An in-depth analysis of the stresses, tides, and internal forces on Jupiter’s icy moon Europa indicates that the moon lacks the active submarine faults essential for robust hydrothermal circulation. This phenomenon significantly impacts Europa’s chemical energy and overall habitability.
A stunning view of Europa’s surface. Image scale is 1.6 km per pixel. North of Europa is on the right. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SETI Institute.
On Earth, tectonic activity is crucial for supporting diverse habitats that sustain life.
This interaction between water and rocks on the ocean floor can generate chemical energy essential for potential biological processes.
Thus, the existence of tectonic activity on a celestial body can indicate an environment conducive to supporting life.
Europa, one of Jupiter’s moons, is believed to harbor an immense underground ocean beneath its frosty exterior.
While earlier studies hinted at volcanic activity beneath Europa’s ocean floor, the potential for tectonic movement had not been thoroughly explored until now.
“If we could survey those oceans using remote-controlled submarines, we predict we wouldn’t observe any new cracks, active volcanoes, or hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor,” stated Dr. Paul Byrne, a researcher at Washington University in St. Louis.
“Geologically, nothing is changing there. Everything remains quiet.”
“In icy worlds like Europa, a tranquil ocean floor could suggest a lifeless ocean.”
Dr. Byrne and his team conducted comprehensive modeling to evaluate potential tectonic activity within Europa’s theorized subsurface ocean.
Their findings were compared against known behaviors on Earth’s ocean floor and Enceladus.
The researchers assessed stress from tidal forces, global contraction, mantle convection, and serpentinization— a geological process involving the interaction of rocks and water.
However, they concluded that these factors are unlikely to be driving tectonic activity, even along Europa’s existing fissures at present.
This discovery implies that water-rock interactions might be confined to the uppermost layers of the ocean floor, which limits the prospects for habitable conditions beneath Europa’s surface.
Future research aims to gather direct evidence regarding Europa’s geology and tectonics.
“Europa likely experiences tidal heating, which is why it hasn’t fully frozen,” Dr. Byrne noted.
“There may have been greater heating in its distant past.”
“However, currently, we do not observe eruptions from the ice as seen on Io. Our calculations indicate that the currents are simply not strong enough to foster significant geological activity on the ocean floor.”
For more details, refer to the results published in this week’s issue of Nature Communications.
_____
PK burn et al. 2026. There may be little or no active faults on Europa’s ocean floor today. Nat Commune 17, 4; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67151-3
As of February 2026, the world faces a historic moment: for the first time in decades, there will be no active treaty regulating the nuclear arsenals of the United States and Russia. While experts are divided over the effectiveness of the New START Treaty in enhancing global security, there’s a consensus that establishing a successor treaty is improbable.
The United States and Russia initiated their nuclear arms reduction efforts with the START I treaty in 1991, which evolved into the New START in 2011. In 2021, Presidents Joe Biden and Vladimir Putin agreed to extend the treaty by five years, but this agreement expired on February 5, 2026, and negotiations for a new treaty have stalled.
Tensions escalated significantly between the U.S. and Russia following the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Shortly after, Russia was excluded from crucial weapons inspections, leading to U.S. retaliation. Currently, discussions are emerging about potential nuclear tests from both countries, though many see these as mere posturing devoid of real substance. The likelihood of a New START replacement treaty appears dimmer than ever.
Mark Bell, a professor at the University of Minnesota, argues that a new treaty limiting the U.S. arsenal to match that of Russia’s would be unattractive to the U.S. This is largely due to concerns over needing a robust deterrent against both Russia and the increasingly nuclear-capable China, which currently has 600 nuclear weapons. While this is significantly fewer than the 5,000 plus weapons possessed by the U.S. and Russia, China’s nuclear capabilities are rapidly growing. Russia is unlikely to accept any proposal that would limit its arsenal to numbers inferior to the U.S.’s, and China would resist agreements that restrict its future growth to parity with these powers. Negotiating a new treaty is fraught with complications from the outset, Bell asserts.
Historically, START I and New START are viewed as successful frameworks. Though not flawless, they have contributed to stability. However, Bell expresses skepticism regarding their true impact on global safety. He notes, “Could they have saved both superpowers some money? Perhaps. Did they provide a platform for cooperation? Certainly. But did they fundamentally alter the risk of war? I don’t think so.”
Regardless of treaty status, the threat of nuclear war persists, according to Bell. He suggests that the concept of mutually assured destruction serves as our current safeguard against nuclear conflict. “The fear of catastrophic consequences, rather than treaties, is what may deter warfare. This stabilizing factor stems from danger itself, which is an intrinsic aspect of nuclear deterrence,” he elaborates.
Conversely, some experts are more concerned about the implications of losing the treaty. Steven Herzog, a scholar at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies in Monterey, California, and former U.S. Department of Energy arms control specialist, remarked to New Scientist that the absence of New START heightens the risk of nuclear warfare.
“A lack of transparency makes global security fragile by spurring unchecked competition among leaders who might resort to nuclear capabilities,” Herzog warns. “In an environment where Russia’s unpredictability is escalating and the U.S. administration is equally volatile, it’s alarming that we lack essential measures for confidence-building and transparency that could temper an arms race.”
Although various treaties addressing nuclear weapons exist, the ambitious Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons seeks to eliminate nuclear arms completely yet lacks participation from many nuclear-armed nations. Furthermore, while several states have ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, it does little to curb the existing arsenal. New START remains the only treaty that held nuclear powers accountable.
Herzog believes that both Donald Trump and Vladimir Putin could potentially reach a similar agreement if they desired. Indeed, President Putin’s proposal for an unofficial one-year extension was positively received by President Trump. However, concrete negotiations are absent, and any such accord would likely serve as a temporary fix rather than a long-term solution.
Philip Bleek, a researcher at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies, expresses that while extending the treaty could be beneficial if it allowed time for negotiating a new agreement, the long-term prospects for arms control remain bleak. “A one-year extension may lead Russia to feel their financial stake is wasted, making them less likely to engage in future talks,” he explains.
Treaty negotiations are intricate battles involving political leaders, military strategists, and intelligence officials striving for even marginal strategic advantages. Herzog notes that Russia could be at an advantage since significant personnel, such as weapons inspectors and negotiators, have been dismissed or forced out by the Trump administration.
“If we are serious about negotiating a new treaty, we likely won’t have the staffing or resources available to do so,” Herzog concludes.
Many perceive time as a finite resource that is challenging to manage. As we progress through life, the feeling that time slips away faster becomes more pronounced. Fortunately, psychological studies indicate that with a few simple changes in your daily routine, you can enhance your experience of time, making it feel more plentiful.
New Scientist engaged with Ian Taylor, an author at Loughborough University, UK. His book, Time Hack: The Psychology of Time and How to Spend It, discusses how re-evaluating our relationship with time can alleviate pressure, diminish boredom, and foster a sense of fulfillment.
Helen Thomson: Typically, physicists focus on defining time, integrating it within the equations that explain the universe. What perspective do psychologists have on time?
Ian Taylor: Time’s definition is a topic of much debate. For instance, physicists question whether time is an emergent property or a fundamental one. My focus is on the subjective perception of time, seeing it as a connective framework linking our memories to our aspirations, contributing to a sense of consistency in our lives.
How does the brain construct our perception of time?
Our brains lack a singular center for biological clocks, yet multiple processes collaborate to monitor time’s passage, creating our time sense. This perception isn’t solely dictated by our brain; it involves an intricate interplay between mind, body, and emotions. Psychologically, this internal clock accelerates or decelerates based on our cognitive engagement and attentional focus.
Reflecting on a time when my brakes failed during a car crash, I remember vividly my instructor’s advice on braking, the anxiety of informing my mother about my damaged vehicle, and regretting the song playing in the background. Calculating which cars I might hit, I even attempted to alert the couple in front of me. It seemed to take forever, but this all transpired in under a second. It felt like slowing down time—what was happening?
Emotions and motivation profoundly influence our time perception. Studies indicate that feelings of anger or sadness can distort time perception, making it feel slower, while happiness accelerates that feeling of passage. Hence, the adage: “Time flies when you’re having fun.” Yet, emotions aren’t strictly positive or negative; intensity, or level of arousal, plays a role.
In general, heightened alertness leads to a perception of slower time. Both calm and excited states are positive, but their intensities differ significantly. In crises, such as your near-accident, heightened excitement may have slowed your perception of time, acting as a survival mechanism that enhances clarity in critical moments.
Researchers are exploring various explanations for time dilation. From a motivation perspective, which is my area of focus, potential insights are emerging.
We often perceive time as fleeting when pursuing goals or engaging in enjoyable activities (approach-oriented motivational states) but experience it slowing down when avoiding unpleasant tasks (avoidance-oriented motivational states). This aligns with your crash example, where survival instincts influenced your time perception.
Is it possible to consciously manipulate your time perception based on these ideas?
Indeed. Numerous lab studies support this. For instance, participants shown appealing images, such as enticing cakes, report that time flies compared to viewing something undesirable. Participants experiencing distressing images—like mutilated bodies—report that time appears to slow due to a strong desire to evade the situation.
Feeling like you’re not having fun can increase the perception that time is passing slowly.
Martin Parr/Magnum Photos
While laboratory findings may not entirely mirror real-life scenarios, if you wish to expedite time, particularly over the next two weeks, focus on achieving what you desire, similar to the cake study. Concentrate on pursuits you value and enjoy.
On the contrary, people frequently seek ways to slow down time, often feeling rushed or time-starved. How can one cultivate a richer experience of time?
Resorting to distressing images for the sake of slowing time is not advisable. The key lies not in forcefully enriching time but in how you effectively utilize the time you have, preventing it from overwhelming you. Although today’s agenda may be identical for everyone, the difference lies in the value and enjoyment embedded in activities. If you’re merely fulfilling obligations rather than pursuing joy, you may lose the sense of time passing, leading to feelings of scarcity.
Thus, the sensation of lacking time doesn’t correspond to actual hours available but relates more to how wisely you consume that time and the feelings attached to it. In a study, researchers discovered no correlation between people’s perceived need for exercise and how busy they were objectively.
You highlight the importance of fostering a positive relationship with time in your book. What additional strategies can help cultivate this relationship?
For me, a healthy relationship with time means concluding the day without fatigue, feeling productive, and self-satisfied.
This involves being aware of time’s impact on our motivation and health. Consider the concept of ego depletion, which emerged in the 1990s. Initially, researchers posited that exerting willpower (like performing well on an exam) depleted a finite resource. However, this concept has since been dispelled. Willpower diminishes over time, as reiterated in recent studies, but it can be reactivated. This understanding aids in time management; avoid willpower-reliant tasks at night and prioritize them for mornings, when your cognitive resources are sharper.
Insights into our motivation reveal that immediate rewards drive us more than delayed ones. Whether awarding instant monetary gains for work or giving immediate gratification in exercise and diet, short-term rewards enhance motivation. Thus, it’s imperative to reward yourself right away rather than waiting for distant outcomes.
Meaningful experiences, such as traveling with loved ones, can expand your perception of time.
Martin Parr/Magnum Photos
This principle arises from the understanding that motivation is often tied to outcomes rather than actions. Individuals are driven by results, so minimizing the gap between effort and reward can amplify motivation. Immediate gains associated with actions encourage persistence.
It’s essential to recognize that busy schedules don’t equate to feeling busy. While many believe they’ll achieve satisfaction by reducing their commitments, the truth is that enhancing well-being can lead to a reduced sensation of being overwhelmed. Cultivating enjoyable activities—even without modifying your schedule—can enrich your perception of time.
What should I make of ‘dead time’? Is it advisable to eliminate it?
It largely depends on how you process ‘dead time.’ In my book, I differentiate between dead time and loneliness. Many dread being alone in their thoughts, often indulging in negative reflections.
In a revealing study, participants opted for an electric shock over 15 minutes of solitary thought. Notably, 67% of men preferred the shock, compared to just 25% of women. During idle moments, many reach for smartphones, only to find that mindless scrolling leads to greater boredom, as evidence suggests.
However, if you can navigate through anxiety and negativity during solitude, it can be transformative and generate substantial personal growth. Historical studies on solitary confinement and polar explorations reveal that the right supportive environment during isolation can foster self-sufficiency and deeper understanding.
Moreover, solitude can enhance creativity, emotional health, and clarity. Embracing traffic delays or queue times can significantly boost your well-being if you choose to confront them instead of distracting yourself.
The San people of southern Africa utilize poison arrows for hunting, a practice rooted in ancient traditions.
imageBROKER.com / Alamy
Discoveries of plant poisons on 60,000-year-old arrowheads in South Africa suggest that ancient hunters harnessed toxic materials far earlier than previously believed.
Prior to this discovery, evidence for poisoned arrows extended back only about 8,000 years. However, a 2020 study of arrow tips dating from 50,000 to 80,000 years ago indicated they exemplified designs similar to modern poison arrows.
Led by Professor Marlies Lombard, researchers at the University of Johannesburg uncovered that the tips of 60,000-year-old arrowheads were coated in a sticky substance, though poison’s presence couldn’t initially be confirmed.
Recently, Professor Lombard and her team confirmed the presence of toxic alkaloids, such as bupandrin and epibufanisin, in five quartzite arrowheads retrieved from Umhlatuzana rock caves in KwaZulu-Natal province.
The scientists believe these toxins likely originated from milky exudates from the roots of the plant species Buffondistica, which could be applied directly to arrow tips or processed to create a potent resin.
“If we found this in just one artifact, it could have been a mere coincidence,” Lombard noted. “However, finding it in five out of ten artifacts strongly indicates it was systematically used 60,000 years ago.”
The same toxic sap is still employed by the San people today, suggesting an unbroken tradition lasting at least 60,000 years.
Toxic plant traces discovered on arrow points from the Umhlatuzana rock shelter
Marlies Lombard
The plant’s poison is lethal to rodents within 30 minutes and can induce nausea and coma in humans. For larger prey, the toxins likely slowed them down, allowing hunters to successfully track and kill them.
