5P, where one image appeared to be a mirrored version of another. “Such mirroring is atypical when capturing images of the same sample,” he remarked, with concerns raised by Elizabeth Big, who focuses on scientific integrity.
Kim acknowledged a clerical error leading to duplicated control images. “We’re correcting this oversight and will provide the accurate raw data to Cell.
Inquiries into the Cell journal publisher regarding these discrepancies remain unanswered.
This self-portrait represents Daniel Regan’s exploration of his ADHD experience through art.
Daniel Regan
These surreal images provide a captivating insight into the journey of an individual living with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Just before his 40th birthday, visual artist Daniel Regan was diagnosed with ADHD. After starting treatment with the medication lisdexamfetamine, he noted significant changes in his perception, leading to a reduction in distractions. Regan describes his former mental state as “watching five movies in my head, each with its own soundtrack and subtitles.”
“Taking medication is like turning down the volume; it enables me to focus on one or two movies instead,” he continues. “This has helped me feel calmer and more present in the moment.”
During this transformative period, Regan photographed himself and his surroundings while hiking in Australia. By submerging these Polaroids in various ratios of ADHD medication and water for up to three months, he crafted distorted interpretations of his original images, saying, “It felt instinctive to process my diagnosis and medication artistically.”
In the main self-portrait, his form appears enveloped in a delicate silk shroud, exhibiting the fragile beauty surrounding these artistic interpretations.
Regan’s innovative process converts Polaroid images of the Australian bush.
Daniel Regan
Another piece reveals the vibrant chaos of Australian bushland, embodied in a bubble-like aesthetic. Regan states, “This image encapsulates the heightened sensory experience often associated with ADHD symptoms.”
Originally a self-portrait, this image transformed after immersion in medication.
Daniel Regan
The stunning blue image above began as a simple self-portrait but evolved dramatically from the infusion process involving ADHD medication, resulting in fascinating biological and molecular effects. Regan explains, “This process reflects how medication influences neurotransmitters within the brain, as lisdexamfetamine elevates dopamine levels.”
This artwork still retains elements of nature despite Regan’s modifications.
Daniel Regan
Highlighted elements of leaves and branches exhibit vivid yellows and greens. The penultimate image reminds Regan of his late mother, reflecting on how she would perceive his recent diagnosis and its implications for his past challenges.
The vivid greens become even more pronounced following Regan’s artistic process.
Daniel Regan
These striking visuals form a collection titled “C.”15H25N3, representing the molecular formula of Regan’s medication. His work, showcased in the Belonging exhibition, arises from a deepening understanding of ADHD. Characterized by persistent symptoms such as impulsivity, forgetfulness, and difficulty managing time, ADHD often manifests in childhood, as highlighted in this National Institute of Mental Health guide.
“Describing the internal experience can be challenging; my images aim to convey some of that inner turmoil and complexity,” Regan shares.
What if you could communicate with the past? Surprisingly, the laws of physics don’t rule this out. In some cases, sending messages backward in time could be more feasible than we imagine.
The potential for sending messages into the past stems from specific solutions to the equations of general relativity. This foundational theory of physics explains how the fabric of spacetime operates, showing that all objects traverse paths through time and space. Among these paths is the concept of a closed time-like curve (CTC), where an object journeys into the future before looping back to the past.
However, creating a CTC on a cosmic scale poses a significant challenge, as it necessitates bending spacetime—a feat that demands an enormous amount of energy. This complication seems to render backward messaging impossible, but quantum entanglement might offer a potential workaround.
In quantum mechanics, entangled particles exhibit a unique property: the state of one particle directly influences the state of another, regardless of distance. Some physicists theorize that this connection implies one particle could send messages back in time to inform its counterpart of future events.
While this theory is debated, in 2010, Seth Lloyd and colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology demonstrated this concept using entangled photons to simulate a quantum CTC. “It’s akin to sending a photon back in time for mere nanoseconds with the intention of eliminating your previous self,” Lloyd explained.
Lloyd’s team then envisioned a scenario where the CTC experienced interference, similar to a faulty phone line. Analyzing the communication capacity of these “noisy” channels is a common challenge in information theory. To their surprise, they discovered that communicating with the past could actually outperform traditional communication methods, even with noise present.
Team member Kaiyuan Ji noted that their inspiration came from the film Interstellar. In a pivotal scene, Matthew McConaughey’s character sends a message to his daughter from the past by manipulating a clock using a CTC. Considering this as a noisy quantum channel, they found that messages sent backwards in time could be understood better, as the sender could access past memories, enhancing message decoding. “Fathers recall how their daughters interpret future messages, allowing them to optimize their message encryption,” Ji added.
