Researchers at Stockholm University utilized an ultrafast laser to investigate supercooled water before crystallization, revealing significant evidence of a long-predicted transition between two distinct liquid states. This included a marked increase in heat capacity and critical fluctuations.
Research indicates a rapid increase in heat capacity at 210 K, coinciding with density fluctuations in supercooled water. Image credit: POSTECH University.
Professor Anders Nilsson highlighted, “We captured X-ray images at unprecedented speeds prior to ice formation, allowing us to observe how the liquid-liquid transition fades, leading to the emergence of a new critical state.”
“For decades, various theories have attempted to explain these anomalous properties of water, one of which proposed the existence of a tipping point. We have now confirmed its presence,” he explained.
Using advanced X-ray laser technology, Professor Nilsson and his team identified a critical point in supercooled water at around 210 K (equivalent to -63 °C or -81 °F) under 1,000 atmospheres of pressure.
“Water stands out as it can exist in two liquid macroscopic phases, each with unique molecular bonding behaviors at low temperatures and high pressures,” the researchers noted.
“As temperature rises and pressure drops, these two liquid phases converge, presenting as a single indistinguishable phase.”
“This demonstrates a significant instability point, resulting in fluctuations across a broad temperature and pressure range, extending even to ambient conditions.”
“Water transitions between two liquid states, sometimes appearing as a mixture, leading to its distinctive properties,” they added.
“The state beyond the critical point is termed supercritical, with neighboring water remaining in that state.”
Another crucial discovery from this study is the slowdown in system dynamics upon reaching the critical point.
“Once you approach the tipping point, escaping becomes nearly impossible,” stated Dr. Robin Tybulski of Stockholm University.
Dr. Aigerim Karina, a postdoctoral researcher, remarked, “It’s fascinating that amorphous ice, extensively studied, serves as a gateway to this crisis zone. This inspires my future research and underscores the potential for discoveries in well-established fields like the study of water.”
Dr. Iason Andronis, a student, expressed, “Measuring water under such low-temperature conditions without freezing it is a dream realized.”
“Many have aspired to pinpoint this critical point, but we lacked the necessary technologies until the advent of the X-ray laser,” he added.
“It’s captivating to consider that water is the sole supercritical liquid under ambient conditions conducive to life, and without it, life as we know it wouldn’t exist,” explained Dr. Phibos Perakis from Stockholm University.
“Is this merely coincidental, or could we uncover essential insights in the future?”
Professor Nilsson mentioned, “The origins of water’s unusual properties have been debated for over a century, tracing back to Wolfgang Roentgen’s early investigations.”
“Researchers within the realm of water physics now align with a model suggesting the presence of a critical point in supercooled states.”
“Our next goal is to explore the implications of these findings for various physical, chemical, biological, geological, and climate-related processes, which poses a significant challenge for the years ahead.”
Findings have been published in a study dated March 26th in Science.
_____
Song Juyu et al. 2026. Experimental evidence of a liquid-liquid critical point in supercooled water. Science 391 (6792): 1387-1391; doi: 10.1126/science.aec0018
For many years, scientists believed that the size of prehistoric insects, such as the griffin fly, was linked to elevated oxygen levels in the atmosphere. However, a groundbreaking study led by paleontologist Edward Snelling from the University of Pretoria suggests that the impressive size of these Carboniferous insects may have other underlying causes.
A giant griffin fly that thrived in Carboniferous forests.
In the 1990s, researchers suggested that the high oxygen concentrations of the Carboniferous period, around 300 million years ago, coincided with the emergence of these giant insects.
They theorized that the increased oxygen demand due to the larger body sizes of these insects necessitated higher atmospheric oxygen levels.
This hypothesis is logical, given that insects rely on a specialized tracheal system for oxygen intake, a network of branching airways that culminate in trachea.
Insects require oxygen to travel by diffusion through this system, fueling their flight muscle cells.
Prior researchers posited that such giant flying insects could not exist today due to current atmospheric oxygen levels being insufficient to meet the high oxygen needs of their flight muscles.
In the latest study, Dr. Snelling and his team employed high-magnification electron microscopy to examine the relationship between body size and the number of tracheae within flight muscles.
They discovered that trachea typically occupy only about 1% or less of the flight muscles’ space in most species, a trend that holds true for the griffin fly as well.
This finding indicates that insect flight muscles are not limited by atmospheric oxygen levels; they can easily accommodate additional trachea within the muscle itself.
“If atmospheric oxygen truly restricts the maximum body size in insects, we should observe compensatory adaptations at the tracheal level,” remarked Dr. Snelling.
“There is some cost associated with larger insects, but overall it is minor.”
Professor Roger Seymour from the University of Adelaide pointed out, “In contrast, capillaries in bird and mammal heart muscles occupy approximately ten times more relative space than trachea in insect flight muscles. Thus, if oxygen transport is indeed a limiting factor for body size, significant evolutionary potential exists to enhance tracheal investment.”
Some researchers argue that oxygen flow to trachea and other body parts may still impose limits on insect size, leaving the theory of maximum size due to oxygen constraints open for debate.
“Regardless, these new findings clearly demonstrate that diffusion within the flight muscle trachea does not pose a constraint. Scientists need to investigate other factors that may explain the existence of these giant insects,” Dr. Snelling concluded.
If oxygen is not the limiting factor for insect size, alternative explanations like predation from vertebrates or limitations in the biomechanical support of the exoskeleton may be at play.
A detailed paper outlining this research was published in the latest issue of Nature.
_____
EP Snelling et al. Oxygen supply via the tracheal musculature does not suppress insect gigantism. Nature published online March 25, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10291-3
The Tasmanian tiger (Thylacine) and the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) are believed to have gone extinct on mainland Australia approximately 3,000 years ago. Currently, only 23 pieces of rock art featuring the Tasmanian devil and around 150 artworks depicting the Tasmanian tiger exist, mostly found at rock art sites in northern Australia. Recent discoveries in Arnhem Land, located in the Northern Territory of northwestern Australia, have unveiled 14 new images of previously undocumented Tasmanian tigers or quolls, along with two images of Tasmanian devils, with some dating back less than 1,000 years.
A naturalistic-style depiction of a Tasmanian tiger from Injarrak Hills, Northern Territory, Australia. Image credit: Craig Banggar.
The recently documented paintings of the Tasmanian tiger and devil are believed to date back approximately 15,000 years, rendered in various Aboriginal art styles using red and sometimes yellow ocher.
Additionally, artists utilized white pipe clay, which deteriorates over time and does not stain the rocks, making most white paintings less than 1,000 years old.
“The quoll was more widely dispersed across mainland Australia than the Tasmanian devil and held greater cultural significance, with only 25 recorded images of the Tasmanian devil compared to over 160 depictions of the quoll,” explained lead author Professor Paul Tassone from Griffith University.
“Those who painted more recent artworks may have actually observed live quolls, indicating some may have survived longer in Arnhem Land.”
“Alternatively, they could have drawn inspiration from older paintings.”
“Regardless, the quoll remains culturally significant today, with contemporary artists depicting Tasmanian tigers on bark, paper, and canvas, referred to as ‘Junkirk’.
“Retouched paintings in the region highlight the importance of these animals through generations,” added co-author Dr. Andrea Giarandoni, also from Griffith University.
“This petroglyph rock art provides crucial insights into historical human interactions with these animals.”
“These representations indicate that the quoll held a vital role in local culture and knowledge long before its extinction.”
Local oral traditions suggest that the Tasmanian tiger was symbolically linked to the Rainbow Serpent, often associated with water bodies.
“These creatures were integral to our ancestors’ lives,” remarked co-author Joey Ganjimira, a Jarama from western Arnhem Land.
“They frequently spoke of hunting alongside the possums.”
“Our study demonstrates that sugar gliders hold contemporary relevance in the region for both scientists and traditional communities,” said Professor Tassone.
“The sugar glider remains a living entity in western Arnhem Land, symbolizing ongoing cultural significance rather than merely being a relic of the past.”
This groundbreaking research is detailed in the following article: paper published in the latest issue of Archeology of Oceania.
_____
Paul SC Tasson et al. The Devil is in the Details: Photographic Records of Tasmanian Devils and Tasmanian Tigers from Aungbana and Injarak Hill, Northern Territory, Australia. Archeology of Oceania, published online March 30, 2026. doi: 10.1002/arco.70024
The Galapagos lava heron, a unique small heron found on the lava-strewn shores of Ecuador’s Galapagos Islands, has recently gained recognition for its distinct status.
Endemic to the Galapagos Islands, this slate-gray to black heron has intrigued ornithologists for years.
While some classify it under the widely distributed Great Heron (Butorides striatum) as a subspecies Butorides striata sundevari, others advocate for its recognition as a separate species, Butorides sundevalli.
Recent DNA analyses led by researchers from San Francisco State University and the California Academy of Sciences lend weight to the latter perspective.
“This bird, noted for its significant plumage variation, has long posed the question of whether it stands as a separate species or simply as a subspecies of mainland birds,” said Dr. Jamie Chavez, lead author of the study.
Through the examination of thousands of genetic markers and numerous museum specimens, researchers found that the Galapagos lava heron forms its own distinct evolutionary lineage, diverging from its supposed relatives.
Surprisingly, the lava heron shows closer genetic ties to the Gray Heron (Butorides virescens) from North and Central America than to the Great Heron.
The ancestors of the Galapagos lava heron may have arrived on the islands via unusual migration routes, evolving in isolation over time.
“For biologists, visiting the Galapagos is a dream come true,” remarked Ezra Menderes, a graduate from San Francisco State University and co-author of the study. “There’s still so much to uncover within these well-studied ecosystems.”
This research not only clarifies the status of this magnificent bird but also contributes to a broader understanding of the evolutionary relationships within heron species.
Scientists suggest that what was once perceived as a single, globally distributed species should now be considered as several distinct species, including separate lineages across the Americas, Africa, and Australasia.
“Our ultra-conserved element (UCE) phylogenetic results indicate substantial internal divergence within the genus Butorides, bridging populations from the Old and New Worlds,” the authors noted.
“The UCE-based phylogeny strongly confirms the monophyly of New World herons, including the South American Great Heron, Gray Heron, and Galapagos lava heron.”
The findings, published in this month’s edition of Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, significantly enhance our comprehension of avian evolution.
_____
Ezra Z. Menderes et al. 2026. Global phylogenetic relationships of Butorides herons (suborder: Ardeidae) reveal the evolutionary history and taxonomic status of the Galapagos lava heron. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 220: 108600; doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2026.108600
In a groundbreaking analysis of spontaneous performances by a male chimpanzee named Ayumu, researchers discovered that the chimp’s rhythmic prowess and expressive “playful face” provide insights into how early humans might have transformed vocal emotions into musical instrument sounds.
Chimpanzee Ayumu exhibited long, multi-element musical displays by drumming and manipulating objects. The analysis of his rhythmic transitions revealed structured sequences, primarily isochronous timing, and a more stable tempo with tools compared to body drumming. His playful expressions suggest heightened arousal and positive emotions, reinforcing the concept that emotional vocal expressions can manifest through instrumental sounds. Image provided by: Hattori et al., doi: 10.1111/nyas.70239.
In February 2023, Ayumu, a 26-year-old male chimpanzee at the Center for Research on the Origins of Human Behavior and Evolution at Kyoto University, showcased a spontaneous musical performance that intrigued researchers.
He creatively removed floorboards to use as drums, generating complex sounds reminiscent of vocal expressions.
Dr. Yuko Hattori of Kyoto University noted, “Ayumu’s drumming is not unprecedented.” Chimpanzees are indeed recognized for their musical talents, especially in drumming.
However, Dr. Hattori emphasized that Ayumu’s unique combination of drumming and vocalizations introduced multiple rhythmic elements, marking a novel instance.
Between February 2023 and March 2025, researchers documented a total of 89 spontaneous performances by Ayumu.
The recordings reveal him ripping floorboards apart to create music through innovative tool use.
“Observing chimpanzees utilize tools to produce diverse sounds and express vocal emotions was fascinating,” remarked Dr. Hattori.
The researchers aimed to determine if vocal expressions could transition to instrumental sounds based on Ayumu’s performances.
They meticulously categorized his actions into elements such as hitting, dragging, and throwing.
Transition analysis was utilized to differentiate between random occurrences and intentional actions.
Finally, they assessed the rhythmic stability of tool use versus hand and foot drumming by analyzing intervals between strikes.
Notably, they found that the order of sounds produced was structured, with isochronous intervals that maintained a constant tempo, akin to a metronome.
Indeed, using tools yielded a more consistent rhythm compared to solely relying on hands and feet.
The researchers also documented Ayumu’s facial expressions, including the “play face,” commonly associated with playfulness and positive emotions.
This type of emotional signaling, typically absent in audio displays, suggests that vocal emotions may have previously been externalized into sounds produced with tools.
“Ayumu’s performance illustrates that non-human primates have the capacity to externalize voice-like expressions through musical instruments,” the authors concluded.
Moving forward, they expressed interest in studying the reactions of other chimpanzees and the influence of Ayumu’s performance within his social group.