Professor Lombard speculates that the poison may have first been discovered when early humans ingested toxic bulbs, which could lead to illness or death. The plant also possesses antiseptic, antibacterial, and hallucinogenic qualities and is utilized in traditional medicine, though accidental overdoses still occur.
To verify their findings, researchers tested arrows collected by Carl Peter Thunberg, a Swedish naturalist who documented the use of poisoned arrows by indigenous hunters in the 1770s. These tests also revealed the presence of toxic alkaloids from the same plant species.
Sven Isaacson, a member of the research team at Stockholm University, noted that this discovery signifies an early example of sophisticated plant utilization. “While humans have utilized plants for nourishment and tools for millennia, this represents a distinct advancement — harnessing the biochemical attributes of plants to create drugs, medicines, and poisons.”
Newly discovered planets orbiting V1298 Tau are unusually lightweight, possessing a density comparable to polystyrene. This discovery may bridge critical gaps in our understanding of planetary system formation.
Unlike most planets in our Milky Way galaxy, which are often larger than Earth and smaller than Neptune, this solar system showcases an uncommon configuration. Astronomers have cataloged numerous planetary systems that formed billions of years ago, complicating our understanding of their genesis.
The research team, led by John Livingstone from the Astrobiology Center in Tokyo and Eric Pettigura from UCLA, has identified four dense planets that likely formed recently around a young star, V1298 Tau, which is around 20 million years old.
“We are examining younger models of the types of planetary systems commonly found across our galaxy,” Pettigura remarked.
Initially discovered in 2017, V1298 Tau and its accompanying planets remained largely unstudied until now. Over five years, researchers utilized both terrestrial and space telescopes to observe tiny variances in orbital durations, revealing intricate gravitational interactions among the four planets. These measurements enable more precise calculations of each planet’s radius and mass.
To effectively employ this observational method, researchers required initial estimates of each planet’s orbital duration without gravitational interference. Lacking that data for the outermost planet, they relied on educated conjectures, risking inaccuracies in their calculations.
“I initially had my doubts,” Petitgras admitted. “There were numerous potential pitfalls… When we first acquired data from the outermost planet, it felt as exhilarating as making a hole-in-one in golf.”
By accurately measuring the orbital durations and subsequently estimating the radii and masses, the team determined the densities of the planets. They discovered these are the lowest-density exoplanets known, with radii spanning five to ten times that of Earth, yet only a few times its mass.
“These planets exhibit a density akin to Styrofoam, which is remarkably low,” Pettigura explained.
This low density can be attributed to the planets’ ongoing gravitational contraction, potentially classifying them as super-Earths or sub-Neptunes—types of planets typically formed during the evolutionary stages.
The planets of V1298 Tau operate in a so-called orbital resonance, indicating their orbital periods are harmonically related. This observation aligns with astronomers’ theories on the formation of most planetary systems, including our own solar system, which initially have tightly packed configurations that eventually evolve into less stable arrangements, according to Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux in France.
“This newly identified system of close, low-mass planets revolving around a relatively young star could provide insights into typical sub-Neptunian systems,” Raymond pointed out. “This discovery is remarkable due to the inherent challenges in characterizing such youthful systems.”
Ancient Human Jawbone Discovered in Morocco’s Man Cave
Hamza Mehimdate, Casablanca Pre-History Program
Approximately 550,000-year-old fossils discovered in North Africa potentially belong to a shared ancestor of Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern humans, existing right before these three significant hominin lineages diverged.
Neanderthals and Denisovans, the final common ancestors of modern humans, are believed to have thrived between 765,000 and 550,000 years ago. However, key questions about their existence and habitats still challenge our understanding of human evolution.
Recent fossil discoveries suggest that researchers, including Jean-Jacques Hublin from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, are nearing the pivotal moment of divergence in ancient human lineages.
Hublin and his team examined various fossils, including two adult jawbones, one juvenile jawbone, and several vertebrae unearthed from a cave referred to as the Cave of Mankind near Casablanca, Morocco. One of the adult jawbones had been detailed in a 1969 study, while the remaining specimens are presented for the first time.
The fossilized molars share similarities with early Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, yet their jaw structures resemble ancient African Homo erectus.
Fortunately, these Moroccan hominids existed around the same period as changes in Earth’s magnetic field, recorded within the geological formations containing the fossils, allowing for precise dating to approximately 773,000 years ago.
Hublin described the find as filling a “significant gap” in the African human fossil record dating back to between one million and 600,000 years ago. Paleogenetic studies reveal that the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans diverged around this time, while H. sapiens evolved independently in Africa.
The newly identified fossils are contemporaneous with a hominid population in Spain, previously hypothesized to serve as a common ancestor between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
Excavation Team at Moroccan Fossil Site
R. Gallotti, Casablanca Pre-History Program
Both Homo ancestors and Moroccan hominins exhibit “a mosaic of primitive and derived features,” Hublin notes, suggesting possible genetic exchanges across the Strait of Gibraltar. However, notable distinctions exist between the fossils from both areas, with Spanish specimens appearing more Neanderthal-like.
“The last common ancestor likely inhabited both sides of the Mediterranean during that era, indicating a deep African lineage for Homo sapiens opposed to the Eurasian origin theories proposed by some,” Hublin states.
Julian Lewis, a professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, expresses intrigue over the physical differences in early Pleistocene hominids closely related to our species.
“The key takeaway is that these differences have been developing for a substantial period,” Lewis concluded, alluding to the arrival of the Homo ancestor in Spain, indicating it may represent one of several species across North Africa that eventually crossed over to Europe.
Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London has also contributed to this discussion. His research, including findings from human fossils in China published last year, suggests that the last common ancestor of Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, and Denisovans could date back over a million years.
“The specific continent for that common ancestor’s existence remains unknown,” Stringer remarked. “Yet even if it lived outside Africa, our analysis indicates that the evolution of Homo sapiens predominantly took place in Africa, suggesting a potential early migration back into Africa for continued evolution.”
These newly identified Moroccan fossils may even represent early specimens of Homo sapiens, though sufficient skeletal fragments are lacking for definitive classification.
Ongoing comparisons with previously studied fossils will help ascertain their evolutionary positioning.
Astronomers have made significant strides in understanding how the most prevalent type of planet in our galaxy, known as super-Earths, forms. A new study highlights that these planets begin life as “bloated” infants, rapidly shedding much of their thick atmospheres.
This groundbreaking research, published in Nature, observed four youthful exoplanets within the V1298 Tau system. Remarkably, their host star is merely 20 million years old—akin to a 5-month-old baby in cosmic terms.
Currently, these planets boast radii 5 to 10 times larger than Earth, but their masses only range from 5 to 15 times that of Earth, resulting in a density similar to that of Styrofoam.
This “bloated” state occurs as the young star’s heat and light cause the planet’s atmosphere to expand dramatically. Consequently, these planets are losing significant amounts of gas into space, eventually leading to a reduction in size to somewhere between that of Earth and Neptune.
Super-Earths and sub-Neptunes, as they are often called, have been detected around numerous other stars, establishing them as the most ubiquitous type of planet known today. However, they remain absent in our solar system.
Lacking nearby examples to study these intermediate worlds in detail has made them a “missing link” in our understanding of planetary formation and evolution.
“V1298 Tau is a crucial link between star- and planet-forming nebulae visible across the sky and the mature planetary systems we are currently discovering in abundance,” stated Dr. Eric Pettigura from the University of California, who was involved in the research.
Astronomers had speculated about this growth pattern for infant planets based on their sizes, but this marks the first instance of direct observation of the phenomenon.
“These planets have already experienced rapid changes, significantly losing their original atmospheres and cooling more swiftly than traditional models predict,” noted James Owen, a co-author from Imperial College London.
“Their evolution is ongoing. Over the next few billion years, they will continue to shed atmospheres and reduce in size, eventually forming a compact system of super-Earths and sub-Neptunes widely observed throughout the galaxy.”
A Stroke of Luck
As with many astronomical breakthroughs, this discovery resulted from both serendipity and diligent effort.
The researchers analyzed the planets by monitoring their transits—temporary declines in a star’s brightness when a planet moves in front of it. The depth of this dip indicates the planet’s radius, while the timing offers insights into its orbit.
Planets block only a small fraction of a star’s light, typically around 1%, making their detection a challenging endeavor. – Credit: ESA
While scientists were aware that these planets were on the larger side, part of the transits for the two outer planets was missed, leaving uncertainties about their orbits.
“We used computer models and educated guesses to narrow down hundreds of possibilities,” Pettigura explained.
Fortunately, their predictions proved accurate. Upon searching for the planets again using ground-based telescopes, they successfully located them on the first attempt.
“I was thrilled,” Pettigura remarked. “Given the uncertain timing, I anticipated needing at least six attempts. It felt like hitting a hole-in-one in golf.”
Once the orbits were confirmed, the team conducted a detailed analysis to determine the planets’ masses.
As planets move past each other, their gravitational forces subtly alter their orbits, affecting transit timings. The greater a planet’s mass, the stronger its gravitational pull. This enabled the researchers to differentiate timing variations to ascertain the planets’ masses.
“The unexpectedly large radii of these young planets led to the hypothesis of very low densities, which had not been previously measured,” stated Trevor David of the Flatiron Institute, who was a co-author on the first discovery of this system.
“By measuring the masses of these planets for the first time, we have provided crucial observational evidence that validates their ‘bulgy’ characteristics, establishing a significant benchmark for planetary evolution theory.”
The Importance of a Strong Intestinal Lining for Optimal Health
Shutterstock/3dMediSphere
As we age, the cells that line our intestines gradually lose their ability to regenerate, impacting our immune health. However, recent research has successfully reversed this decline in older mice using genetically modified immune cells.
This innovative approach, known as CAR T-cell therapy, is primarily used to target specific blood cancers. It entails collecting a patient’s T cells, reprogramming them in a laboratory to identify and eliminate cancerous cells, and then reintroducing them into the bloodstream. Emerging variations of this therapy show promise not only in combatting solid tumors but also in preventing arterial blockages and treating autoimmune diseases like lupus.
In a groundbreaking study, Cemil Beyaz and his team at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, explored the application of this therapy for revitalizing the aging gut. They focused on targeting damaged cells, known as senescent cells, which accumulate over time, fail to proliferate, and secrete substances that exacerbate inflammation and promote further aging. The researchers aimed their intervention at a protein called uPAR, prevalent on aging cells.
“The decline in gut health we observe with aging is linked to diminished stem cell fitness responsible for renewing the intestinal lining every three to five days,” Beyaz states. “We posited that eliminating these ‘unfit’ senescent cells would enhance the regenerative ability and overall functionality of stem cells in older mice.”
To validate this hypothesis, the researchers engineered CAR T cells from older mice to specifically recognize and eliminate uPAR on senescent cells. Upon reintroducing these modified cells, the researchers noted a significant increase in both the activity and number of stem cells maintaining tissue function, reaching levels comparable to those observed in younger mice. The treated older mice also exhibited marked improvements in intestinal barrier integrity and reduced inflammation compared to a separate cohort that received CAR T-cell therapy targeting different mechanisms.
“By removing senescent cells, we not only inhibited the aging process but also witnessed a reversal, with tissues displaying characteristics similar to those of young mice,” said team member Corina Amor, also from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
“This therapy could potentially reverse age-related declines in bowel function, decreasing vulnerability to diseases such as intestinal infections, compromised intestinal integrity, and even cancer,” explained Tuomas Tammera from Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, who was not part of the study. However, he emphasized that ensuring the treatment’s effectiveness and safety in humans remains crucial.
Onur Eskiokaku, a researcher at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, highlighted the importance of determining the optimal dosage before advancing to human trials. “While uPAR is abundant in aged, defective cells, it may also be present in healthy tissues under certain conditions,” he noted.
It’s important to remember that senescent cells aren’t all detrimental; they play roles in tumor suppression and wound healing. “We are investigating the implications of depleting uPAR expression in other tissues,” mentioned Jesse Poganic from Harvard Medical School.
Additionally, treating aging in otherwise healthy individuals is not commonplace. The complexity and expense associated with CAR-T therapy, coupled with ongoing safety concerns, suggest that widespread application for reversing aging effects is not imminent, according to Joanna Neves at the Center at King’s College London. “Safety standards for preventative treatments must be more stringent than those for oncology.”
Beyaz asserts that addressing the age-related decline in intestinal function has long posed a challenge, with no effective solutions currently available, especially when the intestinal barrier’s regenerative capability is compromised. This research marks a significant step forward, indicating that the removal of unfit cells can restore crucial functions.
Sure! Here’s an SEO-optimized rewrite of your content while keeping the HTML tags intact:
AI Tools for Women’s Health: Incomplete Answers
Oscar Wong/Getty Images
Current AI models frequently struggle to provide accurate diagnoses or advice for pressing women’s health inquiries.
Thirteen AI language models from OpenAI, Google, Anthropic, Mistral AI, and xAI were assessed with 345 medical questions spanning five fields, including emergency medicine, gynecology, and neurology. These questions were curated by 17 experts in women’s health, pharmacists, and clinicians from the US and Europe.
Expert reviewers analyzed the AI responses, cross-referencing failures against a medical expertise benchmark which includes 96 queries.
On average, 60% of the queries yielded inadequate responses based on expert evaluations. Notably, GPT-5 was the strongest performer, with a 47% failure rate, while Mistral 8B exhibited a significant 73% failure rate.
“I see more women using AI for health queries and decision support,” says Victoria-Elizabeth Gruber, a representative from Lumos AI, a firm focused on enhancing AI model assessments. She and her colleagues recognized the potential dangers of relying on technology that perpetuates existing gender imbalances in medical knowledge. “This inspired us to establish the first benchmark in this domain,” she explains.
Gruber expressed surprise over the high failure rates, stating, “We anticipated some disparities, but the variability among models was striking.”