While practical time travel remains hypothetical, improved communication strategies for noisy devices are valuable, according to Lloyd. “Creating a physical closed time-like curve poses immense challenges. However, all channels have noise,” he remarked. The findings from Lloyd’s research could be adapted to similar experiments using photons, potentially uncovering new avenues for effective communication, even in conventional contexts.
Andreas Winter from the University of Cologne highlighted that the study illustrates how feedback types can enhance communication protocols, allowing future senders to draw on their memories. However, he notes that the chances for practical applications are minimal. “As far as we know, time travel or sending signals back in time isn’t feasible in our universe. We are unaware of any mechanisms that could facilitate such phenomena,” he concluded.
A major ocean current system, crucial for regulating the climate across the Northern Hemisphere, is expected to weaken far more severely by the end of this century than previously estimated, according to a new study published in Scientific Progress.
The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a vast ocean current system that transports warm water north from the tropics, releasing heat into the atmosphere, then sinking and returning south.
Dr. Valentin Portman, lead author from Bordeaux Southwest Research Center in France, explains, “This loop transports heat from the equator to the North Atlantic Ocean,” as reported by BBC Science Focus.
The warm, salty water moves north, releases heat, thickens, sinks, and subsequently flows south through deep ocean currents.
Research predicts a 51% slowdown of AMOC by 2100, approximately 60% higher than average projections from standard climate models and with considerably lower uncertainty.
The implications of a weakened AMOC could be dire. Sea levels along the Northeast Coast of the United States are already rising faster than the global average, partly due to AMOC’s decline.
Globally, the tropical rain belt is anticipated to weaken and shift south, endangering the monsoon systems vital for agriculture in West Africa and South Asia.
In Europe, these changes could result in colder, harsher winters as the warm water conveyor belt slows down.
Every further weakening brings the AMOC closer to a tipping point, increasing the chances of complete collapse with potentially catastrophic outcomes.
The AMOC stretches the length of the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of a vast network of ocean currents – Photo credit: Getty
The Importance of AMOC
Predicting the future of AMOC as global temperatures rise is notoriously challenging. Its vast, complex nature is influenced by both local and global factors.
Previous assessments of AMOC’s future varied widely between climate models. While most agree on its weakening, estimates of its collapse range from minimal to catastrophic.
The latest study identified systematic errors in some of the best existing models: underestimating salinity in the South Atlantic and overestimating temperature in the North Atlantic.
These biases lead to an underestimation of the critical process that allows dense, saline water to sink, maintaining current flow within the system.
After correcting these discrepancies using ridge-normalized linear regression — a rarely applied technique in climate science — researchers found the expected weakening of AMOC increased to 51%, considerably lowering result uncertainty.
“Typically, models use one variable as input, like past AMOC strength,” Portman noted.
“Our goal was to utilize more comprehensive data by analyzing multiple variables concurrently, considering the complexity of AMOC.”
The current AMOC is already showing signs of weakness, as evidenced by observational data revealing a 10% to 20% intensity decline since the mid-2000s — equivalent to significant volumes of water no longer flowing north each second.
According to a 2025 study, recent AMOC weakening has contributed up to 50% of flooding along the U.S. Northeast coast since 2005.
However, researchers caution that linking this decline directly to anthropogenic climate change, rather than natural fluctuations, remains uncertain until at least 2033, when sufficient data will be available.
Understanding the Risks
While the findings of this study are concerning, researchers clarify what they do and don’t imply.
The 6th Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) expressed confidence that AMOC will weaken throughout this century but reported “moderate confidence” that it would avoid total collapse by the year 2100.
However, these reassurances may offer little comfort given the impact of such a collapse, whether it occurs before or after 2100.
Moreover, a 2025 study published in Geophysical Research Letters indicated that under serious collapse scenarios, severe cold temperatures could drop to -20°C (-4°F) in London and -48°C (-54°F) in Oslo, despite global warming trends.
As human-induced climate change melts polar ice, ocean salinity decreases, hindering processes driving the AMOC.
A weakening AMOC also raises the risk of breaching an unknown tipping point. According to a study, AMOC may exist in two stable states, and once reversed, it could take thousands of years to revert.
The exact location of this threshold is uncertain. A 2025 study in Environmental Research Letters revealed that under high emissions, AMOC shutdowns could occur in 67% of operations, and 30% under moderate emissions.
“The threshold remains elusive,” Portman stated, “but this accelerated decline we observe may be approaching a tipping point.”