For detailed insights, refer to the study published in Annual Report of the New York Academy of Sciences.
_____
Yuko Hattori et al., 2026. Combination of Instrument Sound Production in Captive Chimpanzees: Evolution of Vocal Externalization. Annual Report of the New York Academy of Sciences 1557 (1): e70239; doi: 10.1111/nyas.70239
Excavations at the Dide West 1 site in eastern Senegal have revealed a remarkably preserved iron smelting workshop, which was constructed between the 4th century BC and the 4th century AD and was active for nearly eight centuries.
A pile of tuyeres discovered at Dide West 1 in Senegal. Image credit: Ann Mayer.
In Europe, the Iron Age is typically defined as spanning from approximately 800 BC to the conclusion of the 1st century AD, but these timeframes vary significantly across the globe.
The earliest indications of iron production are believed to trace back to the second millennium BC in regions like Anatolia (present-day Türkiye) and the Caucasus.
“The iron smelting workshop at the Dide Ouest 1 site in Senegal provides valuable insights into the development of iron metallurgy in West Africa,” stated UNIGE archaeologist Melissa Morel and her research team.
The workshop features a substantial accumulation of nearly 100 tons of slag, around 30 used tuyeres (earthen pipes that channel air into the furnace) semicircularly arranged, and 35 circular furnace bases approximately 30 cm deep.
This iron production likely catered to local demands, particularly for crafting agricultural tools.
“Due to its exceptional preservation, historical significance, duration of use, and unique technical characteristics, this site stands out,” remarked Dr. Morel.
“This offers a rare opportunity to analyze the continuity and evolution of iron smelting technologies over time.”
“At Dide West 1, the layout, furnace structure, and waste materials reveal a tradition identified as FAL02.”
“This type of furnace includes a small circular design with a removable chimney and large clay tuyeres.”
“A significant feature of these tuyeres is their multi-outlet design, which connects small openings to the main channel via vertical side ducts, enabling optimal air distribution to the furnace base.”
“Another notable aspect is the innovative use of palm kernel seeds as packing at the furnace bottom—a method not previously documented.”
“Despite its prolonged operation, this workshop’s traditions have shown remarkable stability, with only minor technical modifications,” said Dr. Anne Mayol, archaeologist at UNIGE and the Institute for Global Studies.
“This continuity stands in contrast to metallurgical practices in other African contexts, underscoring the importance of understanding the technical and cultural decisions made by early iron producers.”
The team’s research paper was published in the African Archaeology Review.
_____
M. Morel et al. Early and long-term evolution of iron smelting technology at Dide West 1, Fareme Valley, eastern Senegal. African Archaeology Review, published online March 25, 2026. doi: 10.1007/s10437-026-09653-z
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Martin David Mulligan from the University of Galway and his team investigated the long-term effects of vitamin D levels on brain health by following nearly 800 participants from the Framingham Heart Study for over 15 years. Their findings revealed that individuals with higher circulating levels of vitamin D at age 30 exhibited significantly less accumulation of tau protein—a key factor in the development of Alzheimer’s disease—when retested approximately 16 years later. This association remained robust even after accounting for various factors such as age, gender, cardiovascular health, smoking, depression, and BMI.
Vitamin D deficiency in midlife may be a modifiable risk factor for preclinical dementia signs observed in neuroimaging. Image credit: Aloysio Costa Latoje.
Dementia currently ranks as a leading cause of morbidity worldwide, impacting an estimated 57 million individuals.
“Our research indicates that maintaining high vitamin D levels during midlife may safeguard against the formation of tau deposits in the brain, while insufficient vitamin D could serve as a modifiable risk factor for dementia,” stated Dr. Mulligan.
“Further validation through additional studies is essential to confirm these results.”
The study analyzed data from 793 adults (53% female, average age 39 years) who were dementia-free at the time of brain imaging.
Blood levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D were measured between 2002 and 2005, followed by positron emission tomography (PET) scans assessing tau and amyloid deposits conducted from 2016 to 2019.
Accumulation of tau protein, particularly in regions like the entorhinal cortex and temporal lobe, is known to play a crucial role in the early onset of Alzheimer’s disease.
Researchers observed that elevated vitamin D levels correlated with reduced tau levels throughout the brain and in these vulnerable areas.
“Notably, 34% of participants exhibited low vitamin D levels, and only 5% were taking vitamin D supplements,” the researchers reported.
This study contributes to the growing body of evidence correlating vitamin D with brain health, focusing specifically on early preclinical changes rather than solely on clinical outcomes like dementia diagnosis and aging.
Scientists propose that ensuring adequate vitamin D levels in midlife may serve as a proactive strategy to mitigate neurodegenerative changes before clinical symptoms manifest.
However, it is important to note that this study does not establish a direct causal relationship between vitamin D and the prevention of tau accumulation or dementia. The researchers measured vitamin D at a single time point without tracking its changes over the years, and they did not assess whether supplementation influenced brain health.
“These promising findings suggest a significant association between increased vitamin D levels in early midlife and decreased tau load 16 years later,” Dr. Mulligan remarked.
“Midlife is a critical phase where modifying risk factors could yield substantial benefits.”
For more information, refer to the published results in the journal Neurology.
_____
Martin David Mulligan et al. 2026. Association of circulating vitamin D in midlife with increased tau-PET burden in adults without dementia. Neurology 2 (2): e000057; doi: 10.1212/WN9.0000000000000057
The Hubble team has unveiled a stunning close-up image of the barred spiral galaxy IC 486.
This captivating Hubble image portrays IC 486, a barred spiral galaxy approximately 380 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / MJ Koss / AJ Barth.
IC 486 is situated in the constellation Gemini and lies about 380 million light-years from Earth.
This galaxy, recognized by other designations such as LEDA 22445, IRAS 07572+2645, and UGC 4155, was discovered on March 6, 1891, by Austrian astronomer Rudolf Ferdinand Spitaler.
IC 486 features a striking central rod-like structure, from which spiral arms extend and wrap around the core in a cohesive, ring-like formation.
According to Hubble astronomers, “Hubble’s advanced imaging technology reveals subtle color variations throughout IC 486.”
The core displays a blue-white hue dominated by older stars, while faint bluish areas within the surrounding disk indicate regions of more recent star formation.
“Dust lanes weave through the galaxy, gently obscuring light and pinpointing areas enriched with molecular gas where new stars are likely to emerge,” they noted.
The center of the galaxy emanates a distinctive white glow, which surpasses the surrounding stellar light. This glow originates from IC 486’s active galactic nucleus (AGN), powered by a supermassive black hole that is over 100 million times the mass of the Sun.
“All sufficiently large galaxies harbor supermassive black holes at their cores, but some are particularly voracious, consuming significant amounts of gas and dust, forming swirling accretion disks from which they derive their energy,” the astronomers elaborated.
“The immense heat generated by the orbiting material produces intense radiation, including X-rays, that can outshine the entire galaxy.”
Such galaxies, characterized by their central AGN, are referred to as active galaxies.
Despite IC 486’s orderly appearance, “it is a dynamic system shaped by gravitational forces and the evolution of stars,” they concluded.
“Over millions of years, stars are born, age, and perish, contributing to the ongoing narrative of galactic evolution in our universe.”
A lawyer-turned-archaeologist has made a groundbreaking discovery while sifting through dusty excavation reports and old text that challenges conventional history of human gambling.
Subscribe to read this story without ads
Gain unlimited access to ad-free articles and exclusive content.
The findings, published on Thursday in the journal American Antiquity, reveal that Native Americans engaged in dice and probability games as far back as 12,000 years ago, predating similar activities in the Old World such as Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Research indicates that these early gambling activities, rooted in chance, randomness, and probability, originated in what is now the southwestern United States, not in ancient cultures like Mesopotamia.
“What we observed in North America, beginning 12,000 years ago, is a sophisticated understanding of complex intellectual concepts that weren’t addressed in other regions until millennia later,” said study author Robert Madden, a doctoral student from Colorado State University. “These concepts laid the groundwork for modern scientific and economic thought.”
Mr. Madden, 62, transitioned from a trial lawyer to archaeology. He dedicated three years to analyzing old site reports and establishing a timeline of archaeological research. Previously, no unified standards existed in the field for documenting Native American dice.
“My discovery wasn’t about unearthing new dice,” he clarified. “It was about collating existing information.”
The use of dice by Native Americans has been researched for over a century. Traditionally, these dice are double-sided, crafted from bone or wood, and meticulously shaped to achieve random outcomes, often marked with symbols.
Early examples of dice discovered in Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado.Robert Madden / Colorado State University
Previous studies traced such artifacts back approximately 2,000 years; however, Madden’s research indicates that dice could date back to the end of the last Ice Age, with finds from the early 20th century among the Folsom culture, which date between 12,255 and 12,845 years ago.
The newly established timeline shows that these dice were continuously used in the southwestern United States.
“We see them appearing throughout this region from 12,000 AD until European contact and continuing into the present,” Madden noted.
Robert Wiener, a postdoctoral fellow at Dartmouth College specializing in gambling and religion in New Mexico’s Chaco Canyon, highlighted that gambling is often referenced in Native American oral histories.
“In the Southwest, gambling stories typically suggest a potential for addiction, yet many cultural practices view it as almost sacred, serving as social gatherings,” Wiener stated.
In certain narratives, such as the Zuni mythology, even the gods participate in gambling.
To date, no prehistoric dice have been found in eastern North America. The lack of discovery remains unclear but may stem from preservation issues and perceived biases in the archaeological record.
Madden speculates that prehistoric Native American bands frequently traveled, with games serving as a social tool to foster trade and communication. Written accounts of Native American dice games trace back to the 1600s, suggesting many events occurred in eastern North America, often featuring rapid gameplay between unfamiliar groups.
“These events were typically social and vibrant, drawing large crowds and encouraging many side bets,” he explained.
Despite this, there are no documented accounts of prehistoric dice games, leaving many questions unanswered.
“Were they calculating the odds? It’s uncertain,” Madden confessed.
Nevertheless, his research supports the notion that Native Americans practiced complex counting and likely were the first to explore concepts like the law of large numbers, which illustrates how random samples average out over time.
“What we’re analyzing here is a significant intellectual achievement,” he remarked.
Evidence of early dice predates similar artifacts from Bronze Age civilizations in Africa, Europe, and Asia by approximately 6,000 years.
“This discovery is monumental as it highlights that the intellectual contributions of Native American cultures were often overlooked or suppressed by colonial powers,” Wiener stated.
“Dice games of chance provide an intuitive, direct, and emotional way for individuals to engage with probability challenges,” he added.
Robert Madden examines Late Pleistocene dice at the Smithsonian Institution.Provided by Robert Madden
Madden’s academic journey began with a focus on archaeology, followed by a 25-year tenure as a trial lawyer. As a partner at Gibbs & Brands in Houston, he specialized in the 2008 financial crisis.
He left his law practice in 2017 to explore the Olmec civilization, an ancient Mesoamerican culture, before enrolling in a master’s program in archaeology, his lifelong passion, in 2022.
Madden’s years spent in legal research, including analyzing “millions of pages of documents,” equipped him with the skills needed to navigate the extensive archaeological records.
“He took the initiative to meticulously review a vast number of reports,” Wiener stated. “Often, it requires an outside perspective to see things in a new light.”
Honey bee laboratory at Southern Medical University
Bumblebees exhibit remarkable abilities by recognizing Morse code-like patterns of flashing lights and vibrations, showcasing a unique sense of rhythm not previously documented in such small-brained animals.
This capacity to discern flexible and abstract rhythms, such as varying tempos or styles, has only been observed in select birds and mammals, including primates like parrots, songbirds, and chimpanzees.
Andrew Baron and his research team from Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, found that buff-tailed bumblebees (Western bumblebee), despite their less intricate brains, can comprehend a range of diverse rhythms.
In their initial experiment, these bumblebees were trained to select between two artificial flowers with flashing LED lights. One flower emitted prolonged flashes while the other produced short pulses, reminiscent of Morse code. One flower contained a reward (sucrose) while the other housed an unpleasant substance (quinine).
After mastering the distinction between the rewarding and punishing flowers, the bees were further tested on flowers containing just water. Remarkably, nearly all bees still chose the flowers that produced the type of flashes they previously associated with sucrose.
Next, the scientists complicated the experiment by employing different flashing patterns for each flower, such as dash, dash, dot, dot, dash, dot, dash. The bees still successfully identified the variations.
However, what astonished researchers were the results that followed. The artificial flowers were substituted with a maze featuring a vibrating floor at the junction of two paths.
“If it vibrates dot-dash-dot-dash, that signals a right turn for sugar,” Baron explains. “We demonstrated to them that certain rhythms indicated left turns while others indicated right turns, and they learned this successfully.”
In the final phase, the researchers halted training and replaced the vibrating floor with LED lights that mimicked the same patterns. “Though not every bee grasped the concept individually, as a collective, we proved that they could transition from vibrations to light pulses,” Baron notes.
This indicates that the bumblebees recognized the rhythm regardless of its representation, be it through light flashes or vibrations.