This outcome is not unexpected, according to Kara Tannenbaum at the University of Montreal, Canada, as AI models are trained on historical data that may inherently contain biases. “It’s crucial for online health information sources and professional associations to enhance their web content with more detailed, evidence-based insights related to sex and gender to better inform AI,” she emphasizes.
Jonathan H. Chen from Stanford University notes that the claimed 60% failure rate may be misleading. “This figure is based on a limited expert-defined sample, which does not accurately represent regular inquiries from patients and doctors,” he asserts. “Some test scenarios are overly cautious and can lead to higher failure rates.” For instance, if a postpartum woman reports a headache, the model might fail if pre-eclampsia isn’t immediately suspected.
Gruber acknowledges such critiques, clarifying, “Our intent was not to label the model as broadly unsafe but to establish clear, clinically relevant evaluation criteria. We purposefully set strict benchmarks as minor omissions in the medical field can be significant in some cases.”
An OpenAI representative stated: “ChatGPT aims to support, not replace, healthcare services. We closely collaborate with clinicians globally to refine our models and continuously evaluate them to minimize harmful or misleading output. Our latest GPT-5.2 models are designed to consider critical user contexts, including gender. We take the accuracy of our outputs seriously, and while ChatGPT can offer valuable insights, we advise consulting qualified healthcare providers for treatment and care decisions.” Other companies involved in the study did not respond to requests for comments from New Scientist.
Topics:
This rewrite optimizes the content for SEO by naturally incorporating keywords related to AI in women’s health, improving clarity, and emphasizing critical insights throughout the piece.
Recent research shows that jellyfish share surprising similarities with humans, including a sleep pattern of approximately eight hours a day, complemented by short naps. Understanding the sleep behaviors of these marine creatures can shed light on the evolutionary significance of sleep.
“Interestingly, like humans, jellyfish spend about a third of their time sleeping,” states Lior Appelbaum from Bar-Ilan University in Israel.
In animals with brains, such as mammals, sleep is crucial for memory consolidation and the elimination of metabolic waste. However, it remains unclear why sleep evolved in jellyfish, which belong to the brainless cnidarian group and possess neurons arranged in simple networks.
Appelbaum and his team utilized high-resolution cameras to observe Cassiopeia Andromeda, an upside-down jellyfish, in a controlled aquarium environment. The jellyfish were subjected to cycles of light and darkness to replicate natural conditions.
During the simulated daytime, the jellyfish exhibited an average pulse rate of over 37 times per minute, demonstrating responsiveness to sudden stimuli. In contrast, their pulse rate decreased at night, and they became less reactive, indicating a sleep state. These pulsations are vital for nutrient distribution and oxygen supply within the jellyfish’s body, as explained by Appelbaum.
Overall, jellyfish typically sleep for about eight hours each night, interspersed with brief naps lasting one to two hours. Prior studies had confirmed nocturnal sleep in C. Andromeda, but the intricacies of their sleep cycles were previously unknown.
In another experiment, researchers simulated sleep disruption by pulsating water against the jellyfish, which led to even better sleep the following day. “It mirrors human behavior: when sleep-deprived at night, we tend to feel more fatigued during the day,” notes Appelbaum.
Crucially, further examination indicated that sleep in C. Andromeda is associated with reduced DNA damage. Sleep likely protects neurons from deterioration that might occur during wakefulness, as corroborated by the observation that exposing jellyfish to ultraviolet light—thereby increasing DNA damage—resulted in improved sleep patterns.
Future studies are required to determine whether similar sleep benefits apply to other jellyfish species or even mammals. The researchers also found comparable results with starlet sea anemones (Nematostella vectensis), marking a significant step in confirming sleep in these organisms, according to Appelbaum.
Ancient Humans Hunting Elephants—Evidence of Slaughtering Animals 1.8 Million Years Ago
Natural History Museum/Scientific Photography Library
Hunting an elephant is a formidable challenge, necessitating advanced tools and teamwork, offering an abundant source of protein.
A research team led by Manuel Dominguez-Rodrigo from Rice University in Texas suggests that ancient humans may have accomplished this feat approximately 1.78 million years ago in Tanzania’s Olduvai Gorge.
“Around 2 million years ago, our ancestors consistently consumed smaller game like gazelles and waterbucks but did not target larger prey,” says Dominguez-Rodrigo.
Later findings from Olduvai Gorge indicate a significant shift. This valley, abundant with both animal and human fossils formed over the past 2 million to 17,000 years, shows a marked increase in elephant and hippopotamus remains around 1.8 million years ago. However, establishing conclusive evidence of human involvement in hunting remains elusive.
In June 2022, Dominguez-Rodrigo and his team discovered what may be an ancient elephant slaughterhouse at Olduvai.
The site, dubbed the EAK site, revealed partial remains of an extinct elephant species, Elephas reki, surrounded by an array of stone tools that were much larger and sturdier than those utilized by hominins 2 million years ago. Dominguez-Rodrigo posits these tools were likely crafted by the ancient hominin Homo erectus.
“These include Pleistocene knives, known for their sharpness even today,” he notes, emphasizing their potential for butchering tasks.
Dominguez-Rodrigo and his colleagues believe these stone tools facilitated elephant slaughter. Some limb bones appear to have fractured shortly after the elephant’s demise, indicating the bones were still fresh or “green.” Unlike scavengers like hyenas that can strip meat, they can’t shatter the dense bone shafts of mature elephants.
“We discovered numerous bones in the field with fresh fractures, pointing to human use of hammer stones for processing,” he states. “These ‘green’ fractured bones are widespread in the 1.7-million-year-old landscape and bear distinct impact marks.”
However, there is a scarcity of cut marks on bones, which typically indicate butchering practices to extract meat.
It remains uncertain whether humans actively hunted the elephants or merely scavenged existing carcasses.
“What we can confirm is that they disassembled the bones—or portions of them—leaving behind tools and bones as evidence,” affirms Dominguez-Rodrigo.
He adds that the transition to hunting elephants wasn’t merely due to advancements in stone tools, but also hinted at an increase in social structure and cultural development among hominin groups.
However, Michael Pante, a researcher at Colorado State University, remains skeptical of the findings.
Pante contends that the evidence for human exploitation of this individual elephant is weak. The interpretation relies heavily on the proximity of stone tools and elephant remains, as well as the inferred fractures created by human attempts to access bone marrow.
Pante asserts that the earliest definitive evidence of hippo, giraffe, and elephant hunting in Olduvai dates back to around 80,000 years ago, as shown in the research of the 1.7-million-year-old HWK EE site.
“In contrast to the EAK site, the bones at HWK EE exhibit cut marks and are associated with thousands of other bones and artifacts within an archaeological context,” he explains.
Explore the World of Archaeology and Paleontology
New Scientist consistently covers remarkable archaeological sites around the globe, redefining our understanding of species and early civilizations. Consider taking a trip to explore these fascinating locations!
Struggling to recall numerous passwords? If you can remember them all, you either have too few or are using the same one across multiple sites. By 2026, this challenge could become obsolete.
Passwords present significant cybersecurity challenges; hackers trade stolen credentials daily. A Verizon analysis reveals that only 3% of passwords are complex enough to resist hacking attempts.
Fortunately, an innovative solution is emerging, making data security simpler. Instead of cumbersome passwords, biometric authentication—such as facial recognition or fingerprint scanning—is increasingly being used for seamless logins.
“Passwordless authentication is becoming universal, providing robust security against phishing and brute force attacks,” says Jake Moore, an expert at cybersecurity firm ESET.
If you currently access your banking apps with your fingerprint, you’re already utilizing this cutting-edge method. It generates two cryptographic “passkeys”: a public key sent to your service (like your bank) during account creation and a private key securely stored on your device.
To log in, your bank sends a one-time cryptographic challenge to your device instead of requesting a password. Your fingerprint unlocks a secure chip that uses your private key to sign the challenge, sending the signed response back to your bank for verification against the public key. Importantly, your biometric data remains on your device. “Passkeys offer security, ease of use, and unparalleled convenience,” adds Moore.
Major companies are actively pushing passkey adoption. Microsoft announced in May 2025 that new accounts created with them will default to passwordless. “While passwords have been prevalent for centuries, their reign could soon come to an end,” the company stated. More organizations are expected to follow suit within the next year. Moore anticipates that as additional platforms embrace passkeys, more users will turn to biometric solutions that frequently scan their faces.
Various sectors are embracing passkey technology. Online gaming platform Roblox is rapidly expanding its use of passkeys, as shown by a 856% increase in authenticating users, with the public sector also participating; the German Federal Employment Agency ranks among the leading organizations adopting passkeys.
“Decreasing dependence on passwords benefits every organization,” affirms Andrew Schikier from the FIDO Alliance, which advocates for passkey integration. This transition also alleviates user concerns: data reveals that organizations switching to passkeys see an 81% drop in IT helpdesk requests regarding login issues. Schikier predicts that over half of the top 1,000 websites will adopt passkeys by 2026.
Discover more insights in the Lost in Space-Time newsletter. Register for the latest updates from the universe.
Introduction
Since the 5th century AD, the phrase “In the beginning” has sparked intrigue, originating from the writings of an Israeli priest known as “P.” This profound beginning resonates with our modern understanding of the cosmos. Here’s a glimpse into the universe’s birth:
Words falter when describing the universe’s origins, transcending mere physics and human experience. By retracing our steps, we assert that the universe emerged from a hot Big Bang approximately 13.8 billion years ago. The early universe, characterized by rapid expansion, underwent quantum fluctuations, which left enduring marks.
These fluctuations allowed some regions to expand more rapidly, forming hyperdensities of hot matter, while others lagged, resulting in varying densities. About 100 seconds post-Big Bang, baryonic matter took shape: hydrogen nuclei, helium nuclei, and free electrons. Alongside, dark matter emerged as its elusive counterpart.
Initially, the universe existed as a hot plasma—fluidic and dominated by intense radiation—expanding with Big Bang momentum, aided by dark energy. As expansion slowed over 9 billion years, dark energy escalated the expansion rate.
This early universe’s excess density was predominantly dark matter, with small baryonic matter contributions. Gravity pulled these together, while radiation acted as a binding force. The pressure from this radiation created acoustic vibrations or sound waves within the plasma.
Although these waves were not audible, they traveled faster than half the speed of light, with wavelengths spanning millions of light-years. This era signifies the genesis of our universe.
As the pressure waves from radiation expanded outward, they dragged negatively charged electrons and their heavier baryon counterparts. Dark matter, indifferent to radiation interactions, remained behind, resulting in a spherical wave of dense baryonic material expanding outward.
The propagation speed of these sound waves reflected the baryonic material and radiation’s density. Early waves had smaller amplitudes and higher frequencies, readily damped after minimal cycles, akin to ultrahigh-frequency sound waves.
As the universe continued its expansion and cooldown, roughly 380,000 years later, electrons merged with hydrogen and helium nuclei, giving rise to neutral atoms in a process known as recombination. This event, spanning about 100,000 years, produced cosmic background radiation—an elusive imprint awaiting discovery.
Map of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Exhibiting Density Fluctuations
Collaboration between ESA and Planck
The radiation pressure and sound speed decreased significantly, creating a frozen spherical shell of baryonic material, similar to debris washed ashore by a storm. The largest compressional wave left behind a concentrated sphere of visible matter, termed the sonic horizon, roughly 480 million light-years from the original overdensity.
Early compressional waves left minor imprints on the universe’s matter distribution, while later waves, generated right before recombination, exhibited greater amplitude and lower frequency, observable in today’s cosmic background radiation.
Consequently, regions of high density yield slightly warmer background radiation, while lower density areas produce cooler radiation. This frozen state incorporates traces of matter distribution just after the Big Bang, known as a “feature of the universe.”
The wavelength of these final sound waves closely relates to the curvature of space, while the Hubble constant integrates our understanding of the cosmos measured over 13 billion years.
Both quantum fluctuations and acoustic vibrations provide distinct signatures, akin to cosmic fingerprints. The first evidence emerged on April 23, 1992, revealing temperature variations in a cosmic background radiation map produced by the COBE satellite. George Smoot, the lead researcher, highlighted its monumental significance, describing it as a divine encounter for believers.
Observing distinct directions in the cosmos creates a triangle projecting into space, with the vertex angle referred to as the angular scale. A favorable horizon results in a higher probability of encountering a hot spot within the cosmic background approximately 480 million light-years from another hot spot, corresponding to an angular scale of around 1°.
This measurement surpasses the resolution of earlier instruments, with the WMAP and Planck satellite missions unveiling additional acoustic vibrations down to angular scales under 0.1°.
The origins of baryonic matter contributed to cosmic structures, with small overdensities serving as seeds for star and galaxy formation, while underdensities created voids within the universe’s large-scale structure, known as the cosmic web. Thus, the probability of finding galaxy chains roughly 480 million light-years from each other slightly increases.
By analyzing acoustic vibrations, astrophysicists have accurately assessed cosmological parameters, including baryonic matter density, dark matter, dark energy, and the Hubble constant among others. However, contentment is elusive, as the standard cosmological inflation model (Lambda CDM) reveals we only observe 4.9% of the universe, with dark matter comprising 26.1% and dark energy making up 69%.
The enigma remains: we have yet to uncover the true nature of dark matter and dark energy.
Jim Baggott’s upcoming book, Disharmony: A History of the Hubble Constant Problem, is scheduled for release in the US by Oxford University Press in January 2026.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have verified the presence of a starless, hydrogen-rich object primarily composed of dark matter. These intriguing entities, referred to as reionization-limited HI clouds (RELHICs), are remnants of the early Universe. They pose challenges to traditional theories of galaxy formation and may indicate undiscovered populations of similar cosmic structures.
This image illustrates the location of RELHIC object Cloud-9. Image credits: NASA / ESA / VLA / Gagandeep Anand, STScI / Alejandro Benitez-Llambay, University of Milan-Bicocca / Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
The RELHIC object, known as Cloud-9, was detected using the 500-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) and its existence was independently verified by the Very Large Array (VLA) and the Green Bank Telescope (GBT).