Future Projections
Portman’s team assessed four different emissions scenarios, three of which (from moderate to very high) indicate similar 50% weakening results, suggesting that beyond a certain emissions level, many consequences of climate change become inevitable.
“We’ve introduced significant heat into the ocean, and its chilling effects will last for centuries,” Portman warned.
The most optimistic scenario, emphasizing strong and sustained emissions reductions, resulted in only a 20% weakening of AMOC.
“We can frame it two ways: it’s late, given our high CO2 emissions and their long-term impacts,” Portman said, “but we can also assert that significant reductions before reaching a tipping point can avert a serious decline.”
Currently, Portman believes his research offers a clearer view of the AMOC’s future, though he acknowledges ongoing uncertainties and the potential for additional undiscovered processes.
“That’s why it’s critical to approach these findings cautiously,” he emphasized. “Addressing uncertainty in climate models is essential for understanding AMOC’s fate.”
You may have encountered the concept that the increase in the number of boys born after wars can be perceived as a form of divine intervention or karmic response to those who lost their lives in battle.
However, this phenomenon isn’t restricted to wartime. Significant stressors in a nation’s history, such as natural disasters, famine, or collective mourning periods, can also impact male birth rates.
For instance, a study led by Maltese pediatrician Professor Victor Grech in 2015 revealed that the birth rate of boys in the UK temporarily dipped following the death of Princess Diana.
These fluctuations might be connected to the established link between stress and miscarriage rates. Recent research indicates that miscarriages affect female fetuses slightly more than male ones.
But why exactly is this the case? It remains unclear.
Yet, female embryos appear to be particularly vulnerable during the first trimester, leading to an increased risk of repeated miscarriages.
Therefore, during times of heightened stress—like wartime—the increased frequency of miscarriages might contribute to a skewed sex ratio favoring boys.
Additionally, another factor influencing the rise in male births post-war is that overall birth rates tend to surge when soldiers return home. This is often attributed to increased intimate activity among couples.
But why does this result in more boys? The theory suggests that male births occur slightly more often when conception happens at the onset or end of the menstrual cycle, while female births are more likely to occur when conception happens mid-cycle.
As couples engage in sexual activity more frequently, they may conceive during the “male” days of the cycle. This leads to a slight but noticeable increase in male births when many couples are intimate.
While this difference isn’t significant enough for those trying to conceive a specific sex, in the context of hundreds of thousands of births, it could help adjust the overall sex ratio.
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NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory has uncovered a remarkable object that could be the crucial link between a concealed “black hole star” and a fully visible supermassive black hole, shedding light on the growth of the universe’s earliest giants.
Optical and infrared images from Hubble depict the region around the X-ray dot, while Chandra X-ray images illustrate its surroundings. Image credits: NASA / CXC / Max Plank Inst / Hviding et al. / ESA / STScI / HST / CXC / SAO / N. Walk.
Shortly after the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope initiated its scientific observations, new reports surfaced regarding a novel class of enigmatic astronomical entities.
Astronomers have identified numerous small red objects situated approximately 12 billion light-years away from Earth, dubbed “little red dots” (LRDs).
Many researchers suspect that LRDs are supermassive black holes encapsulated in dense gas clouds, obscuring features that typically help astronomers detect these celestial objects, including X-rays.
Unlike conventional growing supermassive black holes, which are not surrounded by dense gas, LRDs’ light emissions are hindered, preventing the escape of bright ultraviolet and X-rays from the material orbiting the black hole.
A recently identified “X-ray dot,” located about 11.8 billion light-years from Earth, might serve as a pivotal connection between black hole stars and typical growing supermassive black holes.
This object, known as 3DHST-AEGIS-12014, exhibits characteristics of an LRD—small, red, and distant—but uniquely emits X-ray light.
“Astronomers have been trying to decipher the nature of the little red dot for years,” commented Dr. Raphael Widing from the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy.
“This singular X-ray phenomenon could be the key to connecting all the dots, so to speak.”
This exceptional object was discovered through a comparison of new Webb data against comprehensive previous surveys conducted by Chandra.
“If this little red dot is a rapidly growing supermassive black hole, why does it not emit X-rays like its counterparts?” questioned Dr. Anna de Graaf from Harvard University and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“Identifying small red dots that exhibit differing properties from other dots offers crucial new insights into the mechanisms behind their power.”
The researchers propose that this X-ray dot signifies a transitional phase from an LRD to a typical growing supermassive black hole.
As a black hole star consumes gas from its surroundings, gaps in the gas cloud form.