Until now, abstract rhythmic understanding was thought to necessitate a larger brain, Baron stated. Understanding how bumblebees perform this with their diminutive brains could transform how small drones and similar autonomous devices perceive their environments.
“This study suggests there might be simpler cognitive mechanisms at play,” Baron reflects. “It’s extraordinary that a bee can abstract rhythm with such a small brain.”
An artist’s reconstruction of an ancient marine ecosystem preserved in the Jiangchuan biota.
Wang Xiaodong
Recent discoveries of a vast array of exquisitely preserved fossils in China have led to new insights regarding the Cambrian Explosion, which is traditionally viewed as a rapid evolutionary event marking the emergence of complex life.
Spanning roughly 541 to 513 million years ago, the Cambrian Explosion is regarded as the period when most modern animal groups first appeared, alongside various now-extinct evolutionary experiments.
Previously, during the Ediacaran period, life was believed to be simpler. However, findings from a new fossil site in Yunnan, known as the Jiangchuan biota, challenge this view, presenting over 700 fossils dating back to 554 to 537 million years ago.
“Our findings indicate that Cambrian-like faunal assemblages did not appear out of nowhere but had a clear foundation and transitional morphology by the end of the Ediacaran,” states Gaorong Li, the lead researcher from Yunnan University, Kunming, China.
Ross Anderson, another team member and professor at the University of Oxford, noted that the surprisingly intricate nature of the fossils raises intriguing questions about whether the Cambrian explosion was a gradual process.
“We are beginning to construct a more complex understanding of the origins and timing of the explosion in animal diversity,” Anderson explains.
When Lee initiated investigations at the site in mid-2022, he anticipated finding algae.
Instead, researchers uncovered a variety of organisms called bilaterians, characterized by bilateral symmetry. Only a limited number of such specimens had previously been found during the Ediacaran; among these are two new species of deuterostomes, a key group that includes vertebrates, suggesting that this group was already diverse long before the Cambrian.
Cambroelnid fossil from the Jiangchuan biota and artist’s reconstruction.
Li Gaolong & Wang Xiaodong
Some fossils were identified as Cambroelniids, featuring coiled bodies and long, tentacle-like appendages not previously documented before the Cambrian period. Others closely resemble Cambrian creatures such as Margaretia, which resembles a tubular structure with an opening, creating the appearance of an organism living within a ventilation pipe, according to Lee.
Lee noted that the most common fossils discovered were animals with tubular appendages anchored to the seafloor, extending outward in search of sustenance—some reminiscent of sandworms depicted in the sci-fi series Dune.
“This indicates that these animals lived attached to the ocean floor while extending structures for foraging,” Lee explained. “Additionally, a species resembling a sausage-shaped worm with a short, thick, curved body displayed clear locomotion.”
Ultimately, these peculiar yet familiar organisms may represent “evolutionary experiments” from a period when life was exploring various body designs and ecological strategies.
“Although these creatures exhibit key features found in modern animals, like a mouth, intestine, proboscis, and pharynx, their structural arrangements differ considerably from those of contemporary animals,” Lee remarked. “In essence, their overall morphology is unusual, yet they possess fundamental biological modules common to modern fauna.”
Joe Moishuk from the Manitoba Museum states that the sudden appearance of numerous animal body plans in the early Cambrian fossil record has posed a longstanding dilemma for paleontologists.
“Strong evidence suggests that their ancestral forms should have been identified earlier, in the Ediacaran, while indications of this lineage have been accumulating over recent decades,” Moisiuk notes.
“Although the specimens are somewhat poorly preserved and missing certain details, several distinctly animal-like forms emerge.”
These fossils imply the existence of certain animal groups prior to the Cambrian; however, they do not contradict the occurrence of a Cambrian explosion, he asserts.
“Instead, the divergence of animal body plans likely unfolded over approximately 30 million years across the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary, providing a clearer temporal constraint on the genesis of this evolutionary radiation.”
Han Zeng, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences not involved in the study, underscored that finding complex animal fossils in pre-Cambrian sediments would signify a major advancement in paleontology.
“Over recent decades, a diverse array of carbonaceous fossils has emerged from similarly dated Late Precambrian shales in southern China. While most have been classified as algae or cyanobacteria, other specimens possess ambiguous animal characteristics,” Zeng elaborates. “Future research is crucial to clarify the biological relationships of these fossils. Should they prove to be animals, they could drastically alter our understanding of early animal evolution.”
Dinosaur Hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert
Join an exciting expedition to uncover dinosaur remnants in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, renowned as one of the world’s premier paleontology hotspots.
Like many children affected by Hunter syndrome, Cole is missing a crucial enzyme required to break down specific molecules. As these toxins accumulate, they wreak havoc on vital organs, particularly the heart and brain, often resulting in dementia-like symptoms. This genetic disorder, also referred to as mucopolysaccharidosis type II (MPS II), impacts around 500 individuals in the United States, predominantly boys.
Experts believe the recently approved drug by Denali Therapeutics, an intravenous enzyme replacement therapy, could revolutionize treatment options, especially since current standard care only addresses the physical manifestations of the disease. Denali’s innovative therapy also aims to combat cognitive decline.
While new medications can’t reverse existing regression, they hold potential to extend a child’s life and stave off numerous symptoms when administered early.
Dr. Joseph Müntzer is an expert in Hunter syndrome and related rare diseases. Alison M. Donnelly of NBC News
“If we can treat very young children before irreparable damage occurs, the possibilities are nearly limitless,” says Dr. Joseph Muenzer of the Muenzer MPS Research and Treatment Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, who specializes in Hunter syndrome and other rare mucopolysaccharide disorders.
“I can’t predict how they will fare in the future, but it will certainly be different,” he remarked.
Before regression began, Cole learned to read and spoke in complete sentences. Gradually, his speech deteriorated, leaving him only able to say “Mommy” before losing all ability to communicate. Despite being a teenager now, he is developmentally similar to a 3-year-old.
The FDA’s approval of Denali’s drug was a significant relief for families with children suffering from Hunter syndrome and for the broader rare disease community. Recently, the FDA faced criticism for denying several promising treatments for rare conditions, prompting advocacy groups to stage protests and advocate for more supportive policies.
In an email to NBC News, the FDA noted that the number of drug approvals and denials under its current administration aligns with historical trends from the past decade. FDA Commissioner Dr. Marty McCurry hailed Denali’s approval as “a milestone day for children combating Hunter syndrome and their families,” pledging continued efforts to expedite treatments for rare diseases.
Many healthcare professionals, including Munzer, who led the Denali trial, are hopeful that advancements in treatments will continue.
“These are devastating diseases,” Munzer emphasized. “Their rarity should not lead to neglect.”
Denali’s drug, known as Avraya, marks the first FDA-approved treatment for Hunter syndrome in the United States in two decades and is the first to penetrate the blood-brain barrier, targeting the neurological complications associated with the disease.
Experts like Müntzer assert that Avraya could significantly extend life expectancy, based on encouraging human trial data. A clinical trial illustrated significant reductions in important disease biomarkers in the cerebrospinal fluid after just 24 weeks, with 93% of pediatric participants achieving levels akin to those without Hunter syndrome.
For countless families dealing with this condition, the approval of this drug signifies more than a new treatment; it acknowledges the inherent value of every child.
Laurent Jaskalski, a 6-year-old from New Berlin, Wisconsin, was diagnosed with Hunter syndrome at age four. He’s always struggled with communication, but his mother, Kylie Jaskalski, fears that his speech difficulties may lead others to underestimate his capabilities. This is a painful misconception about a joyful child who loves to cuddle and eagerly anticipates going to school each day.
“He brings immense joy,” Jaskalski said. “He spreads happiness and peace to everyone he meets.”
Six-year-old Roland Jaskalski, also known as Rory, diagnosed with Hunter syndrome at age 4. Provided by Kylie Jaskalski
Initially, Jaskalski felt devastated when Laurent was diagnosed, but she later found it even more heart-wrenching to witness her son’s deterioration.
If insurance permits access to Denali’s drug for Laurent, “we might not have to remain passive,” she expressed.
Currently, Laurent receives weekly infusions of Elaplus (FDA-approved in 2006), which is the prevailing standard treatment. While this IV therapy isn’t flawless, it has stabilized his physical decline. Recently, Jaskalski has observed weakness and discomfort on Laurent’s left side, making walking challenging. He also suffers from mild hearing loss.
Recent advancements in newborn screening for Hunter syndrome across states like California to Rhode Island indicates a promising future, as early detection allows for timely intervention with new drugs, potentially mitigating cognitive decline.
Children with Hunter syndrome often face severe health challenges and a life expectancy ranging from 10 to 20 years. Those with the non-neurological variant may reach adulthood but still endure progressive physical complications, primarily affecting their airways and heart.
Three-year-old Kashton Estes refers to his weekly infusion of Elaplus, the standard treatment for Hunter syndrome, as his “Spider-Man juice.” Provided by Christina Caldwell
The introduction of new treatments is especially hopeful for families with children across the spectrum of Hunter syndrome. Christina Caldwell’s 3-year-old grandson, Kashton Estes, who has the non-cognitive variant, undergoes IV infusions of Elaplus, which he affectionately calls “Spider-Man juice.” Thanks to this treatment, he enjoys running, jumping, and riding his bike.
Caldwell is eager for Kashton to be treated with Denali’s new drug as two of his cousins also have Hunter syndrome, and the family wishes to prevent future health complications for all three children.
“We’re not asking for much. Just provide us with the medication to keep our children alive,” she stated.
Regarding insurance coverage, Denali Therapeutics stated it has engaged in “constructive” dialogues with payers and is prioritizing swift access to Avraya for families dealing with Hunter syndrome. Currently, the drug is approved only for pediatric patients, but the company is working on expanding its clinical data to include young adults. Denali also aims to leverage its blood-brain barrier technology for various other diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders.
Ms. Stevens, the mother of 15-year-old Cole, eagerly anticipates administering the new medication to her son. She has devoted her life to aiding not just Cole but others in similar situations. In 2022, she took on the role of executive director at Munzer’s MPS Research and Treatment Center at UNC-Chapel Hill.
Upon learning last week about the FDA’s early approval for the new drug, Stevens rushed through the treatment center, sharing the news with patients and staff. There were tears of joy and hugs all around.
Cole Stevens Mausolf prepares for his weekly Elaplus infusion. Alison M. Donnelly of NBC News
Stevens understands that Denali’s treatment cannot reverse Cole’s previous regression, meaning he may not attend university or secure a job. However, she remains profoundly grateful.
“My hope is for him to maintain stability,” Stevens expressed. “Even with a progressive disease, achieving stability is a victory.”
“The aircraft itself had no issues,” stated NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman during a post-launch press conference on Wednesday. “We have re-established communications with the crew and are actively addressing this challenge.”
Crew members noted that a fault light was triggered while testing the ship’s toilets on Wednesday.
The Orion capsule features the Universal Waste Management System for its toilets, designed to drain urine into space while storing feces for crew return. A privacy door enhances comfort during use. A similar system has been tested aboard the International Space Station.
Mission managers collaborated with the astronauts overnight to troubleshoot this problem, and early Thursday, NASA confirmed that the crew successfully resolved the issue. You can read more about the toilet’s restoration.
If the issue hadn’t been resolved, the backup plan involved the use of a “collapsible emergency urinal” for urine collection in bags, while toilets would still be operational for fecal storage.
Earth’s horizon as observed from NASA’s Orion spacecraft during the initial hours of the Artemis II mission.NASA Youtube
Another relatable issue for many on Earth arose when the astronauts asked for technical assistance with their computers. The culprit? Microsoft Outlook.
Ultimately, mission controllers managed to access the computers remotely, successfully restoring Outlook functionality for the astronauts.
An over-the-shoulder view of NASA astronaut Victor Glover (left) and mission commander Reid Wiseman (right) within the Orion spacecraft.NASA
These initial glitches were swiftly adjusted, leading to an important milestone for the Artemis II astronauts on the mission’s second day.
After replenishing their energy, the astronauts received a wake-up call on Thursday at 2:35 p.m. ET. They were greeted by John Legend’s “Green Light” and encouraging messages from NASA team members who supported their journey. Glover expressed gratitude for their uplifting words.
Less than two hours post-wakeup, mission managers in Houston convened to discuss the feasibility of executing a critical engine burn to position the Orion capsule into lunar orbit.
The decision was a resounding “go.”
This pivotal maneuver, known as the “lunar insertion burn,” is scheduled for 7:49 p.m. ET and will last just under six minutes. The main engine of Orion will ignite, propelling the capsule out of Earth’s orbit.
A stunning view of Earth as seen from NASA’s Orion spacecraft in orbit.NASA
The Artemis II mission’s spaceflight heavily depends on gravitational forces from both the Earth and the Moon, making this upcoming engine burn crucial. This will be the last major maneuver of this nature during the mission; once executed, the astronauts will embark on a one-way journey around the Moon.
“Flight controllers will monitor engine performance, guidance, and navigation data closely throughout this maneuver to ensure Orion is precisely targeted for its outbound journey,” NASA officials mentioned in a blog update.
If all goes smoothly, the Artemis II astronauts will make history as the first crew to journey to the Moon since Apollo 17 in 1972.