“This is the narrative of a failed galaxy,” states astronomer Alejandro Benítez Lambay from the University of Milano-Bicocca.
“Scientific advancements often arise from failures rather than successes. In this case, the absence of stars confirms our theoretical framework,” he adds.
“This discovery reveals primordial components of galaxies yet to form within our local universe.”
The core of Cloud-9 consists of neutral hydrogen and spans approximately 4,900 light-years in diameter.
This object is positioned in proximity to the spiral galaxy Messier 94, shares its recession velocity, and is approximately 14.3 million light-years away from Earth.
“Cloud-9 represents a crucial glimpse into the enigmatic dark universe,” remarked Dr. Andrew Fox, an astronomer at ESA’s Association of Universities for Astronomical Research/Space Telescope Science Institute (AURA/STScI).
“Theoretical models suggest that a majority of the universe’s mass is composed of dark matter, which does not emit light, thus making it challenging to detect.”
“Cloud-9 offers a rare opportunity to study clouds dominated by dark matter.”
The findings discount the presence of dwarf galaxies with detectable stellar masses.
“The lack of observable stars reinforces the interpretation of this system as a RELHIC—a starless dark matter halo filled with hydrostatic gas in thermal equilibrium with the cosmic ultraviolet background,” stated the researchers.
Cloud-9 stands as a prime candidate for a compact HI cloud and offers robust empirical support for the ΛCDM (lambda cold dark matter) model, a leading cosmological framework.
This model predicts the existence of a starless dark matter halo filled with gas on subgalactic mass scales that have yet to form stars.
“The discovery of Cloud-9 also refines the current thresholds for halo mass required for galaxy formation, bringing us closer to understanding why some dark matter halos host galaxies while others remain barren,” concluded the researchers.
For detailed findings, look for the upcoming publication in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
_____
Gagandeep S. Anand et al. 2025. The first RELHIC? Cloud-9 is a starless gas cloud. APJL 993, L55; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1584
Artist’s Impression of BepiColombo Spacecraft Near Mercury
Source: ESA/ATG Media Lab
In 2026, the highly anticipated BepiColombo spacecraft is set to orbit Mercury, promising to unlock the planet’s long-standing mysteries.
BepiColombo is a collaborative mission involving the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). This intricate mission includes the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (Mio), tethered to the Mercury Transport Module (MTM).
Since its launch in 2018, the MTM has made six flybys of Mercury, skillfully utilizing the planet’s gravity to facilitate its descent into orbit, a method pioneered by Giuseppe “Bepi” Colombo.
This mission has already gathered crucial scientific insights, including data about the solar wind and high-resolution imagery of Mercury’s surface. However, the MPO’s advanced instruments, including X-ray spectrometers, remain inactive due to obstructions by the MTM.
In September 2026, the MPO and Mio will detach from the MTM, embarking on their final descent into orbit, completing this phase by November when their focus will shift to detailed studies of Mercury.
According to Charlie Feldman, a researcher at the University of Leicester who contributed to the MPO’s instruments, “We’re hopeful that our equipment will function as intended. With the extensive time invested in building it, the excitement comes with a degree of anxiety.”
Alongside capturing intricate details of Mercury’s magnetosphere, the MPO will extensively map and analyze the planet’s surface using its spectrometer and other tools. “This represents the first X-ray imagery of an extraterrestrial surface,” Feldman noted.
Such observations may unravel enigmas surrounding the significant X-ray emissions detected from Mercury’s night side in prior missions. Additionally, the spacecraft will assess X-rays emitted from the sun-facing side, unearthing new insights into Mercury’s geological composition and evolution. “Deciphering how planets formed gives us a broader understanding of solar system dynamics,” Feldman stated.
Exploring Space and Astronomy in Japan: The Land of the Rising Sun
Experience Japan’s unique blend of astronomy and culture, featuring cutting-edge research institutes and breathtaking starry skies. Explore prestigious locations like JAXA Tsukuba Space Center, the Nobeyama Radio Observatory, and the Tanegashima Space Center, while marveling at the celestial beauty above the Japanese Alps and Yakushima.
Topic:
This version enhances the SEO by including relevant keywords and properly optimized alt text while retaining the HTML structure and tags.
The space station industry is experiencing significant growth. For years, the only option for sending astronauts and experiments into orbit was the International Space Station (ISS). However, as NASA plans to deorbit the ISS by the end of the decade, a new commercially owned space station is set to emerge.
Mary Guenther, director of space policy at the Progressive Policy Institute in Washington, DC, states, “These developments have been in progress for years, primarily alongside NASA, with hardware expected to begin operations in 2026.” While privately developed modules have been attached to the ISS, never before has there been a fully independent commercial space station.
Without the ISS, a commercial space station will be essential. Guenther emphasizes, “It’s time for NASA to advance into uncharted territory and leave the operation of a low Earth orbit space station to commercial entities.”
In 2026, two companies, including the startup Vast, are poised to launch operations in the U.S. Vast plans to deploy the Haven-1 station aboard SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket as early as May. This station is smaller and simpler than the ISS and will use SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule for certain life support systems, marking a historic milestone as the first commercial space station.
The Haven-1 is designed to accommodate a crew of four for space tourism, featuring a photography dome and Wi-Fi, in addition to hosting smaller-scale microgravity experiments. It is envisioned as a precursor to the larger Haven-2, which Vast executive teams aim to position as a successor to the ISS.
“Everyone, including Vast, is preparing for 2030,” says Colin Smith from Vast. “With the ISS scheduled to deorbit at the end of 2030, there’s a growing urgency as we near 2025.”
Sierra Space is another player with plans for a 2026 space station, currently developing the Dream Chaser spaceplane. This company intends to launch a prototype of its expandable space station module called the Large Scale Integrated Flexible Environment in 2026, which will be part of the collaborative Orbital Reef project led by Blue Origin and Sierra Space.
The era of commercial space stations promises to differ significantly from that of the ISS, given the broader array of industry participants. “Numerous commercial space station models are emerging to cater to various markets,” Guenther notes. “I am eager to see how these companies distinguish themselves in order to attract clientele, and how competition can spur innovation.”
Many anticipate that private space stations will considerably lower the cost of operating in orbit, similarly to how private launch providers have made space access more economical.
“The ISS is the most expensive structure humanity has ever constructed, costing about $150 billion to support just seven individuals. Without changes, there will be no future for space commerce, manufacturing, or habitation,” Smith comments. “Our vision is to empower millions to thrive in space, and the steps we take now will pave the way for that future.”
Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether market demand will support a flourishing space economy. The prospect of establishing multiple specialized space stations in orbit is thrilling, yet it necessitates clients beyond NASA and other national space organizations. As new stations commence operations this year, their sustainability will soon become apparent.
“There exist promising industries poised to expand into space, such as pharmaceuticals and materials,” Guenther remarks. “It will be fascinating to see which of these sectors flourish and grow.”
Subsidies Promote Adoption of Low-Emission Technologies like Electric Vehicles
Kent Nishimura/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images
To achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in the United States by 2050, implementing green subsidies is essential, complemented by a potential carbon tax, both of which may face opposition under President Donald Trump.
Introducing a price or tax on carbon emissions stands out as the most effective strategy to curb carbon output. However, the U.S. government has continually struggled to enact cap-and-trade laws that would limit emissions and require companies surpassing these limits to buy allowances.
Subsidies are straightforward to deploy and could lower the cost of adopting low-emission technologies, including electric vehicles, thus alleviating the financial impact of carbon pricing.
Wei Peng at Princeton University analyzed the implications of subsidies and carbon taxes to find the most effective policy sequence for emissions reduction in the U.S.
The results indicate that subsidies could lead to a 32% reduction in energy system emissions by 2030; however, this impact may decrease over time as fossil fuels like natural gas remain economically viable.
Conversely, implementing a carbon tax in 2035 could result in the phase-out of most fossil fuels, reducing overall emissions by more than 80% by 2050.
“Subsidies will help cultivate green industries, but we will still require regulatory enforcement to meet decarbonization objectives,” states Penn. “The key question is how to navigate that transition.”
Following President Joe Biden’s 2050 net-zero aim, recent legislation has introduced tax incentives for investments in green infrastructure, ranging from electric vehicle charging stations to carbon sequestration technologies. In contrast, President Trump dismissed these subsidies as “the new green scam” and rescinded many of them.
This unpredictable policy landscape is “the worst-case scenario,” according to Peng. “This inconsistency will either slow down decarbonization or inflate costs.”
If subsidies are reinstated post-Trump’s presidency in 2029, along with introducing a carbon tax by 2045, researchers conclude that the carbon tax would need to be 67% higher than current rates to achieve net-zero emissions. This is primarily due to the necessity of employing costly technology to extract vast amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Yet, researchers suggest that “accelerated innovation” through unforeseen technological breakthroughs could lessen the need for stringent regulations.
The findings advocate strongly for a carbon pricing model, yet extending this analysis globally would yield richer insights into effective carrot-and-stick combinations, notes Gregory Nemet at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Countries like China and those in the European Union have adopted extensive subsidies and carbon pricing initiatives, leading to advancements such as affordable solar panels, which empower other nations to cut emissions.
“Progress is ongoing in these regions, along with robust policy frameworks,” remarks Nemet. “This fosters accelerated innovation, and the U.S. stands to benefit significantly from this evolution.”
Wondering, Should I quit HIIT? It seems like you may be looking for a break from those intensive kettlebell classes. HIIT, or high intensity interval training, can indeed feel overwhelming for beginners.
This method of exercise is favored by many due to its efficiency and impressive health benefits.
Research shows that HIIT can enhance endurance, promote fat loss, build muscle strength, and improve key health markers like blood pressure and blood sugar control.
However, HIIT isn’t suitable for everyone.
Individuals with certain health conditions, particularly lung issues, are often advised to limit or avoid HIIT. Moreover, there’s evidence suggesting that excessive HIIT can lead to negative effects.
In a study from Sweden, researchers discovered that exceeding 150 minutes of HIIT per week could result in stagnated athletic performance and increased oxidative stress in cells.
This effect tends to occur with each HIIT session but lasts only briefly. As long as you’re not overtraining, incorporating a long-term boost of antioxidants can help mitigate the biological stress your body experiences.
Find a sustainable exercise routine for long-term health benefits – Photo credit: Getty
Most health recommendations suggest that up to 90 minutes of HIIT per week is perfectly acceptable.
If you’re still uncertain, that’s understandable. The best exercise is often the one you enjoy and can maintain in the long run.
Interestingly, research from Copenhagen found that slow runners have a lower risk of mortality compared to their faster counterparts.
Another advantage of “steady state” exercises is the ability to converse while working out, making it perfect for social runs with friends.
Unfortunately, that’s not the case with HIIT; when your heart rate exceeds 150 bpm, chatting becomes nearly impossible.
This article addresses the query submitted by Bruce Morris: “Should I quit HIIT?”
If you have any questions, feel free to reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram (make sure to include your name and location).
Discover more in our ultimatefun factsand amazing science pages.
Astronomers reveal new insights into the factors influencing star formation efficiency in the densest regions of galaxies through Caffeine research.
GAL316: A massive star-forming region. Image credit: ESO / M. Matten / André et al. / VVV.
In this groundbreaking study, astronomer Michael Mattern from the University of Paris-Saclay and his team meticulously mapped dense gas across 49 giant star-forming complexes located approximately 3,000 parsecs away within our galaxy’s disk.
“Creating stars is a challenging endeavor, and the process lacks efficiency,” the astronomers stated.
“Current understanding indicates that a certain minimum density of gas and dust is necessary for stars to form.”
“Only about 1 to 2 percent of the gas and dust in these regions is utilized in the ignition of a star.”
“Could denser regions exhibit higher efficiency in star formation?”
“We are examining GAL316, one of the remarkable stellar nurseries we observed, to explore this question,” they elaborated.
The ongoing CAFFEINE survey employs the ArTéMiS camera on the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), a state-of-the-art radio telescope situated on the Chajnantor Plateau.
“APEX, managed by the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, has successfully captured the faint emissions of cold gas clouds, visible as blue glows in GAL316 images,” the researchers revealed.
“This glow overlays a starry backdrop, successfully recorded by ESO’s VISTA telescope.”
They discovered that as gas density increases past a specific threshold, the efficiency of star formation – the conversion rate of gas into stars – does not proportionately escalate.
This observation contradicts existing models that suggest a continual rise in star formation with density increases.
Conversely, the efficiency remains nearly constant in extremely dense gas, reinforcing the notion that stars primarily form within filamentous structures in clouds, a process dictated by the fragmentation of these filaments into protostar cores.
The findings suggest a potential gas density threshold for efficient star formation, bolstering the hypothesis that the physics of dense filaments governs star formation, rather than turbulence or feedback from nascent stars alone.
This research represents one of the most thorough efforts to date in connecting the physical structure of dense gas with star formation efficiency, paving the way for future observations and simulations that aim to elucidate the emergence of Sun-like stars from interstellar clouds.
“Our results indicate that the densest regions observed in this Caffeine study show similar efficiencies in star production compared to other stellar nurseries, provided they exceed the minimum density,” the scientists remarked.
Their findings are detailed in a published paper in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
_____
M. Mattern et al. 2024. Investigating star formation efficiency in dense gas: Initial results from the CAFFEINE survey utilizing ArTéMiS. A&A 688, A163; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202449908
Humans have larger brains relative to body size compared to other primates, which leads to a higher glucose demand that may be supported by gut microbiota changes influencing host metabolism. In this study, we investigated this hypothesis by inoculating germ-free mice with gut bacteria from three primate species with varying brain sizes. Notably, the brain gene expression in mice receiving human and macaque gut microbes mirrored patterns found in the respective primate brains. Human gut microbes enhanced glucose production and utilization in the mouse brains, suggesting that differences in gut microbiota across species can impact brain metabolism, indicating that gut microbiota may help meet the energy needs of large primate brains.