This allows X-rays from the matter descending into the black hole to penetrate and be detected by Chandra.
Ultimately, as the gas is fully consumed, the black hole star will cease to exist.
Chandra’s X-ray dot data also hints at fluctuations in the brightness of the X-rays, supporting the notion of a partially obscured black hole.
As the gas cloud rotates, varying densities of gas encircle the black hole, affecting X-ray brightness.
“If we confirm that the X-ray dot is indeed a small red dot in transition, it could be unprecedented and may reveal the core of a small red dot for the first time,” stated Princeton University’s Hanpu Liu.
“This would also provide strong evidence that a growing supermassive black hole resides at the center of some, if not all, of the tiny red dot population.”
Another hypothesis about the X-ray dot is that it could be a common type of growing supermassive black hole, albeit shrouded in an unusual type of dust yet to be documented.
Future observations are planned to uncover the truth behind this discovery.
“The X-ray dot has been part of our Chandra survey data for over a decade, but we only recognized its significance after Webb observed the region,” remarked Dr. Andy Golding of Princeton University.
“This exemplifies the strength of collaboration between two remarkable observatories.”
This discovery is documented in the following article: paper in Astrophysical Journal Letters.
_____
Raphael E. Viding et al. 2026. X-ray dots: exotic dust or late-stage tiny red dots? APJL 1000, L18; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae4c88
Extensive genome-wide analysis of the Amazonian two-toed sloth (genus Choloepus) reveals that these remarkable creatures possess greater genetic diversity than previously understood, suggesting the potential existence of undiscovered species.
The two-toed sloth is a slow-moving, tree-dwelling mammal that inhabits the lush rainforests of Central and South America.
Interestingly, although named for their two clawed digits on the front legs, these animals do not literally have “two digits.” This characteristic differentiates them from their three-toed counterparts.
Belonging to the genus Choloepus, the three-toed sloth is classified within the monophyletic family Choloepodidae.
Dr. Camila Mazzoni of the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research highlights that Choloepus didactylus is monotypic with a wide distribution throughout the Amazon, while Choloepus hoffmanni comprises five recognized subspecies in Central America, as well as northwestern parts of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.
Both species are believed to coexist in the western Amazon, a region known for its rich concentration of terrestrial mammals, exhibiting distinct morphological traits such as fur coloration and skeletal characteristics.
However, significant overlaps in body size and coat color present challenges for accurate taxonomic classification.
To investigate the phylogenetic and biogeographical history of this genus in the Amazon, the researchers compiled existing mitochondrial data and generated new genomic datasets, including mitochondrial and whole-genome sequences from Choloepus individuals sampled across three remote Amazonian regions.
This comprehensive analysis allowed them to assess population structure, lineage relationships, demographic history, and genomic diversity patterns among sampled lineages.
The findings revealed that Choloepus hoffmanni is not a singular, cohesive lineage as previously thought.
Instead, populations east of the Andes share closer genetic relationships with Choloepus didactylus than with their western counterparts, indicating a “paraphyletic” classification that fails to capture the species’ true evolutionary history.
Even more remarkably, the research uncovered at least three deeply divergent genetic lineages among Amazonian sloths, suggesting that many others may yet be identified.
This hidden diversity dates back millions of years. By comparing nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, they reconstructed the sloth evolutionary timeline, revealing significant divergences linked to historical environmental changes.
The separation of sloths on opposite sides of the Andes likely occurred around 4.6 million years ago during the final uplift of the mountains that reshaped South America’s landscape.
Then, approximately 2.6 million years ago, the Quaternary Ice Age began, fragmenting the Amazon rainforest into isolated habitats, which would have introduced barriers to migration for these arboreal creatures, setting them on separate evolutionary paths.
Genetic analyses also indicated that sloth populations have experienced expansions and contractions in response to glacial cycles throughout history.
Dr. Mazzoni emphasized, “The Amazon sloth represents both an ancient evolutionary relic and a critical indicator of current deforestation trends.” She asserted, “The discovery of cryptic lineages and potentially new species underscores the urgency of advancing sloth research, which our team actively pursues.”
“This collaborative research lays a crucial foundation for sloth conservation efforts.”
“Our findings demonstrate the pivotal role of genomic research in revealing the hidden biodiversity of the Amazon, directly informing conservation strategies to protect unique evolutionary units before they are threatened by human activities.”
For further details, refer to the published study in Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.
_____
Larissa S. Arantes et al. 2026. Genomic insights into the evolutionary history and puzzling diversity of the three-toed sloth (Choloepus) in the Amazon. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 221: 108620; doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2026.108620
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