In an article published on March 18 in the Journal Acta Paleontology Polonica, paleontologists have unveiled an exciting discovery: a new species of harvestman identified from two Eocene amber pieces originating from Ukraine and the Baltic Sea region.
Reconstruction of Balticolasma Wunderlichi by artist Joshua Knüppe.
The newly identified harvestman is the first known member of the subfamily Ortholasmatinae found in the fossil record.
This species, named Balticolasma Wunderlichi, thrived in Europe approximately 35 million years ago during the Eocene epoch.
“The Ortholasmatinae subfamily contains some of the most visually striking modern harvestmen, characterized by complex and branched eye tubercles and unique dorsal microcarvings known as keel cells,” remarked paleontologist Christian Bartel from the Bavarian State Collection of Natural History and his colleagues.
“Currently, there are seven extant genera with 27 described species, each exhibiting distinct distributions.”
Balticolasma Wunderlichi was identified based on two specimens: a suspected female from Rovno amber in northwestern Ukraine and a male specimen preserved in Baltic Sea amber.
The fossils originated from private collections in Germany (Baltic Sea specimen) and Lithuania (Rovno specimen) and are currently housed at the Berlin Museum of Nature.
“The discovery of Ortholasmatinae harvestmen in European amber deposits was surprising. This group is no longer present in Europe today,” stated Dr. Bartel.
“Their relatives now inhabit only East Asia and North and Central America.”
“Clearly, during the Eocene epoch, about 35 million years ago, these harvesters had a much broader distribution across the Northern Hemisphere than they do today.”
Balticolasma Wunderlichi Female from Rovno Amber. Image credit: Bartel et al., doi: 10.4202/app.01283.2025.
Researchers employed high-resolution synchrotron microtomography to meticulously reconstruct the anatomy of Balticolasma Wunderlichi.
The scans revealed a small, flat body, measuring less than 3mm long, adorned with rows of tubercles and a distinctive forward-protruding hood-like structure.
“Some of its morphological features align closely with existing Asian genera,” the scientists observed.
This study underscores the scientific significance of amber deposits in the Baltic and Rovno regions.
The discovery enriches the catalog of known harvestman species preserved in these ambers, offering new insights for reconstructing the evolutionary tree of the group.
“Baltic amber is renowned for its exceptional fossil diversity, frequently revealing species that no longer exist in Europe today,” noted paleontologist Dr. Jason Dunlop from the Berlin Museum of Nature.
“The discovery of a new harvestman species in Ukraine once again illustrates the likely similarities between the harvestman fauna in both regions.”
“With this new addition, the number of harvestman species found in Baltic Sea amber rises to 19, while the number from ancient Ukrainian Rovno amber increases to seven. Six species have been documented in both locations.”
_____
C. Bartel et al. 2026. 3D analysis of ortholasmatine, first recovered from European Eocene amber. Acta Paleontology Polonica 71 (1): 95-107; doi: 10.4202/app.01283.2025
A prominent area of research in modern astrophysics is the enigmatic dark matter phenomenon. The groundbreaking work of Vera Rubin in the 1970s revealed that the outer edges of galaxies rotate at unexpected speeds, contrary to predictions based solely on visible matter. This led researchers to investigate and classify these observations under the term dark matter. Numerous studies have documented how light bends around galaxy clusters and the distribution of matter in the universe, as well as fluctuations in cosmic microwave background radiation, all indicating that the universe holds more secrets than what astronomers can visibly observe.
According to widely accepted cosmological models, the ΛCDM model describes dark matter as a type of slow-moving particle that possesses mass and exerts gravitational force but does not interact with electromagnetic radiation. As a result, dark matter remains invisible and can seamlessly pass through ordinary matter.
The quest to identify dark matter particles is an ongoing effort, allowing scientists to investigate their characteristics, including their distribution throughout the Milky Way. Although scientists can calculate the movement of stars from the galaxy’s center to the Sun without factoring in dark matter, the presence of this invisible mass significantly influences stars and gas clouds found further out. Researchers suggest that the dark matter halo encircles the galaxy, extending up to 230,000 parsecs (approximately 4 quintillion miles or 7 quintillion kilometers) from the galactic center, and may account for roughly 95% of the Milky Way’s total mass.
A research team from University College London has been examining the geometry of the Milky Way’s dark matter halo. They hypothesized that the Milky Way is in a state of equilibrium and analyzed the stable positions of stars in the galaxy’s outer regions to model the shape and orientation of the dark matter halo that permits their presence. Their findings were then correlated with previous studies of the Milky Way’s evolution, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the galaxy’s structure.
This research leveraged data from the Gaia survey, a satellite mission that observed millions of stars and mapped the Milky Way galaxy from 2013 to 2025. The team utilized two primary types of data: the average number of stars within specific volumes in the outer regions of the galaxy’s old structures and the stars’ positions and velocities within the stellar halo. The team discovered that the stellar halo is elliptical and tilted concerning the Milky Way, primarily due to a similarly-shaped but significantly larger dark matter halo.
A simplified diagram illustrating the shape and orientation of the dark matter halo compared to the stellar halo and the Milky Way’s disk. Not to scale. By the author.
The research team concluded that their findings dismiss the earlier notion that the dark matter halo is approximately spherical. They determined that the halo’s tilt, relative to the Milky Way’s disk, is around 43 degrees. This tilt mirrors other disk galaxies with dark matter halos, which typically range between 46.5° and 18° with regards to their stellar halos. The researchers contended that a stable, tilted, non-spherical dark matter halo signifies the overall stability of the galaxy, especially in light of past galactic collisions that occurred at least 8 billion years ago. Enhanced measurements of the halo’s shape could provide valuable insight into these markedly significant merge events.
To facilitate future research, the team generated a model that accurately reflects a snapshot of a galaxy with a tilted, rectangular dark matter halo. This model incorporates the stars’ density and motion patterns that they examined. Additional refinements in their simulations are consistent with findings from the Gaia survey, revealing that the halo becomes increasingly tilted moving away from the galactic center. Specifically, the tilt escalates from 10 degrees to 35 degrees at distances between 6 and 60 kiloparsecs (approximately 100 to 100 quintillion miles or 200 to 2 quintillion kilometers), while also transitioning from being elliptical to more circular as the distance increases. They propose that future researchers explore this model further, incorporating other complex interactions, such as those with the Large Magellanic Cloud.
Nelson Dellis winning the 2011 USA Memory Championship in New York.
Don Emmert/AFP via Getty Images
Nelson Dellis, a six-time American Memory Champion, has astounded the world by memorizing a shuffled deck of cards in just 40.7 seconds and recalling the first 10,000 digits of Pi. Recent studies on his brain offer insights into the extraordinary capabilities that allow such feats and how others may develop similar skills.
Dellis reports that he had an average memory until age 25, when he began rigorous memory training after observing his grandmother suffer from Alzheimer’s disease. This dedication included extensive practice memorizing numbers, names, and vocabulary. “I continue to train my memory regularly,” he states. “It’s akin to a muscle; if you don’t utilize it, it deteriorates.”
While dementia-related memory issues are well documented, the phenomena of exceptional memory are less understood. To investigate this, researchers from Washington University in St. Louis collaborated with Dellis for a comprehensive brain analysis.
Dellis participated in extensive brain scans and memory assessments over approximately 13 hours between 2015 and 2021. In one assessment, he was tasked with memorizing a series of four to seven words displayed for just over a second, employing traditional memorization techniques like repetition.
“Sitting still in a scanner while memorizing wasn’t my usual training method, but it was fascinating to contribute to the connection between memory athletes and measurable scientific outcomes,” Dellis remarked. His brain activity was compared to two control subjects with strong, yet not extraordinary, memories.
The Washington University team analyzed the results and discovered that Dellis and the controls exhibited similar brain activity during the tasks. All three individuals showed enhanced electrical signaling in the retrosplenial cortex, extrastriate visual cortex, and dorsal frontal cortex—regions associated with navigation, visual processing, and working memory. Interestingly, Dellis emphasized that rote memorization is not his preferred technique. “Rote memorization is often ineffective, yet it’s widely known,” he notes.
Dellis undertook another task unique to him, memorizing the order of a shuffled deck of cards while undergoing brain scans. He utilized the loci method, also recognized as the memory palace technique, which involves linking information to specific locations in one’s environment to facilitate recall. “This shift from abstract concepts to visual-spatial associations forms the core of almost all mnemonic strategies I employ,” Dellis shares.
This task stimulated activity in the same three cortices but altered activity in the hippocampus, a critical brain region for memory. Dellis exhibited higher hippocampal activity during the encoding phase in the first task than during recall. In contrast, the opposite was found during the second task, which activated the caudate nucleus—a brain structure involved in learning and memory. Although the researchers chose not to comment further, they speculated that the caudate’s involvement might indicate memory is an integrated skill.
Dellis after winning in 2012 by reciting the order of 104 playing cards.
Nelson Dellis
Moreover, researchers compared Dellis’s brain activity to that of 887 participants in the Human Connectome Project. Their findings revealed that memory champions demonstrate significantly enhanced functional connectivity, illustrating efficient collaboration among different brain areas.
Dellis and his colleagues advocate for the wider application of the loci method. “Considering its clear behavioral benefits, it’s surprising that techniques like this are not more commonly integrated into educational and clinical practices,” he observes. Martin Dresler from Radboud University Medical Center in the Netherlands concurs.
Dresler states that this technique can be extremely effective. It utilizes our inherent strengths. “The triumph of trajectory methods likely arises because they transform abstract data into visual-spatial concepts,” he explains. “Our brains did not evolve to remember abstract details like numbers or dates; rather, they evolved to navigate our environment for food and safety, honing our spatial awareness.”
However, Craig Stark, a professor at the University of California, Irvine, emphasizes that it’s uncertain how much of Dellis’s exceptional memory results from training versus innate ability. “We can’t discern which elements are trained skills versus inherent capabilities,” he states.
If you find traditional memory training daunting, Dellis also attributes his abilities to a healthy lifestyle that includes regular exercise. “To enhance your everyday memory, heed your mother’s advice: be mindful, maintain a healthy diet, get adequate sleep, and exercise,” he emphasizes, referencing Morris Moscovich from the University of Toronto, Canada.
The natural world often teaches us about life through vivid examples. Many kids learn about reproduction through birds laying eggs and bees pollinating flowers instead of focusing on human examples, which can be more challenging to convey.
However, as evolutionary and behavioral biologist Heung-sun Lee discusses in his thought-provoking book On the Origins of Sex: The Weird and Wonderful Science of How Our Planet is Populated, the “birds and bees” analogy is far too simplistic. It overlooks the vivid diversity and intricacies involved in animal reproduction.
Even species that might appear unremarkable have fascinating reproductive practices. For instance, barnyard hens can expel sperm from less dominant males, while male ducks sport corkscrew-shaped penises. Interestingly, female ducks have evolved opposite-spinning vaginas, enabling them to exert control over paternity.
On the Origins of Sex presents numerous examples to illustrate fundamental biological concepts. The wide range of breeding methods observed makes many human practices seem mundane. However, Sun’s ambitious goal is to delve deeper into the critical questions surrounding reproduction, especially the very existence of sexual reproduction.
“
The rigid male/female binary feels increasingly outdated. “
This question might baffle readers unfamiliar with evolutionary biology, but from an evolutionary standpoint, sexual reproduction can be far more complex and resource-intensive than asexual reproduction. Achieving sexual reproduction requires two partners—one generating male gametes and the other producing female gametes. At first glance, asexual reproduction appears more efficient, a method still employed by numerous species, including bacteria and fungi. Parthenogenesis, a form of asexual reproduction where embryos develop without fertilization, is noted in over 80 vertebrate species, encompassing California condors, booby sharks, and Komodo dragons.
So why did sexual reproduction become prevalent? Sun dedicates the book’s first section to addressing this question, succinctly introducing essential concepts like the Müller ratchet, proposed in 1964 by geneticist Hermann Müller. This theory describes how the absence of genetic mixing in asexual reproduction leads to the gradual accumulation of detrimental mutations.
Additionally, the Red Queen hypothesis likens evolution to a continuing arms race, suggesting that species must evolve continuously to survive and outpace their competitors, underscoring the inherent risks of sexual reproduction.
Sun, a distinguished research professor at Central Washington University, draws from his connections with numerous scientists whose work he references throughout the book. On the Origins of Sex is his fourth work aimed at a general readership, following his explorations into fairness in nature and the history of beavers.
Despite Sun’s admission that On the Origins of Sex is a selective narrative, the intended audience isn’t always clear. While readers might need some background knowledge in evolutionary biology, the book remains captivating, enriched with examples of exotic animal reproduction that are well-paced.
Sun’s passion for his subject is infectious, particularly evident in his discussions on sexual adaptation and variation. He advocates for a broader understanding of gender, arguing that current definitions are “hopelessly homocentric and disconnected from evolutionary realities.” His detailed, step-by-step explanations of the sciences underpinning sex and gender reveal just how much human society relies on these biological concepts.