Decasian et al. provided groundbreaking data showing that gut microbiome shapes brain function differences among primates. Image credit: DeCasien et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2426232122.
“Our research demonstrates that microbes influence traits critical for understanding evolution, especially regarding the evolution of the human brain,” stated Katie Amato, lead author and researcher at Northwestern University.
This study builds upon prior research revealing that introducing gut microbes from larger-brained primates into mice leads to enhanced metabolic energy within the host microbiome—a fundamental requirement for supporting the development and function of energetically costly large brains.
The researchers aimed to examine how gut microbes from primates of varying brain sizes affect host brain function. In a controlled laboratory setting, they transplanted gut bacteria from two large-brained primates (humans and squirrel monkeys) and a smaller-brained primate (macaque) into germ-free mice.
Within eight weeks, mice with gut microbes from smaller-brained primates exhibited distinct brain function compared to those with microbes from larger-brained primates.
Results indicated that mice hosting larger-brained microbes demonstrated increased expression of genes linked to energy production and synaptic plasticity, vital for the brain’s learning processes. Conversely, gene expression associated with these processes was diminished in mice hosting smaller-brained primate microbes.
“Interestingly, we compared our findings from mouse brains with actual macaque and human brain data, and, to our surprise, many of the gene expression patterns were remarkably similar,” Dr. Amato remarked.
“This means we could alter the mouse brain to resemble that of the primate from which the microbial sample was derived.”
Another notable discovery was the identification of gene expression patterns associated with ADHD, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism in mice with gut microbes from smaller-brained primates.
Although previous research has suggested correlations between conditions like autism and gut microbiome composition, definitive evidence linking microbiota to these conditions has been lacking.
“Our study further supports the idea that microbes may play a role in these disorders, emphasizing that the gut microbiome influences brain function during developmental stages,” Dr. Amato explained.
“We can speculate that exposure to ‘harmful’ microorganisms could alter human brain development, possibly leading to the onset of these disorders. Essentially, if critical human microorganisms are absent in early stages, functional brain changes may occur, increasing the risk of disorder manifestations.”
These groundbreaking findings will be published in today’s Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
_____
Alex R. Decassian et al. 2026. Primate gut microbiota induces evolutionarily significant changes in neurodevelopment in mice. PNAS 123(2): e2426232122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2426232122
Gravitational microlensing surveys have unveiled populations of free-floating planets. Although their masses haven’t been directly measured due to distance-related challenges, statistics suggest that many of these rogue planets possess less mass than Jupiter. Recently, astronomers identified a groundbreaking microlensing event, termed KMT-2024-BLG-0792/OGLE-2024-BLG-0516. This event involved an exoplanet with approximately 21.9% of Jupiter’s mass, situated 9,785 light-years (3,000 parsecs) from the Milky Way’s center.
An artist’s impression of a free-floating exoplanet. Image credit: Sci.News.
Traditionally, planets are linked to stars, but research indicates that many traverse the galaxy independently.
Known as free-floating or rogue planets, these celestial bodies lack stellar companions.
Due to their low light emissions, they are primarily detected through their gravitational influences, a technique known as microlensing.
A significant challenge of this discovery method is determining the distances to these planets, complicating mass measurements.
This has left much of the data regarding these solitary objects speculative.
In a recent study, Dr. Subo Dong from Peking University and the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan and collaborators discovered a new free-floating planet, KMT-2024-BLG-0792/OGLE-2024-BLG-0516, via a brief microlensing event.
In contrast to prior approaches, they utilized a novel strategy by observing the microlensing phenomenon concurrently from Earth and space, leveraging multiple ground-based surveys alongside ESA’s Gaia space telescope.
Variations in the timing of light captured by these different locations facilitated measurements of microlens parallax, enabling researchers to calculate the planet’s mass and position through finite source modeling.
“Based on comparisons with the statistical characteristics of other microlensing events and simulation predictions, we conclude that this object didn’t originate as an isolated entity (like a brown dwarf) but likely formed within a protoplanetary disk (like a planet),” the astronomers noted.
“Subsequent dynamic processes likely ejected it from its formation site, resulting in a free-floating object.”
For further details, check out the study published in this month’s Science: paper.
_____
Subo Dong et al. 2026. Microlensing of free-floating planets caused by heavy objects in Saturn’s vicinity. Science 391 (6780): 96-99; doi: 10.1126/science.adv9266
For over 20 years, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, one of the earliest hominid species (dating back 6.7 to 7.2 million years), was discovered in Chad in 2001. This species is central to a heated debate: Did our earliest ancestors walk upright? A groundbreaking study by paleoanthropologists at New York University provides compelling evidence supporting this notion. The research indicates that Sahelanthropus tchadensis, an ape-like ancestor from Africa, showcases some of the earliest adaptations for bipedal terrestrial locomotion.
Reconstruction of Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Image credit: University of Silesia.
According to New York University, “Sahelanthropus tchadensis was essentially a bipedal ape with a brain size similar to that of a chimpanzee, likely spending considerable time foraging and finding safety in trees,” as noted by Dr. Scott Williams.
“Despite its ape-like appearance, Sahelanthropus tchadensis demonstrated adaptations for bipedal posture and movement on land,” Dr. Williams added.
The team focused on the femur and two partial forearm bones found at the Toros Menara site in Chad. Previous research had asserted that these bones were too ape-like to indicate upright walking; however, this latest study utilizes 3D shape modeling and anatomical analysis tailored to human locomotion.
“These characteristics suggest a similarity in hip and knee function between Sahelanthropus tchadensis and modern humans, possibly representing fundamental adaptations toward bipedalism in the human lineage,” the researchers concluded.
Although the external shape of the limb bones resembles that of chimpanzees, the proportions indicate a more human-like configuration.
The researchers found that the relationships between arm and leg lengths are comparable to modern bonobos and early human predecessors.
Notably, they discovered the femoral tubercle—a bony structure on the femur crucial for attaching the iliofemoral ligament, which stabilizes the human hip joint—unique to hominids.
Additionally, the femur exhibited significant internal torsion known as front twist (medial torsion of the femoral shaft), a feature linked to aligning the knee with the body’s center of gravity during walking, distinctly present in hominids compared to extant apes and extinct Miocene species.
These findings challenge long-held beliefs regarding the timeline and mechanics of upright walking evolution.
Scientists propose that bipedalism emerged gradually rather than as a sudden change. “We consider the evolution of bipedalism as an ongoing process,” researchers stated.
“Sahelanthropus tchadensis could represent an early form of habitual bipedalism.”
“In addition to terrestrial bipedalism, Sahelanthropus tchadensis likely engaged in various arboreal activities, including vertical climbing, forelimb suspension from branches, and both arboreal quadrupedal and bipedal locomotion.”
The study interprets this fossil as evidence of early human evolution from an ape-like ancestor, asserting that chimpanzee-like species are positioned near the root of the human family tree.
“Our analysis reveals that Sahelanthropus tchadensis demonstrates an early adaptation for bipedalism, suggesting that this trait evolved early in our lineage from ancestors closely related to present-day chimpanzees and bonobos,” Dr. Williams stated.
For further details, refer to the study published in this month’s issue of Scientific Advances.
_____
Scott A. Williams et al., 2026. The Earliest Evidence of Bipedalism in Humans: Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Scientific Advances 12(1); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adv0130
Deep within Bolivia’s seasonally flooded savannah, a small olive-green songbird has eluded scientific classification for decades. After 60 years of misidentification, ornithologists have finally confirmed that this bird is not merely a regional variant within the genus Hylophilus. It represents a completely new species. This discovery adds to South America’s rich avian diversity and underscores the vast unknowns still present within even well-studied bird families.
Beni Greenlet (Hylophilus moxensis), January 10, 2024, in its habitat near San Ramon, Beni, Bolivia. Observe the pale brownish-gray pinnae, dark lore, the base of the dark commissures, the clefts across the crown and frontal area, and the dark iris. Image credit: Tini Wijpkema.
The newly identified species belongs to the Hylophilus genus, part of the Vireonidae family, which includes vireos, greenlets, and shrikes.
With the scientific name Hylophilus moxensis (common name: Beni Greenlet), this bird thrives in the wet scrublands of Bolivia’s Beni Savannah, an ecologically unique area also known as Llanos de Moxos.
“Morphological differences among many Hylophilus Greenlet species are subtle. Most display shades of green, gray, yellow, and brown,” explains Dr. Paul Van Els, an ornithologist at the National Museum of History in La Paz, Bolivia. He and his colleagues detailed their findings in a recent paper.
“For certain species, iris color is one of the most effective traits to differentiate them from similarly appearing relatives.”
By analyzing one mitochondrial and three nuclear genes, the research team clarified the uncertainty surrounding this population.
Results revealed that the Beni population is distinct from known species and is more closely related to Hylophilus poirotis and Hylophilus amaurocephalus, which diverged approximately 6.6 million years ago.
In contrast, the latter two species separated from one another about 3.5 million years ago.
Van Els and his team also conducted comprehensive analyses of facial plumage, eye color, and vocalizations.
Research indicates that the Hylophilus moxensis can be uniquely identified by the absence of black or brown markings behind the ears, a trait consistently found in closely related species, along with uniformly dark brown eyes and a distinctive vocal pattern.
In vocal studies, researchers observed that this species’ calls feature “V-shaped notes,” and their vocalizations include overtones reminiscent of female Hylophilus amaurocephalus calls—a unique combination not shared with either comparative species.
The discovery of Hylophilus moxensis contributes to a growing list of endemic species found in the Beni savannah.
While scientists currently do not regard this species as threatened with extinction, they caution that extensive agricultural burning poses significant threats to the region’s biodiversity.
“Recognizing Hylophilus moxensis should enhance conservation priorities in this area,” the authors noted.
“Rampant agricultural burning poses a serious risk to the region’s biodiversity.”
“Though we cannot accurately estimate the population size of Hylophilus moxensis, we do not currently consider it at risk of extinction, as there remains extensive suitable habitat.”
“However, the relatively low number of sightings might indicate issues beyond mere observer rarity, potentially reflecting a truly localized population.”
This year will be a transformative journey of self-care inspired by the stars.
It has been 20 years since I first experienced profound envy witnessing someone’s ability to navigate the night sky. Back in 2006, while covering a conference in La Jolla, California, I had the chance to meet renowned astrophysicist Neil de Grasse Tyson. One evening, at dinner under the stars, he dazzled us with a laser pointer, mapping out constellations effortlessly. That moment ignited a promise to become a stargazer upon returning home.
Yet, I haven’t fully embraced my stargazing journey. Beyond the familiar Orion and the Big Dipper lies a vast universe I have yet to explore. One could attribute this to urban streetlights, but perhaps it’s also the realization that a love for the night sky is often nurtured during childhood. Those fortunate enough to be introduced to stargazing, typically by family, tend to develop a lasting connection and report better mental health.
Connecting with the universe promotes well-being. Research indicates that this connection is associated with numerous positive mental health benefits. In fact, studies suggest it even encourages generosity.
The term Noctocaelador, from Latin meaning “night,” “sky,” and “worship,” was coined by William Kelly in 2003 to describe the joy and mental health benefits of stargazing. Participants of his study expressed sentiments like, “I truly enjoyed gazing at the night sky” and “Stargazing uplifted my mood.”
This aligns with recent findings on Gen Z’s affinity for the night sky. Holly Brenna McNiven’s research indicates that many in this generation report a love for stargazing, attributing it to positive aspects of well-being tied to early experiences with astronomy.Her master’s project at Trinity Saint David’s, University of Wales, suggests that many young people cultivate their stargazing passion through shared experiences, particularly with familial connections.
Regrettably, I missed out on fostering a love for the stars in my early years, but it’s not too late. Nowadays, we don’t always need clear and dark nights to appreciate the universe. With the rising levels of light pollution, it’s reassuring that we can still connect through various resources. Who needs a clear sky when digital platforms like TikTok have unveiled a vibrant community of astronomers, affectionately termed “SpaceTok”?
While most users are from Gen Z, I remain grateful that even during cloudy nights, I can explore the universe through literature. Brian May’s new book, Endless Islands, offers stunning stereoscopic photographs of galaxies. For Christmas, I received Nigel Henbest’s Stargazing 2026, a comprehensive guide to this year’s celestial highlights. With a laser pointer in hand, I’ll soon be navigating the stars as effortlessly as Tyson.
Michael Brooks is a science journalist and author with a focus on physics.
Many individuals set New Year’s resolutions to lose weight, particularly following the holiday festivities. Traditionally, this involved adopting a new diet, waking up early for workouts, and other habits that can be challenging to sustain. Consequently, it’s no surprise that numerous people abandon their goals within weeks.
Today, however, an alternative has emerged: weight loss medications. Instead of solely depending on lifestyle changes, individuals can benefit from regular doses of GLP-1 agonists or other therapeutic tablets (as highlighted on page 6). Health professionals still recommend integrating these medications with consistent physical activity for optimal results.
GLP-1 drugs are not only transforming our cyclical health regimens. Restaurants are now crafting menus specifically for Ozempic diners, featuring smaller portion sizes for customers who experience reduced appetite. Additionally, supermarkets have reported declines in sales due to decreased demand from those using these medications. Airlines are also considering the implications, as decreased average passenger weight could lower fuel expenses.
While it’s unclear how much these trends can be attributed to GLP-1 drugs—which are currently used by a minority—and the extent of their impact on brands reacting to this health trend, the statistics surrounding obesity are alarming. Approximately 1 billion individuals globally are affected by obesity, and the adoption of these medications is expected to rise. According to World Health Organization estimates, fewer than 10 percent of people will utilize GLP-1 drugs by 2030, yet this still represents a substantial demographic.
“
Restaurants are designing menus featuring reduced portions for Ozempic diners. “
New advancements in medication are in development (refer to page 7), and the potential impacts could be even more significant. Beyond weight reduction, GLP-1 agonists have shown promise in treating various conditions, from addiction to eye diseases like cataracts.
While there remain numerous uncertainties regarding the long-term consequences, the results of discontinuation, and enhancing accessibility, the future appears bright. As we advance further into the 21st century, weight loss drugs are poised to play a crucial role in shaping health and wellness trends.
Megan Eaves-Egenes’ Nightfaring delves into our relationship with the night sky
Shutterstock / danm12
In the northern hemisphere, January often feels like the longest, dullest month. Luckily, a host of new science books brighten our days! This month, we explore topics from the enriching role of art in our lives to the overlooked significance of friction. Have you considered the origin of ideas? What do we lose by lighting up our skies? Perhaps January just isn’t enough…
Art Cure examines the effects of art and dance on mental health.”
data-credit=”EMILY KASK/AFP via Getty Images”
/>
Daisy Fancourt’s Art Cure investigates the impact of arts, including dance, on mental health.
What if engaging in activities like playing piano, dancing, or visiting art galleries could enhance our mental and physical well-being? Can these experiences bolster our resilience against conditions like dementia? These thought-provoking ideas are explored in Daisy Fancourt’s groundbreaking book. As a psychobiology and epidemiology professor at University College London, her insights offer a refreshing perspective, with British TV doctor Zand van Tureken hailing it as an “amazing antidote” to misleading health narratives. It’s an invitation to embrace joy—what’s not to love?
Have you ever wondered why we turn to alcohol in moments of celebration or stress relief? Surgeon and researcher Charles Knowles, a recovering alcoholic, provides an in-depth look at the science behind our relationship with alcohol. He uncovers how it hijacks our instincts and offers a scientific blueprint for breaking free from its grip. His insights shift the conversation from moral failing to scientific understanding.
When illness strikes, many rush to the internet seeking answers. But are the online “experts” equipped to handle our unique medical histories? Science writer Deborah Cohen raises critical questions about why we trust unverified sources for our health advice. I hope her investigation uncovers essential truths.
Polar War looks into the geopolitical struggles in the Arctic.”
data-credit=”Shutterstock/muratart”
/>
Kenneth R. Rosen’s Polar War investigates power dynamics in the Arctic.
As Arctic ice melts, exposing pipeline vulnerabilities and unearthing natural resources, what challenges await us in this rapidly changing environment? Kenneth Rosen, a seasoned geopolitical writer, delves into this pressing issue, aptly summarizing it in his book’s subtitle: “Submarines, Spies, and Power Struggles in the Melting Arctic.” A thrilling exploration of geopolitical tensions.
Are the best ideas conceived in bustling cities, or do they emerge from the outskirts? Charles Foster challenges conventional wisdom in his captivating book. Embarking on a philosophical journey, he explores human culture, evolution, and societal movements, offering a refreshing take on where innovation truly begins.
As we leave behind the festive season, everyday life feels increasingly overwhelming. BBC journalist Claudia Hammond addresses this phenomenon of “overwhelm” in her insightful book, providing readers with psychological tools and scientific insights to combat burnout. As she explores procrastination, perfectionism, and the pressures of modern life, her timely advice couldn’t be more relevant.
Off the Scales examines the rise of Ozempic.”
data-credit=”Michael Siluk/Alamy”
/>
Amy Donnellan’s Off the Scales chronicles the rise of Ozempic.
Michael Silk/Alamy
As the popularity of GLP-1 medication Ozempic and other weight-loss drugs continues to grow, Amy Donnellan sheds light on the backstory behind Novo Nordisk’s developments in obesity treatments. Through a lens covering economics, politics, and social concerns, she examines whether these solutions are indeed as effective as they appear.
With the night sky brightening by over 120% annually, this presents serious issues for both astronomers and wildlife. In Night Out, Megan Eaves-Egenes embarks on a global journey to explore the cultural significance of darkness. Described as a quest to “find solace in the stars during life’s challenges,” this narrative traverses diverse locations, from New Zealand to the Himalayas, asking what we stand to lose in the process.
Invisible forces often fascinate readers, but Jennifer Vail’s unique exploration of friction offers a fresh perspective. Covering the historical evolution of this force—from its role in everyday mechanics to its unexpected involvement in scientific advancements—this unsung hero deserves greater recognition beyond the realms of Newton and Da Vinci.
From Ada Lovelace’s revolutionary algorithms to Alan Turing’s pioneering intelligence tests, this tour through AI’s landscape, presented by a University of New South Wales professor, promises an engaging experience. With the challenge of delivering an expansive narrative within a compact framework, creativity knows no bounds in storytelling.
Topics:
This rewrite maintains SEO best practices while preserving the original content structure and meaning. It includes relevant keywords, enhances readability, and improves the overall flow.
El Niño’s Impact on European Agriculture: Crop Failures and Price Hikes
Public Domain
El Niño, a climate phenomenon affecting the Pacific Ocean region, significantly influenced the economy and climate of Europe, resulting in widespread famine from 1500 to 1800.
During El Niño, the warming of ocean waters in the central and eastern Pacific disrupts trade winds, which leads to altered global rainfall patterns. The cooling phase, known as La Niña, and the oscillation between these two phases is referred to as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
This climatic variation poses severe risks in tropical and subtropical areas, notably in Australia, where it can lead to droughts and wildfires, and in the Americas, where it causes increased rainfall.
However, until recently, the focus on El Niño’s effects on Europe was minimal. Emil Esmaili from Columbia University and his research team studied records from 160 famines in early modern Europe, correlating them with El Niño and La Niña data derived from tree rings.
The findings revealed that over 40% of famines in Central Europe during this era were directly linked to El Niño events.
El Niño typically increases rainfall in the region, which can lead to excess soil moisture, resulting in crop failures. Though it did not directly trigger famine in other European areas, it raised the likelihood of famine occurrences by 24% across all nine regions studied.
To better understand this correlation, Esmaili’s team assessed grain and fish prices, discovering that El Niño significantly drove up food prices throughout Europe for several years.
Researchers, including David Yubilaba from the University of Sydney, indicate that ENSO events can still lead to food insecurity and malnutrition in low-income households in regions such as South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania, and parts of Africa.
While El Niño continues to influence the climate in Europe, its impact on food security is expected to be less severe today. “Modern agricultural practices are now more resilient, weather forecasting has greatly improved, and markets have become more consolidated,” says Ubilaba.
The ice dome located in northern Greenland has previously melted completely under temperatures expected to return this century. This significant discovery offers valuable insights into the speed at which melting ice sheets can influence global sea levels.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers drilled 500 meters into Prudhoe Dome, an extensive ice formation the size of Luxembourg situated in northwestern Greenland, gathering seven meters of sediment and rock core. Infrared dating indicated that the core’s surface sand was sun-bleached approximately 7,000 years ago—corroborating that the dome fully melted as the planet emerged from its last glacial maximum due to cyclical changes in Earth’s orbital dynamics.
During that era, summer temperatures were 3°C to 5°C warmer than today’s averages. Alarmingly, human-induced climate change could bring back similar temperatures by 2100.
“This provides direct evidence that the ice sheet is highly sensitive to even the modest warming seen during the Holocene,” stated Yarrow Axford, a Northwestern University researcher not involved in the study.
With the ongoing melting of Greenland’s ice sheet, projections indicate a potential sea level rise of tens of centimeters to a meter within this century. To refine these predictions, scientists must enhance their understanding of how quickly various sections of the ice sheet are dissipating.
The Prudhoe Dome core is the first of multiple cores analyzed by the GreenDrill project, funded by the National Science Foundation and featuring researchers from various U.S. universities. Their goal is to extract crucial climate data from beneath the ice sheets, one of Earth’s least-explored areas.
Notably, deposits excavated in 1966 from beneath the ice at Camp Century—a U.S. nuclear military facility operational for eight years during the Cold War—revealed that Greenland lacked ice around 400,000 years ago. Further, a rock core taken in 1993 from underneath Summit Station illustrated that the entire ice sheet has melted as recently as 1.1 million years ago.
However, the GreenDrill project extends its research deeper beneath the ice, collecting samples from multiple locations near Greenland’s northern coast.
“The crucial question is when did the edge of Greenland experience melting in the past?” posed Caleb Walcott-George, part of a new research team at the University of Kentucky. “This is where the initial sea level rise will transpire.”
Current ice sheet models indicate uncertainty regarding whether northern or southern Greenland will melt at a faster rate in the future. This study bolsters the evidence that warming post-last glacial maximum manifested earlier and with greater intensity in northern Greenland, according to Axford.
Potential explanations may involve feedback mechanisms, such as the loss of Arctic sea ice, which could have allowed more ocean heat to penetrate the atmosphere in the far north.
By confirming that Prudhoe Dome melted under a warming of 3°C to 5°C, this study adds credibility to ice sheet models that predict similar outcomes, asserted Edward Gasson, who was not part of the research at the University of Exeter, UK.
“This research is vital for recalibrating surface melting models: When will we really begin to lose this ice?” Gasson emphasized.
This galaxy cluster must be much, much colder than it actually is.
Lingxiao Yuan
Recent discoveries about young galaxy clusters, such as SPT2349-56, are transforming our understanding of how these colossal structures formed and evolved in the early universe. Interestingly, the gas within SPT2349-56 is significantly hotter and denser than anticipated, posing intriguing questions for researchers.
Zhou Daizhi and their team at the University of British Columbia utilized the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile to investigate this galaxy cluster. Their findings revealed that the gas at the cluster’s center reaches temperatures of tens of millions of degrees Celsius.
“The sun’s surface temperature is just a few thousand degrees Celsius, making this region much hotter,” Zhou notes. “Our conservative estimates indicate temperatures five to ten times higher than expected based on simulations, which is surprising since such hot gas was thought to exist only in clusters billions of years old.”
Located in the early universe, approximately 1.4 billion years after the Big Bang, SPT2349-56 is unlike any other known cluster of its age. Zhou explains, “This gas should still be relatively cold and in small quantities, as these nascent clusters are still in the process of accumulating gas and heating up.” However, SPT2349-56 seems to be more mature than anticipated.
The unusual heating could stem from the presence of particularly active galaxies within the cluster, with at least three galaxies emitting massive jets of energy. These jets, combined with intermittent star formation bursts, might be heating the gas rapidly, challenging previous assumptions.
“This discovery opens a new window into understanding stages of cluster evolution that we have not observed before,” Zhou emphasizes. The research team plans additional observations to locate more hot young clusters like SPT2349-56, with the hope of unraveling the complexities of galaxy formation.
The bold initiative by Reflect Orbital aims to commence in 2026, deploying satellites to reflect sunlight back to Earth. This technology seeks to illuminate dark regions for visibility and enhance energy generation. However, many astronomers express skepticism regarding the project’s feasibility and its implications for scientific research.
Reflect Orbital, a US-based company, aspires to provide “sunlight on demand.” Their first satellite is expected to launch in early 2026, illuminating ten locations as part of its inaugural “world tour.” Plans include deploying thousands of satellites fitted with extensive mirrors designed to reflect sunlight back to the Earth, catering to needs such as remote control, defense, infrastructure, and energy production.
By 2030, Reflect Orbital anticipates having sufficient satellite coverage to deliver 200 watts per square meter to solar farms on Earth, mimicking the light levels of dusk and dawn, thereby facilitating reliable energy production, especially in regions lacking natural light.
Despite these ambitions, their Federal Communications Commission (FCC) specifications suggest that a single satellite may not generate significant power. Astronomers, including members from Tucson’s Dark Sky Consulting and the American Astronomical Society, utilized these filings to underscore potential energy limitations.
As highlighted by John Valentine, a prominent scholar in the field, the reflected light would only exceed a full moon’s brightness fourfold, indicating insufficient electricity generation. In order to produce more significant light output, deploying satellites with a multitude of reflectors would be essential, presenting logistical challenges and increased costs.
Furthermore, the dynamic nature of the mirrors could pose challenges for astronomical research, since they might intermittently produce flashes of sunlight. Additionally, even micro-damage to a satellite’s reflector from tiny meteoroids could scatter light unintentionally, complicating operational efficiency.
Reflect Orbital is actively engaging with the scientific community to explore solutions for these arising concerns. As of now, the company has not responded to inquiries from New Scientist.
Leucovorin: A Potential Solution for Rising Autism Rates
Hannah Beier/Reuters
The U.S. government ignited discussions last year by deciding to approve leucovorin, a lesser-known drug aimed at children with brain folate deficiency, a condition believed to correlate with autism.
This controversial decision alarmed many healthcare professionals, given that it was founded on limited evidence from just a handful of small studies. However, the largest clinical trial focusing on leucovorin’s effectiveness in treating autism is anticipated to yield results in early 2026, potentially providing clearer insights.
Autism became a priority in U.S. health strategy in 2025, following President Donald Trump’s appointment of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. as head of the nation’s health agency. Kennedy, who has previously linked increasing autism rates to vaccinations, committed to identifying autism’s causes by the end of September 2025.
Concurrently, the government signaled intentions to approve leucovorin use in patients with cerebral folate deficiency—a condition studies suggest affects nearly 40% of individuals on the autism spectrum, hindering effective vitamin B9 uptake in the brain and resulting in symptoms akin to autism traits, such as communication struggles and sensory processing issues. See more on this topic.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has refrained from commenting on the approval process’s current status.
Leucovorin is already sanctioned for treating various vitamin B9 deficiencies and mitigating side effects from certain cancer treatments. Preliminary studies hint it could alleviate some challenges faced by individuals with autism.
For instance, a 2016 survey assessed twice-daily leucovorin administration in 23 autistic children experiencing language impairments. After 12 weeks, 65% demonstrated significant improvements in verbal communication, contrasting sharply with approximately 25% of the 25 children who received a placebo.
“While these findings are hopeful, it’s crucial to clarify that leucovorin does not treat Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). It may merely enhance language capabilities in a subset of children with ASD,” stated the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in their recent announcement.