He articulates, “In popular discussions, gender is often perceived as a social construct. What is often overlooked is a deeper understanding of gender as a biological construct—something evolutionary biology can elucidate.”
Though careful not to engage in cultural arguments, Sun primarily focuses on evolutionary biology in non-human animals. It becomes evident that nature’s binary classification is an oversimplification. “Biological sex is not merely about distinguishing species that produce sperm from those that produce eggs,” he asserts. Consider fish like eels, clownfish, and wrasse, which can naturally change sex. Within birds and mammals (including humans), numerous variations exist, including intersex individuals.
Gender fluidity is far more prevalent among animals than traditionally understood, affecting not just reproductive roles but also behaviors and social structures. For example, hyenas, known for their matrilineal society, exhibit females possessing a “pseudopenis,” which aids in food competition and complicates pregnancy.
By highlighting this diversity, Sun urges a paradigm shift regarding sex and gender, advocating for a perspective that embraces differences as “natural and adaptive aspects of life’s continuum.” He concludes: “The rigid male/female binary is increasingly recognized as limited and outdated.”
In previous discussions, Sun has expressed a desire to infuse scientific insights into debates about diversity and social justice. He effectively meets this goal through a science-focused approach, enriched with examples from the natural world. Indeed, he posits that the immense diversity of non-human life and the numerous unanswered questions about reproduction should inspire us to welcome complexity and openness.
We may presume to understand the fundamentals of life, yet even Sun closes the book in awe of “how little we truly grasp.”
Check out this essential 1993 favorite, praised by Lixing Sun for shaping contemporary views on sex and gender with its “sharp wit and engaging prose.”
This witty and insightful book showcases the remarkable diversity of sexual behaviors in animals while providing crucial lessons about human sexual diversity.
This 2026 publication explores human attraction and emotional bonds. Justin Garcia, an esteemed evolutionary biologist and executive director of the Kinsey Institute, brings his expertise to the science of dating.
I have lived through the harrowing experience of being bitten by a snake, facing a life-threatening situation. I remember the sensation of complete paralysis and panic; I could hear the doctors discussing my case, questioning whether it was a suicide attempt. No, it wasn’t. I simply made a mistake.
My journey began in 2001 when I started injecting myself with snake venom to pioneer a new treatment. Annually, 5 million people are bitten by snakes, leading to 138,000 deaths and over 400,000 amputations and serious complications—these numbers are staggering.
Fortunately, there are organizations dedicated to combatting this issue. Strike Out Snakebite is a global initiative that raises awareness about the dangers of snake venom. The concept of snake antivenom, which dates back 125 years, was introduced by Albert Calmette. However, antivenoms have not evolved significantly and carry risks, such as causing anaphylactic shock due to the presence of foreign horse proteins.
I was determined to eliminate the horse from this equation without causing harm to it while also safeguarding my own health and livelihood.
My initial training in venom extraction from spiders, scorpions, and centipedes began in 1999, making the task of extracting snake venom feasible. I started by diluting cobra venom to 1:10,000 for injections. The initial doses felt mild, akin to a bee sting, but over time, I escalated the concentrations to potentially lethal levels.
After extensive research, I was ready to test myself against a live snake. Anxiety surged through me as I questioned my immune response. There were no manuals, no guidance—it was entirely self-taught experimentation.
My first attempt was disastrous. On September 12, 2001, at precisely 11:02 p.m., I was bitten by a cobra and then again by another cobra only an hour later. The first bite seemed manageable, but the second overwhelmed my antibodies. I flatlined at midnight and awoke four days later in the ICU, dependent on antivenom from a local zoo. Ironically, antivenom was available at home, but paramedics were unaware of it.
Upon my discharge, I faced a choice: give up or learn from this experience. I chose the latter, enduring over 200 stings, never relying on antivenom again.
I became increasingly serious about my mission, engaging with scientists and exploring the rich history of self-experimentation in medicine. I even secured a signed letter from Nobel laureate Barry Marshall, who famously treated himself and received the Nobel Prize in return. Conversations with other esteemed scientists, including immunologist Peter Doherty, fueled my academic curiosity and commitment to researching toxins.
Snake venom varies enormously, even within the same species. A prime example is the brown snake, Shudnaja textile, which exhibits differing venom effects from northern to southern Queensland. This variation complicates the effectiveness of antivenoms, which are region-specific.
My aim was to cultivate broad-spectrum antibodies capable of neutralizing various venoms. With around 650 species of venomous snakes worldwide, I could not test them all. Therefore, I focused on the most dangerous, such as Taipans—the world’s most venomous snakes, along with cobras, coral snakes, and rattlesnakes.
Throughout the past 25 years, I have participated in six studies, which have been instrumental to my journey. Without participation, I wouldn’t advance antivenom development. Recently, Jacob Granville from Sentivax reached out after viewing a YouTube video of me being bitten by a black mamba followed closely by a Taipan. They extracted DNA from my B cells to clone my IgG antibodies for further in vivo research with mice.
The research yielded stunning discoveries, revealing that I could neutralize the venom of a king cobra, Ophiophagus hannah, even without having previously tested the venom itself. This offers hope for the development of a broad-spectrum, universal antivenom.
Our findings were recently published in Cell Press— a culmination of 25 years of work. Despite my name not being on the authorship list due to academic pushback against self-experimenters, I prioritize the collective impact over personal recognition.
Although human application of the antivenom is still a distant goal, I find solace in knowing that I have contributed all I can towards making a positive difference in this field.
An Artist’s Impression of Star Formation in the Early Universe
Adolf Schaller STScI/NASA
Astronomers have gained an unprecedented insight into some of the universe’s first stars, known as “Population III” stars. These primordial stars could significantly enhance our understanding of the early universe, including their mass and influence on subsequent star formation.
Predicted to be composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, these ancient stars were colossal—hundreds of times the size of our Sun—and reached scorching temperatures of tens of thousands of degrees.
Despite their crucial role in cosmic history, most Population III stars had short lifespans, leading to their explosions, and astronomers have not conclusively identified galaxies rich in these stars due to their extremely early existence.
Recently, Roberto Maiorino and researchers at the University of Cambridge uncovered that the Hebe Galaxy, which formed just 400 million years post-Big Bang, aligns perfectly with characteristics of a Population III galaxy.
It contains no detectable elements heavier than hydrogen or helium, and the emitted light concentrates around specific frequencies tied to helium, a signature only achievable through extremely hot stars like the Population III. “As we understand it, a Population III star seems to be the most plausible explanation,” stated Maiorino. “Any other explanations fall short.”
The Hebe Galaxy was initially identified in 2024 through observations made with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). While its spectrum initially suggested lines of ionized helium indicative of a Population III star, doubt lingered regarding the reality of these lines or the presence of heavier metals.
Further JWST observations revealed a second line linked to ionized hydrogen from the same source, confirming the presence of helium.
“We invested significant time analyzing the data to validate this line detection,” said Hannah Uebler from Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich. “Discovering the peak in ionized hydrogen without additional detection was a pleasant surprise, confirming our previous claims of helium and hydrogen indicating a Population III scenario.”
The compelling results suggest we are witnessing a very hot object, consistent with expectations for a Population III star. Daniel Whalen, studying at the University of Portsmouth, UK, notes that while findings are promising, precision remains insufficient to exclude heavy elements typical of more mature Population II stars.
A galaxy populated predominantly by Population III stars, as anticipated by Maiorino and his team, poses challenges even in existing simulations of early universe conditions. These simulations indicate that initial stars typically formed in isolated, sparse clusters.
“This is not merely a quest to claim we found Population III stars,” said Maiorino. “We have gained significant insights already.” If Hebe’s stars are confirmed as Population III, it could yield vital knowledge about the universe’s infancy.
Maiorino and his team have leveraged early observations from Hebe to infer that most of the original stars had masses between 10 to 100 times that of the Sun, with significantly fewer being smaller.
Exciting findings from the Neretva Canyon—a prehistoric river channel that once flowed to Mars’ Jezero Crater—uncover significant concentrations of nickel in 3 billion-year-old sediments. These patterns mirror mineral formations found on Earth, often linked to microbial activity.
Nickel detected in bright magnesium sulfate veins in Jezero Crater on Mars, supporting its genuine origin. Image credit: Manelski et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70081-3.
“The Perseverance rover landed in Mars’ Jezero Crater in February 2021 aimed at exploring ancient habitable environments and collecting core samples for future return to Earth during a planned Mars sample return mission,” stated Dr. Henry Manerski from Purdue University and his research team.
“Jezero is a Noachian impact crater, approximately 45 km in diameter, dating back 3.8 to 4 billion years, that once housed a lake, as supported by its two inlet valleys, delta fan formations, and an outlet valley on the eastern side.”
“Since its landing, Perseverance has traversed the igneous crater floor, ascended western alluvial fan deposits, crossed olivine- and carbonate-rich margins, and entered the western inlet valley known as the Neretva Valley.”
In their comprehensive study, Dr. Manerski and colleagues employed lasers, infrared spectrometers, and X-ray spectrometers onboard Perseverance to analyze 126 sedimentary rock samples and eight rock surfaces in the Neretva Valley.
They discovered nickel in 32 rocks at concentrations reaching up to 1.1% by weight, marking the highest level ever recorded in Martian rock.
The team noted that nickel tends to occur alongside iron sulfide compounds and sulfate minerals resulting from the breakdown of rocks such as jarosite and acanite.
Researchers drew parallels between the nickel-rich iron sulfide arrangements found in the Neretva Valley and the composition and structure of pyrite, an iron sulfide mineral observed in sedimentary rocks worldwide.
Iron sulfide found in Earth’s sedimentary rocks is predominantly produced by the anaerobic respiration of microorganisms that utilize sulfate in the presence of iron-rich minerals.
Previous investigations identified iron sulfide in the Neretva Valley, coinciding with organic carbon compounds and suggested these may have originated from biological sources.
“Although, such formations can also arise from non-biological processes,” the scientists noted.
“Our current research hasn’t provided evidence of any organisms being present.”
“Nickel is a vital element in the enzymes of many ancient archaeal and bacterial species, playing crucial roles in energy production, carbon fixation, and organic matter decomposition.”
“The identification of nickel-rich rocks implies that if life existed on early Mars, nickel was potentially available in forms usable by these organisms.”
“The nickel may stem from the breakdown of igneous rocks or from nickel-rich meteorites.”
“More research is essential to pinpoint the source of nickel in the Neretva Gorge and to examine its relationship with organic matter at this location.”
Results from this study were published in this week’s issue of Nature Communications.
_____
HT Manerski et al. 2026. Strong nickel enrichment coexists with redox and organic interactions in Neretva Canyon on Mars. Nat Commun 17, 2705; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70081-3
Recent archival data from ESA’s Cassini mission reveals that Saturn’s magnetic bubble is asymmetrically shaped, influenced not only by the solar wind but also by Saturn’s rapid rotation and the material emitted by its moons.
A diagram illustrating Saturn’s magnetosphere configuration affected by solar wind and rapid rotation. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69666-9.
Saturn’s magnetosphere serves as a shield, protecting the planet from highly charged particles in the solar wind.
Its magnetic footprint is vast, spanning over 10 times the width of Saturn.
A study led by Professor Andrew Coates from University College London analyzed six years of Cassini data to precisely locate Saturn’s cusp, the point where magnetic fields bend towards the planet’s poles and charged particles descend into its atmosphere.
The researchers discovered that this cusp is displaced to the right from the sun’s perspective, typically found between 1 PM and 3 PM (akin to a clock face), compared to the 12 PM position seen on Earth.
This asymmetry is attributed to Saturn’s rapid rotation, which completes a cycle in just 10.7 hours, along with the dense plasma environment resulting from its moons, especially Enceladus.
These factors contribute to pulling the magnetic field lines to the right, though further simulations are needed for validation.
Enceladus, known for its icy plumes erupting from subsurface oceans, holds potential for extraterrestrial life. Saturn’s diverse environment is particularly intriguing as it is slated to be the focus of a significant ESA mission launching in the 2040s.
“The cusp allows the solar wind direct access into the magnetosphere,” states Professor Coates.
“Understanding the location of Saturn’s cusp is crucial for mapping its entire magnetic bubble.”
“Gaining deeper insights into Saturn’s environment is increasingly important as we prepare for missions returning to Saturn and its moon Enceladus.”
“These findings invigorate our enthusiasm for future explorations.”
“This time, we will search for signs of habitability and potential life.”
“The study supports the long-held theory that the rapid rotation of gas giants like Saturn, coupled with their active moons, displaces the solar wind, shaping their magnetospheres differently than Earth’s.”
“This suggests that gas giants like Saturn have unique magnetospheric behaviors compared to Earth.”
“Enceladus is a significant contributor to this dynamic, emitting substantial water vapor that ionizes and infuses the magnetosphere with heavy plasma, further influenced by Saturn’s rotation.”
“The contrasts between Saturn’s and Earth’s magnetic structures imply a fundamental process governing solar wind interactions among different planets,” explains Professor Zhonghua Yao from the University of Hong Kong.
“Comprehensive observations of Earth elucidate its mechanisms, while comparative studies across planets unveil fundamental laws applicable to understanding other celestial environments, including exoplanets.”