Some researchers express skepticism regarding the U.S. government’s choice to endorse leucovorin, citing the limited and inconsistent evidence from current studies testing its efficacy on a small cohort of autistic children. Experts like Alicia Halladay from the Autism Science Foundation have voiced such concerns.
Meanwhile, Dr. Richard Fry and his team at Rossignol Medical Center in Arizona are in the process of studying leucovorin in a larger group of 80 children, aged between 2.5 to 5 years. While it is a more substantial trial, some advocate for even larger samples. This study aims to elucidate the drug’s efficacy in a more meaningful way.
Half of the participants will receive the drug for 12 weeks, while the rest will be given a placebo. All participants will then continue on leucovorin for an additional 12 weeks to gather more safety data.
Researchers are collecting feedback from parents on changes in social communication, as well as monitoring other autism-related indicators including irritability, hyperactivity, sensory sensitivities, and repetitive behaviors.
This trial aims to enhance understanding of whether leucovorin has an effect on autism in children and to address ongoing concerns regarding its safety profile.
Despite being considered a safe drug overall, its side effects—particularly in children with autism—remain largely uncharted territory. “The number of families involved in this analysis is still limited, underscoring the need for comprehensive safety assessments,” expressed Halladay.
Throughout the trial, Fry and colleagues will monitor potential side effects bi-weekly for the first 12 weeks and subsequently on a four-week basis, while regularly collecting blood samples to assess changes in blood clotting, immune responses, and overall organ function.
Assuming leucovorin proves beneficial, its mechanisms—beyond merely boosting vitamin B9 levels in the brain—will be explored through scans taken pre- and post-trial.
“We are unsure of the exact effects of leucovorin, but our hypothesis suggests it may enhance brain connectivity,” Fry stated.
However, opinions differ regarding the implications of these findings. “At present, there are no therapies addressing core autism symptoms. Existing medications only serve as temporary solutions for symptoms,” Fry noted. “Leucovorin might be a pioneering therapy potentially treating foundational mechanisms of autism.”
Conversely, Professor Halladay cautions that even an expanded sample of 80 children is still insufficient for making informed conclusions, particularly considering the trial is taking place at a single Arizona location. “This represents progress, but further research involving diverse populations at multiple sites is essential,” she advised.
Stay informed on the latest developments regarding leucovorin and its implications for autism treatment.
What sets quantum computers apart from classical machines? Recent experiments suggest that “quantum contextuality” may be a critical factor.
Quantum computers fundamentally differ from traditional systems by leveraging unique quantum phenomena absent in classical electronics. Their building blocks, known as qubits, can exist in a superposition state, representing two properties simultaneously, which are typically incompatible, or they can be interconnected through a phenomenon called quantum entanglement.
Researchers at Google Quantum AI have conducted several groundbreaking demonstrations using the Willow quantum computer, revealing that quantum contextuality is also significant.
Quantum contextuality highlights an unusual aspect of measuring quantum properties. Unlike classical objects, where attributes are stable regardless of measurement order, quantum measurements are interdependent.
This phenomenon has previously been explored in special experiments with quantum light, and in 2018, researchers mathematically proved its potential application in quantum computing algorithms.
This algorithm enables quantum computers to uncover hidden patterns within larger mathematical structures in a consistent number of operations, regardless of size. In essence, quantum contextuality makes it feasible to locate a needle in a haystack, irrespective of the haystack’s dimensions.
In our experiments, we scaled qubit numbers from a few to 105, analogous to increasing the haystack size. While the number of steps rose with additional qubits, Willow demonstrated superior noise and error management compared to an ideal theoretical quantum computer for the algorithm involved. Notably, it still required fewer steps than traditional computers would need.
Thus, quantum contextuality appears to confer a quantum advantage, allowing these computers to utilize their unique characteristics to outperform classical devices. The research team also executed various quantum protocols reliant on contextuality, yielding stronger effects than previous findings.
“Initially, I couldn’t believe it. It’s genuinely astonishing,” says Adan Cabello from the University of Seville, Spain.
“These findings definitively showcase how modern quantum computers are redefining the limits of experimental quantum physics,” states Vir Burkandani at Rice University, Texas, suggesting that a quantum computer, as a candidate for practical advantages, should accomplish these tasks to confirm its quantum capabilities.
However, this demonstration does not yet confirm the superiority of quantum technology for practical applications. The 2018 research established that quantum computers are more effective than classical ones only when using more qubits than those in Willow, as well as employing qubits with lower error rates, asserts Daniel Lidar at the University of Southern California. The next crucial step may involve integrating this new study with quantum error correction algorithms.
This experiment signifies a new benchmark for quantum computers and underscores the importance of fundamental quantum physics principles. Cabello emphasizes that researchers still lack a complete theory explaining the origins of quantum superiority, but unlike entanglement—which often requires creation—contextuality is inherently present in quantum objects. Quantum systems like Willow are now advanced enough to compel us to seriously consider the peculiarities of quantum physics.
Welcome to January, the perfect month to dive into a captivating book. Thanks to Peter F. Hamilton, science fiction enthusiasts can escape reality with immersive tales, from a mysterious power-generating ship to Solitaire Townsend’s alternate version of Earth ruled by the Roman Empire in God Storm. Enjoy time-loop mysteries, UFO romances, and eco-horror this month!
A generational ship seeking a new home in Peter F. Hamilton’s latest sci-fi novel.
Panther Media Global / Alamy
In the gripping tale, Peter F. Hamilton explores life aboard a power-generating ship, where inhabitants can live only until the age of 65 to preserve resources. Young Hazel discovers shocking truths after her brother’s untimely death. This exciting story is the first installment in a trilogy, with subsequent releases planned for this year.
While science fiction columnist Emily H. Wilson remarks that this isn’t strictly sci-fi, she notes it delves into climate fiction as it narrates the demise of oil tycoon K.J. Boone facing his reckoning on his deathbed.
The last zoo of the world is situated on Alcatraz, the “Island of Last Things.”
Miles Duskfield/Shutterstock
Imagine a world where the last zoo resides on Alcatraz Island, as nature around it collapses. Follow Camille, a dedicated zookeeper caring for chimpanzees and jaguars, as she learns about a secret sanctuary where wild animals roam free. This novel was previously published in the US and Australia but is set to release in the UK this month.
Police officer Ryan Crane embarks on a groundbreaking two-year mission to Titan, earning enough to secure his disabled son’s care. However, upon returning to Earth, he finds a drastically changed world, with mysterious figures chasing him and his team.
This thought-provoking alternate history imagines a world where the Roman Empire never fell, driven by oil-fueled advances that facilitate global conquest. Acclaimed author Kim Stanley Robinson describes this lively adventure as an allegory for contemporary struggles. A must-read!
Is a massive asteroid careening towards Earth, or is it a colossal alien craft landing near Little Springs, Nebraska, becoming the infamous Giant? Sheriff David Blunt must navigate a town now filled with conspiracy theorists as he hunts a murderer and grapples with dreams of a chaotic universe.
As Rosi and his smuggler crew traverse the Romanian mountains, they intercept alarming radio signals predicting doom. With the world plunged into darkness, they embark on a mission to rescue isolated survivors in a post-apocalyptic landscape. While classified as horror or science fiction, the narrative piques interest.
This literary dystopia takes you on a remarkable journey through time and space, with a young philosopher seeking the president of the Lost Things Society, ending up on a quest that traverses early civilizations to artificial intelligence.
Elle, a social media influencer in Los Angeles, captures footage of an unidentified flying object, attracting the attention of Agent Carter Brody, who has witnessed extraterrestrial life. This intriguing blend of romance and UFO adventure makes a delightful January read!
Alison Mick’s eco-horror novel set in California’s redwood forests
Jamie Pham/Alamy Stock Photo
Often described as “Jordan Peele meets Jeff VanderMeer,” this eco-horror novel The Overstory by Alison Mick takes place in the haunting redwood forests of Northern California. Follow Jasmine, a mental health nurse, as she returns to her grandfather’s logging town, unveiling dark secrets hidden in the forest, with beings of petrified bark and flesh seeking revenge.
Also worth mentioning is this gripping murder mystery involving a time loop (because physics!). Vivian has to face her family’s disdain during a gathering where she is ultimately killed—only to wake up and repeat the cycle. Can she unravel the mystery with the help of a waiter eager to finish his shift?
Set in a ravaged future of 2082, this concluding book in the Compulsion trilogy follows a 16-year-old girl and her uncle as they strive to conceal the last remaining book in a secret library while navigating a world controlled by those responsible for climate change.
Is your windowsill brimming with seeds for the upcoming gardening season? Indoor seedlings might flourish in ideal conditions, but they often become tall and leggy, making them prone to falling over shortly after germination. Can an age-old technique help sustain your gardening ambitions into 2026? Let’s explore why nurturing your plants with gentle touches is not as far-fetched as it sounds.
Plant propagation requires a delicate balance. Starting seedlings in controlled environments helps shield them from severe temperatures, pests, and diseases, thus boosting their early survival. However, this sheltered growth can lead to issues like yellowing, which compromises their strength. Known vulnerabilities can make indoor plants fragile, especially when exposed to outdoor elements. With billions in the agricultural sector riding on plant health, commercial growers have long sought effective solutions.
Chemical growth regulators provide one approach, fostering stronger plants. Yet, many of these products aren’t available for home gardeners. Conversely, studies reveal that mechanical stimulation—such as simply rubbing or stroking seedlings—can effectively combat yellowing. This response is attributed to a process known as thigmomorphogenesis, where plants adjust their growth in response to physical touches and environmental forces. Research shows that such interactions promote thicker, more supportive stems and overall compact growth. Many studies have highlighted that mechanically stimulated seedlings are structurally superior and more resilient against challenges like pests and drought.
This effect has been observed in various popular garden plants, from tomatoes and lettuce to petunias and marigolds. Experiments utilizing electric fans, vibrating benches, and even gentle brushing have demonstrated that these methods can significantly reduce stem elongation by 20-50%.
The key takeaway? While commercial growers have employed machines for this form of stimulation since the 1970s, it’s easy to replicate at home. Just ten gentle strokes on a seedling once a day can yield benefits. You can use an old envelope, a soft feather duster, or even your hand. It takes only 10 seconds daily, and the potential rewards are substantial—all supported by solid scientific research.
James Wong is a botanist and science writer specializing in food crops, conservation, and environmental issues. Trained at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, London, he maintains over 500 houseplants in his compact apartment. Connect with him on X and Instagram @botanygeek.
The enigmatic neutrino, often considered a ghostly particle, could be reshaping our understanding of all particles and forces in the universe.
The Standard Model of particle physics stands as a monumental achievement in contemporary science, meticulously cataloging known particles and forces. However, physicists have long been aware of its deficiencies and are eager to establish a more cohesive model. Notably, it fails to tie gravity to the other three fundamental forces.
During stress tests that expose weaknesses in the Standard Model, researchers can pinpoint areas in need of further exploration. Francesca Dorday and her team at the National Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN) in Cagliari, Italy, have identified a potential flaw by investigating the mysterious behaviors of neutrinos.
“In every assessment of the Standard Model over the past two decades, we’ve consistently confirmed its predictions. This necessitates the derivation of more precise outcomes, especially since neutrinos exhibit unique characteristics,” Dorday explains.
Neutrinos possess an extraordinarily small mass—so insignificant that they were once considered massless. They interact so weakly with matter that they pass through substances undetected—akin to tiny phantoms. Nonetheless, recent investigations have managed to quantify some minimal electromagnetic interactions of neutrinos using a measurement known as the charge radius. Neutrinos can also engage with other particles via the weak nuclear force.
Dorday and her team have meticulously examined the nuances of neutrino interactions and charge radius through numerous experiments, gathering data from neutrinos produced by nuclear reactors, particle accelerators, and even the nuclear fusion activities within the Sun. Additionally, by utilizing detectors created for dark matter, they found sensitivity to neutrinos.
Team member Nicola Calgioli remarked that compiling this data was challenging but ultimately offered a comprehensive overview of our understanding of neutrinos. “We essentially integrated all available data,” added Christoph Ternes from Italy’s Gran Sasso Scientific Institute, who collaborated on this project.
While the value of the neutrino’s charge radius matched Standard Model expectations, researchers uncovered an intriguing phenomenon concerning the particles’ weak interactions. They observed “mathematical degeneracy,” meaning that both the Standard Model and a slight variant could explain the findings equally well. Strikingly, further examination revealed that the alternative model might fit the data even more closely, hinting at a long-anticipated crack in our current grasp of particle physics.
Despite the new analysis not achieving a definitive statistical breakthrough, it represents an initial foray into rigorously evaluating the Standard Model through neutrinos. Researchers aspire to gather additional data to substantiate or refute their findings as new detection technologies emerge. If these discrepancies persist, the implications could be profound.
“Identifying flaws may necessitate a complete re-evaluation of established principles,” cautions Calgioli. New models beyond the Standard Model might postulate entirely new particle types with interactions congruent with the neutrino dynamics revealed in the research.
Omar Miranda underscores that capturing neutrino interactions, particularly at ultra-low energies, is exceedingly complex, now made feasible thanks to advancements in detector technology, including those designed for dark matter research. He emphasizes the significance of neutrino detection as a litmus test for the Standard Model.
The new findings call on particle physicists to conduct ultra-precise neutrino experiments across various settings in the coming years, assert the authors. As Jose Valle from the University of Valencia, Spain points out, better measurements of neutrinos’ electromagnetic properties are still essential to uncover their internal structure.
CERN and Mont Blanc: Unraveling Dark Matter
Discover CERN, Europe’s leading hub for particle physics, situated near the picturesque city of Geneva, where researchers operate the renowned Large Hadron Collider.
The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States are considered the deadliest in history, with an official death toll of 2,977 victims (excluding the 19 terrorists involved).
These tragic events involved the hijacking of four passenger planes by Al Qaeda. Two planes struck the World Trade Center twin towers in New York City, one crashed into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane, which was likely aimed at the U.S. Capitol, went down in a Pennsylvania field after courageous passengers fought back.
The majority of casualties—2,606 people—occurred within the Twin Towers. Additionally, 125 individuals were killed or injured at the Pentagon, and 246 individuals (both crew and passengers) were affected across the four aircraft.
However, the overall impact of these attacks extends far beyond these numbers.
In the years following 9/11, tens of thousands have developed health conditions related to the attacks, particularly those who were in Lower Manhattan during the aftermath.
The devastating collapse of the Twin Towers released a massive cloud of dust and debris that lingered for months.
Residents, commuters, students, and emergency responders inhaled a toxic mix of materials including concrete, glass, silica, asbestos, lead, jet fuel, and harmful fire-related chemicals like dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Civilians evacuated the area surrounding the World Trade Center quickly – Image courtesy of Getty Images
According to the CDC, approximately 400,000 individuals were exposed to toxic pollutants, risking injury and suffering from high stress levels in the aftermath of the attacks.
Currently, 136,000 individuals are enrolled in this program, with about 90,000 diagnosed with a 9/11-related health condition.
Waves of Disease Expected in Coming Decades
Diagnosed conditions include various cancers (with non-melanoma skin cancer, prostate cancer, and breast cancer being most prevalent), respiratory diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic sinusitis, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
New York City firefighters exposed to dust have shown an unusually high incidence of sarcoidosis, a rare inflammatory disease that forms lumps in bodily organs.
While precise figures on deaths attributed to 9/11-related illnesses are elusive, by March 2024, 6,897 members of the WTC Health Program have died, although this includes fatalities from all causes, not solely those related to the attacks.
Tragically, the long-term health consequences of the 9/11 attacks are expected to persist, as certain cancers can take decades to manifest following initial exposure to carcinogens—a phenomenon known as the “latency period.”
This article addresses the inquiry from Lewis Miller of Pennsylvania: “Will we ever know how many people died on 9/11?”
If you have any questions, please reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or contact us viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
Explore more of our ultimatefun factson fascinating science topics.
The dark mornings and long cold nights of January can be challenging for many. While some individuals may simply feel low energy and lethargic, others may experience a deeper condition known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), leading to winter depression.
Common symptoms of SAD include persistent low mood, reduced interest in daily activities, fatigue, daytime drowsiness, and cravings for carbohydrates.
Solar Therapy
Wondering how to beat the January blues? Increasing your sunlight exposure during these winter months is a highly effective strategy.
While a getaway to a warm climate isn’t feasible for most, simple adjustments like taking your dog for an early morning walk or stepping outside during lunch can refresh your body with vital vitamin D.
Improving lighting in your workspace or home by positioning yourself near a window can also have a positive impact. Alternatively, research indicates that using a light box that mimics natural sunlight for a short period each day can significantly reduce winter gloom.
Maintaining an active lifestyle through exercise is equally beneficial. Even if you can’t exercise outdoors, physical activity helps elevate your mood. Options include quick home workouts, gym sessions, or swimming—all of which promote the release of endorphins.
Walking your dog in the morning light—an easy way to boost your vitamin D intake. Illustration by Dan Bright
Review Your Eating Habits
Adjusting your diet can also help alleviate the winter blues. Research highlights a strong correlation between nutritious eating and improved emotional well-being.
If your body lacks essential nutrients, it can lead to depleted energy levels. Incorporating mood-boosting foods like bananas, dark chocolate, berries, oats, nuts, and seeds can greatly enhance your outlook.
Of course, it can be tempting to indulge in carbohydrates, especially during the colder months.
Talk It Out
Another effective method to combat the winter blues is to reduce stress levels. While exercise effectively alleviates stress, techniques like deep breathing exercises and cognitive behavioral therapy can also help.
Of note, engaging in activities that bring you joy—without excessive carb loading—can be vital. Whether connecting with friends and family, enjoying your favorite music, binge-watching a beloved show, or tending to winter gardening, these small acts of self-care are significant in counteracting seasonal sadness.
So while the urge to hibernate during winter is strong, remember that consistent, small actions can energize your spirit and lift your mood.
This article addresses the question from Chichester resident Sally Thompson: “How can I beat the January blues?”
If you have any inquiries, feel free to reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(remember to include your name and location).
Discover our ultimatefun facts and explore more amazing science content!
Is Psychopathy Inherited or Acquired? This question is more complex than it seems. For years, psychopathy was deemed a mysterious condition, and to some extent, it continues to mystify.
Many mental, neurological, and personality disorders instill fear in people. This fear often stems from ignorance and misconceptions.
While only about 1% of the general population shows signs of psychopathy, this figure jumps to 25% within the prison community.
What exactly triggers psychopathy? Are individuals born psychopaths, or are they shaped by adverse experiences? This touches on the age-old debate of nature versus nurture.
Despite advancements in science, the concept of personality remains challenging to define, making discussions around individual differences equally complex.
This complexity extends to psychopathy, as illustrated in Jon Ronson’s book The Psychopath Test, which highlights the challenges in reliably diagnosing psychopathy.
Despite these challenges, most would agree that psychopathy is a genuine psychological condition, albeit difficult to identify accurately. Recent research has shed light on this intricate issue.
Utilizing brain imaging methods like fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), scientists have discovered that psychopathy correlates with distinct brain structure differences.
If psychopathy is innate, it raises profound questions about the evolutionary purpose of such traits. – Image credit: Getty
These brain regions have diverse functions, but their specific combination significantly impacts emotional processing. The structural differences may impair the brain’s ability to recognize, encode, and interpret emotional information.
As emotions play a crucial role in human cognition, a deficiency in emotional understanding might contribute to hallmark traits of psychopathy, including a pronounced lack of empathy and an overreliance on rational thought.
Determining why certain individuals possess specific brain features remains a challenge. Genetic factors appear to be involved, as indicated by research studies.
While a person’s environment and experiences may exacerbate psychopathic traits, it is uncertain if such factors can consistently alter both brain structure and genetics.
Overall, evidence leans toward the idea that psychopathy is more likely innate than acquired.
However, whether such a mental disorder manifests is a different question altogether.
This article answers the query by Elliott Owens of St. Albans: “Is psychopathy innate or acquired?”
For inquiries, please reach out via:questions@sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram(please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimatefun facts and discover more amazing science content!
For nearly a month, NASA has been striving to reestablish communication with the MAVEN probe, which unexpectedly went silent while orbiting Mars.
The space agency lost contact with the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft on December 6. Despite efforts to restore connectivity, mission controllers believe the spacecraft was spinning erratically based on data received that day.
NASA plans to make another attempt to revive MAVEN on January 16 due to Mars and Earth being positioned on opposite sides of the sun, which has caused significant communication delays.
Unfortunately, the prognosis is concerning for one of NASA’s flagship missions.
Since its entry into orbit around Mars in 2014, the MAVEN spacecraft has been instrumental in studying the Red Planet’s upper atmosphere, including the ionosphere, and understanding how Mars has lost its atmosphere over billions of years. MAVEN also facilitates communications among two rovers on the Martian surface, Curiosity and Perseverance, and Earth.
NASA has been unable to contact MAVEN since December 6, a day when the agency experienced a “loss of signal” while the spacecraft was behind Mars. This situation generally leads to routine communication interruptions, but MAVEN failed to reestablish contact when it emerged from behind the planet.
NASA announced it is investigating the situation. In a statement from December 9, few specifics were given, although mission controllers reported that all subsystems were functioning correctly before the spacecraft passed behind Mars.
After about a week, NASA updated that they had not received communications from MAVEN since December 4 but did retrieve a snippet of tracking data from December 6.
The findings were alarming. “Analysis of that signal suggests that the MAVEN spacecraft was rotating unexpectedly as it emerged from behind Mars,” NASA officials stated in a statement.
NASA employs a global network of radio antennas known as the Deep Space Network to issue commands to MAVEN and monitor incoming signals. On December 16 and 20, attempts were made to capture images of MAVEN in orbit using instruments aboard NASA’s Curiosity rover.
Meanwhile, mission controllers are diligently analyzing the last set of recovered tracking data. NASA reported on December 23 that they were trying to piece together a timeline to understand the issue. Additional details were not disclosed in a comment request, but the agency referred to the December 23 update.
Originally, the MAVEN mission was intended to last just two years, yet it has been operational for more than a decade. In 2024, NASA celebrated a decade since MAVEN began orbiting Mars.
By examining Mars’ atmospheric loss, MAVEN has provided insights into the planet’s past and present climate, illustrating its transformation from a potentially habitable environment with liquid water to the cold, desolate world it is today.
MAVEN is one of three NASA spacecraft currently orbiting Mars. The agency also operates the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, launched in 2005, and Mars Odyssey, launched in 2001.
If you’ve struggled with weight loss, you may have attributed it to your metabolism. This elusive concept seems to make losing weight effortless for some, while for others, it feels like an uphill battle.
However, this perception misrepresents how the body truly functions, neglecting the critical elements of fat loss.
Metabolism encompasses more than just “the number of calories burned.” It’s a complex network of chemical reactions occurring in your cells and tissues that power everything you do.
Many individuals simplify it to a single statistic: calories burned at a specific moment.
Here, “metabolic rate” becomes relevant. It’s the standard metric for gauging how quickly your metabolism operates. Essentially, it’s the energy expended at rest, representing the minimal energy required to keep bodily functions active.
A common belief is that lean individuals possess a “fast” metabolism, burning more calories effortlessly. In fact, larger bodies often exhibit a “faster” metabolism.
The metabolic rate largely hinges on body size—greater tissue requires more energy for maintenance.
However, weight alone is a rudimentary gauge. Two individuals may weigh the same, but differences in fat-to-muscle ratios can significantly influence their metabolic rates.
Lean mass, particularly organs, plays a pivotal role in energy expenditure. The liver and brain alone contribute about half of the body’s resting energy requirements, with the kidneys accounting for nearly 20 percent.
Though skeletal muscle has a lower metabolic activity than organs (approximately 20 times less active per gram), its substantial mass contributes significantly to resting energy expenditure.
Since organ masses are consistent among individuals of similar size, muscle and fat primarily dictate metabolic variations.
This distinction also elucidates the differences between men and women. Men generally have a higher muscle mass and lower fat percentage, leading to a greater metabolic rate at the same weight.
Once body composition and gender are factored, metabolic rates prove to be surprisingly predictable, challenging the notion that some individuals have substantially “faster” metabolisms than others.
Deceleration Myth
Age-related hormonal changes often promote fat gain – Photo credit: Getty
There’s a common belief that metabolic rates decline with age. However, this perception may not hold, particularly for middle-aged individuals.
Taking body composition into account, metabolic rates typically remain stable until about age 65. The earlier drop is more related to shifts in muscle and fat than a mysterious “aging metabolism.”
Changes in hormonal balance, particularly during menopause, can impact metabolism.
Hormonal changes often promote fat gain while contributing to muscle loss, particularly around the abdomen, both of which can lower metabolic rates.
Additionally, reduced estrogen levels can affect thermogenesis, potentially slowing metabolism and leading to hot flashes.
After age 65, energy expenditure tends to diminish, not because of metabolic “aging,” but due to broader physical changes.
Muscle mass typically declines faster, lessening both muscle and organ metabolic activity, resulting in lower calorie burning.
The good news? Staying active, eating healthily, and preserving muscle mass can help mitigate muscle loss.
Read More:
Built-in Balance Adjustment Function
If metabolism is mostly predictable, can it be entirely fixed? Not quite. Depending on circumstances, your body can gradually adjust its calorie burn.
For instance, someone who is overweight naturally burns more calories due to increased tissue maintenance. Research suggests their bodies might slightly ramp up calorie burning to eliminate excess weight.
Conversely, underweight individuals may consume fewer calories than anticipated because their metabolic rates decrease further, becoming very conservative with energy usage.
How does this occur? Some studies propose that the body can intentionally waste energy by generating heat, a process known as adaptive (or conditional) thermogenesis.
This process involves specialized fat cells called brown fat and certain proteins in muscles and other tissues, which can “leak” more (or fewer) calories as heat instead of storing them.
This heat dissipation is subtle—not felt as sweat or fever—but is a behind-the-scenes adjustment that fine-tunes energy balance.
Brown fat, or adipose tissue, burns energy to regulate body temperature – Photo credit: Getty
Adaptive thermogenesis does not mean being confined to a fixed body weight. This explains why dieting can feel like swimming against the tide. When calorie intake is cut, the body often retaliates by slowing metabolism, making it harder to sustain progress.
This leads to a pressing question: Can you truly change your metabolism, and if so, what methods are effective?
There Is No Magic Menu
You may have encountered claims that certain foods, like caffeine, polyphenols from spicy foods, or chili pepper extract, “boost” metabolism and increase calorie burn through thermogenesis.
However, the actual calorie increases from these ingredients are minimal, detectable only for short periods—lasting mere minutes to hours.
Another suggestion is to increase protein intake to speed up metabolism.
The premise is that digesting and absorbing protein requires more energy than digesting carbohydrates and fats, potentially resulting in fewer overall calories gained. However, this difference in calorie burn is often negligible.
While increased protein can help maintain and build muscle—supporting a higher metabolic rate—muscle growth is not solely reliant on protein.
Muscle repair and growth are stimulated primarily through exercise, especially resistance training.
In fact, exercise and physical activity are key to enhancing caloric usage, increasing your metabolism.
Moreover, exercise generates additional metabolic benefits beyond just the calories burned during the activity. Post-exercise, metabolism recovers at an accelerated rate as muscles adapt to the workout’s demands.
This phenomenon is known as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC), commonly recognized as the “afterburn” effect.
This temporary spike in fuel and calorie usage can last for several hours, even up to 48 hours, particularly after workouts focused on muscle repair and growth.
While it may not be the shortcut many seek, when targeting metabolism and fat loss, exercise—particularly strength-building workouts—remains a far more effective strategy.
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