“By integrating Cassini’s observations with simulations, we illustrate how Saturn’s rapid rotation and Enceladus’s plasma emissions contribute to the asymmetric global distribution of cusps,” says researcher Dr. Yang Xu from Southern University of Science and Technology.
“We aim for this research to serve as a crucial reference for future explorations of Jupiter and Saturn’s environments.”
Recent analysis of NASA’s Parker Solar Probe data reveals that protons and heavy ions react differently during solar magnetic reconnection events, highlighting the complexity of space weather mechanisms.
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe approaches the Sun. Image credit: NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio.
Magnetic reconnection transforms magnetic energy into explosive kinetic energy, fueling various solar phenomena that significantly impact space weather affecting Earth.
This process energizes protons and heavy ions, propelling them from the Sun at extraordinary speeds.
While current models assume uniform particle behavior, new insights from the Parker Solar Probe indicate significant differences in particle acceleration.
Heavy ions are projected straight, resembling a laser beam, whereas protons generate waves that scatter trailing particles in a dispersive pattern—much like the effect of a flashlight.
“These new findings redefine our understanding of magnetic reconnection,” stated Dr. Mihir Desai, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute and the University of Texas at San Antonio.
“Protons and heavy ions show distinct spectral behaviors that challenge existing models.”
“Protons create scattered waves more efficiently, while heavy ions maintain a focused beam and preserve their accelerated spectral shape.”
“Magnetic reconnection is a common phenomenon throughout the universe, where magnetic field lines converge, separate, and rejoin.”
“Within the Sun, explosive processes energize particles, generating high-velocity streams that lead to space weather phenomena like solar flares and coronal mass ejections.”
“Such space weather can disrupt Earth’s space environment, resulting in breathtaking auroras but also affecting power grids, satellite communications, and navigation systems.”
“Understanding the mechanics of magnetic reconnection is crucial for predicting hazardous events and safeguarding both life and technological assets on Earth and in space.”
“Our findings reveal that the Sun’s ‘magnetic engine’ is far more intricate than previously thought,” Dr. Desai added.
“This is thrilling as it shows that our own star acts as an accessible laboratory for high-energy physics, similar to the processes that drive some of the universe’s most intense phenomena, like black holes and supernovae.”
For more details, refer to the study results, published on March 31st in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
_____
MI Desai et al. 2026. Acceleration of protons and heavy ions by magnetic reconnection in the near-solar heliospheric current sheet. APJ 1000, 300; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae48f2
Harvard University paleontologists have identified a large predatory arthropod from the mid-Cambrian period in Utah, known as Megachelyserax custoi. Distinguished by its impressive three-pronged chelicerae, this soft-bodied creature pushes back the lineage of spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders by 20 million years, making it the oldest known member of the chelicerate family.
The intricate anatomy of Megachelyserax custoi. Image credit: Masato Hattori/Harvard University.
The fossil of Megachelyserax custoi was unearthed in the Middle Cambrian Wheeler Formation within the House Mountains of Utah.
Measuring just over 8 cm (3.1 inches) in length, this specimen features a preserved head shield and a nine-segmented dorsal exoskeleton.
These anatomical regions exhibit distinct appendages: the head shield contains six pairs of limbs tailored for feeding and sensory functions, while the underbody boasts plate-like respiratory structures akin to modern horseshoe crab gills.
One of its most remarkable characteristics is the chelicerae—pincer-like feeding appendages that are a defining feature of the chelicerate lineage and set spiders apart from insects.
Insects possess sensory antennae as their foremost appendages, while chelicerates are equipped with grasping features, often with venomous capabilities.
Despite the extensive fossil record from the Cambrian era, no other distinct chelicerae-bearing arthropods have been discovered until now.
Harvard paleontologist Rudy LeRochy-Aubril stated, “This fossil confirms that the Cambrian origins of chelicerates were already established 500 million years ago, showcasing anatomical designs seen in modern spiders and horseshoe crabs.”
Prior to this groundbreaking discovery, the earliest known chelidae dated back to the Early Ordovician Fezuata biota in Morocco, approximately 480 million years ago.
The existence of Megachelyserax custoi places it as an early branch in the chelicerate family tree, emerging 20 million years earlier than previously thought. It serves as a crucial transitional species between primitive Cambrian arthropods, which lacked chelicerae, and the more recent horseshoe crab-like chelicerates, referred to as syndiphosphrines.
According to Dr. Javier Ortega Hernández, also from Harvard University, “Megachelyserax custoi illustrates the evolution of chelicerae and the specialization of body regions occurring before the anterior appendages simplified into structures resembling contemporary spider legs.” He added, “This reconciles several competing evolutionary hypotheses, indicating that multiple theories may contain elements of truth.”
This fossil highlights a pivotal phase in the development of the scissor-like body plan, indicating that integral features began evolving shortly after the Cambrian Explosion, a period recognized for its rapid evolutionary advancements.
Dr. Ortega-Hernández remarked, “By the mid-Cambrian era, when evolutionary rates were notably elevated, arthropods exhibiting anatomical complexity similar to modern species were already populating the oceans.” Interestingly, this early development of complex anatomy did not lead to immediate ecological advantages or diversification.
“Chelodons remained relatively obscure for millions of years, overshadowed by simpler groups like trilobites, until they adapted to terrestrial life,” he added.
Dr. Lerosy-Aubril concluded, “This discovery emphasizes that biological innovation is insufficient for evolutionary success; timing and environmental conditions play crucial roles.”
The findings regarding Megachelyserax custoi are detailed in a study published in the journal Nature.
_____
R. Lerosy-Aubril & J. Ortega-Hernandez. Arthropods with chelicerates reveal a Cambrian origin of chelicerates. Nature published online on April 1, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10284-2
Astronomers utilizing the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrometer (IGRINS) at the International Gemini Observatory’s Gemini South Telescope have made groundbreaking discoveries regarding WASP-189b’s atmospheric composition. Their findings indicate that the planet’s elemental composition closely aligns with that of its host star, offering compelling evidence that the planet inherits its chemical makeup from the protoplanetary disk from which it formed.
Artist’s impression of super-hot Jupiter. Image credit: Sci.News.
WASP-189, classified as a 730-million-year-old A-type star, is located 322 light-years away in the constellation Libra.
Also known as HD 133112, this star is significantly larger than our Sun and boasts a temperature exceeding 2,000 degrees Celsius.
First discovered in 2018, WASP-189b is a gas giant that orbits its star at a distance roughly 1.6 times that of Jupiter.
This exotic planet lies about 20 times closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun, completing an orbit in a mere 2.7 days.
According to Arizona State University graduate student Jorge Antonio Sanchez and colleagues, “Superhot Jupiter has temperatures sufficient to vaporize rock-forming elements, such as magnesium, silicon, and iron. This presents a unique opportunity to observe these elements through spectroscopy, a technique that identifies chemicals by analyzing light spectra.”
The astronomers harnessed the IGRINS instrument to capture high-resolution thermal emission spectra of WASP-189b.
They successfully identified neutral iron, magnesium, silicon, water, carbon monoxide, and hydroxyl groups within the exoplanet’s atmosphere.
“The IGRINS data reveals that WASP-189b exhibits a magnesium to silicon ratio identical to that of its host star,” they noted.
This pivotal finding offers the first observational evidence supporting a commonly held hypothesis regarding planetary formation, paving the way for deeper insights into exoplanet creation and evolution.
Gas giants like WASP-189b are believed to possess outer gas layers whose chemical makeup is heavily influenced by the protoplanetary disk from which they originated.
Researchers suspect that the ratio of rock-forming elements in the protoplanetary disk mirrors that of the host star, as they formed from the same primordial matter cloud.
This inferred chemical connection between a star and its surrounding planets is frequently utilized to model the composition of rocky exoplanets.
Previously observed only within our solar system, this link has now been directly documented on distant planets.
“WASP-189b represents a critical observational milestone in understanding terrestrial planet formation, as it allows for measurable quantities to confirm the similarities in stellar composition and the proportion of rocky materials that form alongside planets,” Sanchez stated.
Dr. Michael Rhine, an astronomer at Arizona State University, added, “Our study showcases the capabilities of ground-based, high-resolution spectrometers to analyze key species like magnesium and silicon, two essential elements in rocky planet formation. This advancement opens a new frontier in exoplanet atmospheric studies.”
The findings of this research were published in a paper in the journal Nature Communications on February 18, 2026.
_____
JA Sanchez et al. 2026. The magnesium to silicon ratio in the exoplanet’s atmosphere. Nat Commune 17, 2902; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69610-x
Unfortunately, Internet Explorer 11 is not supported. For an optimal browsing experience, please use a modern browser.
President Trump Congratulates Astronauts on NASA Artemis II Mission
00:36
Current Highlight
Dr. Harrison Schmidt, Apollo 17 astronaut and the last person to walk on the moon, discusses his experiences, moon rock samples, and the significance of the Artemis II mission for future generations. April 1, 2026
Upcoming Video
President Trump Congratulates Astronauts on NASA Artemis II Mission
When it comes to advice for the four NASA astronauts poised to embark on their lunar voyage this Wednesday, Harrison Schmidt is undoubtedly the expert you want to hear from.
Subscribe to read this story without ads
Get unlimited access to ad-free articles and exclusive content.
At 90 years old, Schmidt made history when he walked on the moon during Apollo 17 in 1972, the last human mission to our lunar neighbor.
NASA’s Artemis II mission is set to launch on Wednesday at 6:24 PM, marking a new chapter in lunar exploration. The mission aims to orbit the moon, paving the way for a future landing in 2028, mirroring Apollo 8’s pivotal role for Apollo 11.
According to Schmidt, the Artemis II astronauts will encounter many of the surreal vistas he experienced over fifty years ago.
“Every day, every hour, every minute is a new experience,” Schmidt remarked in an interview with NBC News.
Mr. Schmidt today. NBC News
To the Artemis II team, Schmidt advises: “Train well. Be prepared for the unexpected. But most importantly, have fun.”
Since the days of Apollo 17, much has changed. At that time, Schmidt and the crew were entrenched in a space race against the Soviet Union, whereas NASA is now in competition with China, which has its sights set on landing astronauts on the moon by 2030.
The Apollo 17 crew spent nearly 13 days in space, including three on the moon, traveling 30 kilometers on the lunar rover, the furthest any crew has gone, while collecting a record-breaking 243 pounds of geological samples.
Astronaut Harrison H. Schmidt, Lunar Module Pilot, aboard the Lunar Module LM before it lifts off from the moon in 1972. Eugene A. Cernan/NASA
Schmidt recounts the unforgettable experience of entering lunar orbit in darkness on the moon’s far side, shielded from Earth’s view.
“As we were landing on the east side of the moon with the sun barely peeking over the horizon, stepping into that incredible darkness was surreal. The moon was visibly illuminated by Earth’s light, casting a beautiful bluish hue,” Schmidt reminisced.
Schmidt stands near the U.S. flag on the moon during a spacewalk on December 13, 1972. JSC/NASA
The Artemis II astronauts will have an unprecedented view of the moon’s far side.
“We’ve discovered that roughly 60% of the far side has never been seen by human eyes due to its lighting conditions,” remarked Reed Wiseman, the Artemis II mission commander. “Apollo focused on lighting for landings on the near side, but this moonwalk offers a different perspective. It’s truly remarkable.”
Following Apollo 17’s conclusion, the U.S. shifted its focus away from sustaining a human presence on the moon. The 1970s budget cuts led to the cancellation of further Apollo missions, prompting a priority shift toward the space station.
The crew of Apollo 17 captured this view of Earth on December 7, 1972, while heading toward the moon. JSC/NASA
Unlike the Apollo missions, NASA’s Artemis program intends to establish a sustainable lunar presence, laying the groundwork for future missions to Mars.
“It wouldn’t surprise me if we see people live on the moon for months or even years within our lifetime,” Schmidt expressed. “Mars is within our reach, and we will continue pushing forward.”
What fuels his optimism? “As humans, exploration is ingrained in our nature,” Schmidt asserted.
“From our origins in Africa to the present, the drive to explore and expand is deeply embedded within us,” he concludes.
Schmidt trained in the Lunar Module Simulator at Kennedy Space Center before the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. NASA
As Apollo 17 ventured away from the moon, Commander Gene Cernan remarked: “We depart just as we came; with God’s will, we will return carrying peace and hope for all mankind.”
If everything goes according to plan, Artemis II will be a significant stride in that journey. By the mission’s sixth day, the crew expects to come within just 6,000 miles of the moon’s surface, potentially reaching farther from Earth than any human has traveled before.
“This mission is essential for our nation,” Schmidt asserts. “China is clearly vying for space control, just as it is on Earth. Thus, this national initiative must be executed effectively.”
The highly anticipated Artemis II event will mark the family’s first opportunity to witness a rocket launch in person. Aaron plans to drive to Titusville, searching for a less crowded viewing spot for optimal viewing.
The surge of tourists flocking to central Florida is a significant boost for the local economy, although heavy traffic remains a challenge.
Beachfront hotels have been fully booked for weeks, if not months. Many local businesses are participating in the launch festivities, enhancing the community spirit.
The Ace Hardware sign in Titusville showcases a photo of an astronaut, advertising essential launch viewing supplies. A Cocoa Beach shop is offering commemorative items, including Artemis II Aloha shirts.
In addition, Playalinda Brewing Company has crafted a themed pale ale named Artemis IIPA.
“In 2022, Playalinda released Artemis Pale Ale, and with this new venture, we wanted to take it a step further, launching Artemis II Double IPA,” said Ronnie Chabot, one of the brewery’s four owners and operators.
After the beer went on sale on February 3, ahead of the initial launch window targeted by NASA, Chabot reported that both cans and draft beer sold out within days. The beer features a retro label showcasing a Space Launch System rocket and Orion spacecraft, complete with an “Easter egg” for space enthusiasts—the moon depicted in its phase during the launch of Artemis II.
When NASA was forced to abandon the opening launch opportunity that same month, Playalinda decided to produce a larger batch. These cans also sold out swiftly.
“It was the fastest-selling item at the brewery,” Chabot noted.
If all goes according to plan, the Artemis II astronauts will embark on a three-day journey to the moon.
Their significant milestone is set for Monday, when they will fly around the moon. This historic maneuver will enable humans to travel farther from Earth than ever before, potentially breaking the distance record of 248,655 miles established by Apollo 13 astronauts in 1970.
During the flyby, the Artemis II crew will approach within 4,000 to 6,000 miles of the moon’s surface. According to NASA, from this vantage point, the moon will appear roughly the size of a basketball held at arm’s length.
As they orbit the moon, the astronauts will observe portions of the moon’s surface for the first time through human eyes, specifically the far side of the moon that is never visible from Earth.
Following the orbit, the astronauts will conclude their mission with a return flight to Earth, culminating in a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean near San Diego on April 10th.
The Artemis II mission is a crucial element of NASA’s plans to return astronauts to the moon and establish a sustainable human presence there, with future aspirations to construct a lunar base.
October 2025: Viewers witness a launch from Launch Facility 39B at Kennedy Space Center. Image Credit: Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images
In 2024, NASA plans to launch the Artemis III mission, which will utilize a commercially built lunar lander to demonstrate technology in low Earth orbit. Companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin are developing landers to transport NASA astronauts from lunar orbit to the moon’s surface.
Following Artemis III, NASA intends to launch the Artemis IV mission with the goal of landing on the moon sometime in 2028.
Artemis II Mission Launch from Kennedy Space Center
AFP (via Getty Images)
The highly anticipated Artemis II mission marks humanity’s first crewed journey to the moon since the Apollo program ceased in 1972. Set to launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on April 1, this groundbreaking mission will take four astronauts further into space than ever before.
This mission represents NASA’s second flight of its Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion crew capsule, showcasing its first crewed operation following the successful unmanned Artemis I mission in 2022 that circled the moon.
Upon launch, NASA astronauts Reed Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen will spend the initial two days in Earth orbit, testing the spacecraft’s systems. A critical aspect of these tests is to maneuver the Orion capsule for docking with an older spacecraft, a process that will require astronaut control for safety.
“We may need to intervene if docking doesn’t go as planned,” Glover mentioned during a press conference on March 29. “Our goal is to ensure we can manage any unexpected situations.”
After completing these tests, Orion will embark on its lunar orbit, reaching a maximum distance of approximately 402,000 kilometers from Earth, surpassing the record set by Apollo 13 in 1970. This orbit will provide astronauts with an unprecedented view of the moon’s hidden regions due to favorable lighting conditions.
The entire mission is expected to span approximately 10 days before the Orion capsule returns safely to Earth. Looking ahead, the next phase—Artemis III—is slated for 2027, which will involve testing the lunar module’s docking system but will remain in Earth’s orbit, instead of landing on the moon as initially proposed. The following Artemis IV mission in 2028 aims to achieve a moon landing.
“Our team’s primary objective has always been to ensure the success of Artemis III,” Wiseman stated in a press release. These ongoing missions are essential for establishing a permanent lunar presence, with NASA officials envisioning human habitation on the moon for years to come.
“We genuinely hope that this mission opens the doors to a new era where everyone on Earth can view the moon as a reachable destination,” Koch added, emphasizing the mission’s significance.
The Shroud of Turin is engraved with an image resembling Jesus Christ.
Public Domain/Art Collection 2/Alamy
Recent DNA analysis has unveiled a significant number of contaminants—animal, plant, and human—on the Shroud of Turin, which complicates the narrative surrounding this enigmatic relic, believed to be the cloth in which Jesus Christ was wrapped following his crucifixion over 2,000 years ago.
Stretching 4.4 meters long and 1.1 meters wide, the Shroud of Turin is considered one of the most renowned and debated Christian artifacts globally. Its first documented appearance was in France during 1354, after which it resided for nearly 5,000 years in the Basilica of St. John the Baptist in Turin, Italy.
In 1988, researchers conducted radiocarbon dating along with accelerator mass spectrometry techniques, concluding that the Shroud was created between 1260 and 1390. This finding brought into question the identity of the figure depicted on the cloth as Jesus, although many Christian scholars continue to dispute this late medieval dating.
In a 2015 study by Gianni Barcaccia and colleagues from the University of Padova in Italy, material from the artifacts sampled in 1978 was reexamined. The researchers first proposed the possibility that the cloth may have origins in India.
Currently, Mr. Barcaccia—who opted not to be interviewed for this publication—has spearheaded a new analysis of the material from 1978, revealing that the Shroud contains a remarkable spectrum of medieval and modern DNA.
The genetic materials identified include DNA from domestic animals like cats, dogs, chickens, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, and horses, alongside wild species such as deer and rabbits.
Additionally, traces of various fish species such as mullet, Atlantic cod, and stingrays were discovered, as well as marine crustaceans, flies, aphids, and arachnids like dust and skin mites.
Common plant DNA located within the Shroud includes species like carrots, wheat, peppers, tomatoes, and potatoes, suggesting these were possibly introduced to Europe following exploratory voyages to Asia and the Americas.
However, pinpointing the timeline of these contaminating events regarding animals and plants remains elusive.
The research team also isolated human DNA from various individuals who came in contact with the Shroud, notably including those from the 1978 sampling. “The presence of multiple individuals’ DNA complicates the task of identifying the Shroud’s original DNA,” the team noted.
Nearly 40% of the human DNA identified on the Shroud appears to be of Indian origin, possibly resulting from historic interactions or from Romans importing linen from regions near the Indus Valley, report Barcaccia and colleagues.
“The DNA findings on the Shroud of Turin indicate extensive exposure in the Mediterranean area, potentially suggesting that the fabric may have been produced in India,” the researchers articulated.
Anders Goeterström from Stockholm University stated that preliminary studies place the Shroud’s date in the 13th century, a timeframe that is widely accepted in the scientific community. “Despite discussions surrounding the 1988 radiocarbon dating, most researchers find it sufficiently credible,” he explained.
Goeterström remains skeptical about the cloth’s potential Indian origins. He asserts, “There is still no compelling evidence to dismiss that the Shroud is French and dates from the 13th or 14th century,” he concluded.
“This significant relic has its own unique history, which might prove to be more intriguing than its legendary roots lacking scientific backing.”
World food prices are reaching unprecedented levels, comparable to the energy crisis of the 1970s. The ongoing conflict in the Middle East is exacerbating inflation, with rising costs for fuel, fertilizers, and pesticides. Are we on the brink of the worst food shock in history?
Many farmers are likely to decrease planting due to soaring costs, possibly leading to food shortages and increased prices later this year. How severe the situation becomes will depend on various factors, including the duration of the conflict and the impact of extreme weather events linked to climate change on crop yields.
“This could escalate into a major crisis for the impoverished and food-insecure,” warns Matin Kaim, a researcher at the University of Bonn, Germany.
“We’re facing a perfect storm. The resolution isn’t straightforward,” states Tim Benton of the University of Leeds, UK. “Even a resolution tomorrow may not yield immediate results, as seen with the post-COVID-19 recovery.”
After decades of decline since the 1970s, global food prices have climbed in real terms since the 2000s, nearing their historic peaks. Climate change intensifies this issue with increasing heatwaves, floods, and storms negatively affecting crop yields, resulting in global food shocks like those observed in 2010. The COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine have also led to significant price spikes.
Rising biofuel production is contributing to increased food prices, with over 5% of food calories now converted into fuel. Some governments have acknowledged the need to reduce food-based biofuels; however, a report suggests that by 2030, 92% of biofuels will still rely on food sources.
Currently, due to US and Israeli actions against Iran, there’s a significant depletion of essential raw materials for food production and distribution. Fuel, particularly diesel, is crucial as it powers agricultural equipment and transports food. Consequently, higher oil prices directly influence supermarket prices.
Fertilizers, crucial for global food supply, are also facing shortages. “If we halted the use of mineral fertilizers globally, it could lead to widespread hunger,” notes Keim.
Nitrogen fertilizers are produced using hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen to create ammonia, relying heavily on natural gas for hydrogen and electricity. Qatar, with its abundant natural gas, is a significant fertilizer producer, supplying about 15% of the global urea market. However, due to the conflict, this urea cannot traverse the Strait of Hormuz, thus complicating supply chains.
Countries such as India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, which produce substantial amounts of their fertilizers from Persian Gulf gas, are facing factory shutdowns due to war-related damages. Additionally, Australia’s main fertilizer facilities are currently non-operational due to an incident.
Consequently, nitrogen fertilizer prices have already surged by over 33% and could escalate further. “If fertilizer costs double, food prices could easily rise by 20 to 30%,” warns Keim.
Beyond urea, Gulf states like Qatar and the UAE are also major sulfur fertilizer producers, essential for various regions and for converting mined phosphates into usable forms for plants.
Urea Fertilizer Readied for Export at Yantai Port, China
CN-STR/AFP (via Getty Images)
Pesticides, essential for safeguarding global food production, are also influenced by rising prices tied to naphtha costs, a fossil fuel derivative used in food packaging.
“In March alone, three of the world’s key naphtha export terminals were targeted in drone attacks,” notes Jide Tijani of Argus Media, UK. These include Russia’s Ustiluga port and facilities in Qatar and the UAE.
The consequences of these developments will likely lead to escalated food prices and a range of other commodities in the coming months and years. “The number of affected markets is staggering,” remarks Jason Hill at the University of Minnesota.
Farmers face increasing costs for fuel, fertilizers, and pesticides, all of which affect their planting decisions. Uncertainties regarding profitability may lead farmers to switch crops or abstain from planting altogether. Speculation and profiteering could further compound price rises, according to Jennifer Clapp at the University of Waterloo, Canada.
How severe could the situation become? The dramatic increases in food prices in the 1970s were partly due to dwindling global food reserves, warns Clapp. While reserves are currently sufficient, prolonged conflict could drastically alter this, especially if abnormal weather caused by climate change negatively affects crop yields.
“There is a substantial chance this could escalate into a crisis of equal or greater magnitude,” Clapp asserts. “Significant climate change could worsen the situation further.”
“Food prices are causing distress across the globe, disproportionately affecting lower-income populations who spend a significant portion of their income on food,” notes Keim.
Additionally, international aid is already diminishing and will likely be further curtailed. “Rising food prices often coincide with increased demand for aid, yet the available funding diminishes as costs escalate,” shares Benton.
This rising tide of food prices may lead to social unrest in the most severely impacted regions, as explained by Paul Behrens at Oxford University. “We’ve observed instability in times of rising food costs throughout history.”
Strategies Nations Can Implement to Mitigate Food Shocks
There are strategies to alleviate the situation. “In Europe, around 15 million loaves of bread are produced daily for biofuel,” points out Behrens, calling it an illogical method for energy generation.
As biofuel production primarily hinges on state incentives, governments can curtail its production to divert more food to markets. “This would make a significant difference,” remarks Keim.
He advocates for an international consensus that limits biofuel production from food sources when prices surge. Unfortunately, such actions have not materialized in past crises.
Instead, nations are likely to ramp up biofuel production to counteract rising fuel prices, which could significantly affect food pricing, according to Keim.
Initiatives are already underway; the United States recently announced an increase in the bioethanol proportion in fuels to mitigate price hikes. Australia is also contemplating similar measures.
However, ramping up food-based biofuels won’t substantially impact fuel prices but will dramatically influence food prices. For instance, a third of corn produced in the U.S. is converted into bioethanol, contributing minimally to gasoline supplies but having a disproportionate effect on food availability, asserts Hill.
“Enhancing ethanol in gasoline harkens back to the 1990s—a policy that fails to address air pollution or climate change,” critiques Simon Donner at the University of British Columbia. “Higher oil prices should instead be seen as an opportunity to transition towards cleaner, more advanced technologies like electric vehicles.”
The global community is unlikely to want a repeat of this supply shock. “This situation poses a significant challenge, raising questions on how to build a more resilient system going forward,” Hill emphasizes.
Accelerating the transition to renewable energy and electric vehicles could leave economies vulnerable to oil price shocks. Furthermore, there’s a need to transform the chemical industry to reduce fossil fuel dependence.
In terms of nitrogen fertilizers, this means generating them from electricity rather than natural gas. “It’s feasible to produce ammonia with zero greenhouse gas emissions,” states Ryan. “The technology exists; the challenge is harnessing enough renewable energy.”
Demand for electricity is surging, especially for data centers supporting AI technology. This scenario is unlikely to improve unless there’s a significant decline in AI development.
In the meantime, there are several ways to optimize fertilizer use. Excessive fertilizer application in many regions leads to runoff into water systems or the release of nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. Techniques to mitigate overuse include precision agriculture, crop rotation with legumes, and the development of crops that utilize fertilizers more effectively.
“We need to promote a more sustainable farming system,” Keim concludes, highlighting that sustainability does not automatically mean organic practices. A shift to organic farming could dramatically elevate food prices and contribute to deforestation, given the need for additional farmland.
“A fundamental change in our food system is imperative,” asserts Behrens. This includes modifying our dietary habits—favoring protein sources such as beans and legumes over grain-fed meat, which require significant fertilizer input. “This transition could yield substantial benefits,” he emphasizes.
Topics:
Eating and Drinking/
Agriculture
This rewrite maintains the original HTML structure while optimizing content for SEO by incorporating relevant keywords and enhancing readability.
Olive Oil: A Key Ingredient in a Brain-Boosting Diet
Alexander Prokopenko/Shutterstock
Understanding the health benefits of olive oil is essential, as it not only lowers “bad cholesterol” but also combats inflammation and safeguards against chronic diseases, including various cancers. Recent studies indicate that its advantages may extend to brain health.
What does this mean for cognitive function? Is extra virgin olive oil really necessary, and how much should one consume for optimal benefits? The answers may be more encouraging than you think, as other oils may also support brain health.
It’s important to remember that nutrition research is complex and often unreliable. For instance, participants may struggle to accurately track their food intake, leading to unreliable data. However, some patterns emerge from observational studies, especially when experimental research reinforces these findings.
Olive oil is a fundamental component of the widely acclaimed Mediterranean diet, renowned for promoting health. This diet encourages the consumption of tomatoes, whole grains, fresh fish, and generous amounts of olive oil, occasionally paired with red wine. Numerous studies link this lifestyle to reduced rates of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and even dementia.
The Mediterranean diet is particularly high in fats, primarily from olive oil, prompting scientists to investigate its specific role. According to nutrition specialist Richard Hoffman from the University of Hertfordshire, England, “The Mediterranean diet is significantly more effective when enhanced by extra virgin olive oil.”
A landmark study in Spain involved over 7,000 participants aged 55 to 80. One group ingested 1 liter of extra virgin olive oil weekly while adhering to a Mediterranean diet. Others either supplemented their meals with nuts or were advised to reduce fat intake.
Current consensus among scientists suggests that olive oil can mitigate inflammation and enhance cardiovascular health. But how does it affect the brain?
A large-scale study published in 2024 examined over 92,000 adults, evaluating their olive oil consumption every four years for around 30 years. Findings revealed that higher olive oil intake was linked to a lower risk of dementia-related mortality.
Even after accounting for variables like BMI, physical activity, smoking, socio-economic status, and overall diet, a connection remained between olive oil consumption and reduced dementia risk.
Further analysis showed benefits from substituting other fats with olive oil. According to Marta Guasch-Ferré from Harvard University, “Replacing butter or other animal fats with olive oil resulted in an 8-14% decrease in dementia-related mortality risk.”
The Mediterranean Diet: Lowering Disease Risks with Olive Oil
Imaging Ltd./NurPhoto (via Getty Images)
Olive oil’s protective properties for the brain are attributed to polyphenols, which are abundant in this oil. These bioactive compounds shield plants from stress and pests and may do the same for humans by scavenging free radicals, reducing inflammation, and preventing harmful oxidation of fats that can lead to strokes.
Additionally, polyphenols nourish gut microbes, interacting with the immune system to minimize inflammation. Chronic inflammation is a major contributor to significant health issues, including heart disease and dementia, with growing evidence linking Alzheimer’s disease to inflammation in various organs.
According to Guash-Ferré, “Evidence is accumulating to support that olive oil may alleviate Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative conditions.”
Which Olive Oil is the Best for You?
It’s essential to differentiate among olive oils. Extra virgin olive oil is the least processed, retaining the most polyphenols. In contrast, virgin olive oil is subjected to more processing, while standard variety is processed extensively, losing many health benefits.
Is the type of olive oil significant? Guasch-Ferré indicates that any olive oil consumption correlates with a lower risk of mortality. The mix of healthy unsaturated fats and beneficial bioactive compounds positions olive oil as a premier plant-based oil.
A recent study explored how different olive oils impacted the microbiome and cognitive health of seniors. It evaluated 656 individuals, revealing that those consuming virgin olive oil showed cognitive improvements. In contrast, participants using standard olive oil experienced cognitive decline. Interestingly, this was linked to changes in the gut microbiome, with specific bacteria mediating some effects.
While this research is preliminary and involved a short follow-up period, it emphasizes the connection between diet, gut health, and brain function.
So what should you take away? While standard olive oil offers some cardiovascular benefits due to its favorable fat profile, extra virgin olive oil provides additional protective compounds. The great news is that other vegetable oils, such as canola and safflower, also contain beneficial fats and moderate polyphenol levels. In substitution models, Guasch-Ferré’s team found no cognitive health drawbacks from these oils compared to animal fats.
“Other vegetable oils can also provide health benefits, especially as they are typically more affordable than olive oil,” she notes. However, further research is warranted for conclusive guidance.
Ultimately, select the highest quality extra virgin olive oil that fits your budget. Although if that’s not feasible, replacing animal fats with other vegetable oils is a beneficial step toward brain health. If you aim for premium quality, pay attention to storage; light reduces polyphenol levels over time, so choosing a dark bottle is advisable for optimum health advantages.
I’m willing to invest a little more in high-quality extra virgin olive oil, not only for its rich flavor but also for its profound brain-health benefits.
Here’s a rewritten, SEO-optimized version of your content while preserving the HTML tags:
Exploring autoimmune responses during coronavirus infections
Science Photo Library
Emerging research indicates that prolonged COVID-19 infections may stem from the immune system attacking healthy tissue. Insights from four recent studies highlight autoimmunity as a potential contributor, especially in cases where intense pain is a prominent symptom.
This revelation could pave the way for urgently needed treatments, currently non-existent in the UK and US. “We must explore removing antibodies from patients to see if symptoms abate,” asserts Niels Eikelkamp from Utrecht University, Netherlands.
<p>While most individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 recover swiftly, a subset experiences prolonged symptoms lasting months or years. Common complaints include fatigue, chronic pain, brain fog, and excessive tiredness following minimal exertion.</p>
<p>Researchers have pinpointed various potential mechanisms behind long COVID, such as persistent SARS-CoV-2 presence and gut microbiome dysfunction. These factors may be involved in diverse combinations within individuals, complicating the search for effective universal treatments.</p>
<p>A frequently discussed mechanism is autoimmunity, in which the immune system mistakenly targets the body. Typically, antibodies are designed to eliminate pathogens; however, autoantibodies can erroneously attach to the body’s own cells.</p>
<section></section>
<p>Initial indications of autoantibodies playing a role in prolonged COVID-19 cases emerged from studies conducted in 2023. Apheresis treatments on individuals with long-term coronavirus infection showed reductions in autoantibody levels and improvements in symptoms, yet the exact substances responsible remain undetermined due to the broad spectrum of removals.</p>
<p>Eikelkamp and his team now provide robust evidence that autoantibodies can prolong COVID-19 symptoms. Their 2022 study involved 34 participants experiencing long COVID, and 15 who had recovered. The focus was on immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies, which were administered to mice.</p>
<p>Mice injected with IgG from long COVID patients displayed heightened sensitivity to touch and pain, removing their paws from hot surfaces more quickly than those who received antibodies from non-long COVID participants. Eikelkamp noted that this aligns with symptoms reported by long COVID patients.</p>
<p>In 2024, the team repeated the experiment with IgG from 19 long COVID patients, confirming similar results. "These autoantibodies persist in the patient’s body," comments <a href="https://www.unamur.be/en/profil/nicaisec">Charles Nicaise</a>, who participated in another study from the University of Namur, Belgium.</p>
<p>This aligns with findings from three other preliminary studies. One led by <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu/profile/akiko-iwasaki/">Akiko Iwasaki</a> at Yale University found elevated autoantibody levels in patients with both long COVID and neurological symptoms. Mice injected with these antibodies also exhibited similar pain and balance issues.</p>
<p>The two remaining studies, published in November 2025, found that mice injected with IgG from long COVID patients demonstrated decreased skin nerve fiber density, indicating nerve damage, and heightened sensitivity to cold and touch.</p>
<p>Ongoing research by Nicaise's team has found that IgG from long COVID patients leads to increased pain sensitivity in mice, with IgG accumulating around neurons involved in relaying sensory information, especially pain.</p>
<p>To transform these findings into effective treatments, it's crucial to identify which specific types of IgG are implicated in symptoms. Iwasaki's experiments have spotlighted two particular target proteins, MED20 and USP5.</p>
<p>Furthermore, it's essential to assess whether removing or inhibiting the activity of these autoantibodies alleviates symptoms. <a href="https://www.amsterdamumc.org/en/research/researchers/brent-appelman">Brent Appelman</a> from Eikelkamp’s team studies the effects of filtering these autoantibodies from patients' blood. While Eikelkamp acknowledges that apheresis isn’t a permanent solution—requiring hospital visits every few months—he views it as a promising proof of concept paving the way for more advanced medical therapies.</p>
<section class="ArticleTopics" data-component-name="article-topics">
<p class="ArticleTopics__Heading">Topics:</p>
</section>
Key SEO Strategies Implemented:
Descriptive Alt Text: Updated alt attributes for better search engine understanding.
Use of Keywords: Included keywords like “long COVID,” “autoimmunity,” and “SARS-CoV-2” naturally throughout the content.
Internal Linking: Retained hyperlinks to reputable sources for credibility.
Subheadings and Paragraphs: Organized content into more digestible sections and more logical flow for readers.
Engaging Intro and Conclusion: Added an engaging intro capturing key themes to improve click-through rates.
Genetically Modified Tobacco Plants Yield Five Psychedelic Compounds
Aharoni Laboratory, Weizmann Institute of Science
Researchers at the Weizmann Institute of Science have transformed tobacco plants to produce five powerful psychedelic compounds typically derived from other plants and fungi. This innovative approach is argued to be more sustainable and efficient, facilitating the research of therapeutic applications and future medicinal production.
Asaf Aharoni and his team utilized a technique known as agroinfiltration, where bacteria are utilized to introduce genes from various organisms into benthamiana tobacco. Although this method results in temporary production of desired proteins, as the DNA isn’t integrated into the plant’s genome, it serves as a stepping stone in biotechnology.
By introducing nine specific genes, the modified plants are capable of producing psilocin and psilocybin, compounds found in certain mushrooms, alongside DMT, bufotenine, and 5-methoxy-DMT, which are derived from plants and Colorado River toads (Incilius Alvarius).
Though permanent genetic modifications could be devised for these plants, Aharoni notes the complications due to the recreational nature of the generated compounds: “It’s challenging to inherit the traits, yet demand for seed may arise.” Similar methods had been applied to tomatoes, potatoes, and corn.
The medical landscape for psychedelic compounds is gradually evolving. Aharoni highlights that while harvesting these substances from nature poses a risk of depleting habitats, the cultivation of tobacco in controlled environments would mitigate this concern and streamline production for research.
The strategy of “pharmaceutical agriculture” isn’t a novel concept. The United States approved plant-derived protein medicines in 2012, and by 2002, corn was engineered to produce pharmaceutical proteins. Noteworthy, a 2022 study revealed that tobacco can also synthesize cocaine, yielding about 400 nanograms per milligram of dried leaves—substantially lower than coca plants.
According to researchers like Rupert Frey, approximately 25% of prescription medications are derived from plants, highlighting the potential for “green factories” where new compounds are cultivated in greenhouses. Frey asserts, “Understanding how to create these compounds is vital, demonstrating the capabilities of a tobacco-based system.”
At dusk, a massive transfer of biomass occurs in the oceans, as trillions of tiny creatures like zooplankton, krill, and lanternfish rise from the depths, drawn by phytoplankton blooms. This nocturnal feeding frenzy is crucial for marine ecosystems, as these creatures avoid predators who hunt visually, diving back down at dawn.
Solar and lunar cycles dictate marine behavior, yet recent observations show that large areas of the ocean have darkened. Tim Smith, a marine scientist at the Plymouth Marine Research Institute, has been at the forefront of this research, studying the impact of global warming and land-use changes on ocean light dynamics.
Smith told New Scientist about the causes and implications of ocean darkening, exploring ways to enhance light penetration into underwater habitats.
Thomas Luton: How did you first notice the darkening of the ocean?
Tim Smith: We approached this issue from a unique perspective. For the last decade, I’ve collaborated with Tom Davis, focusing on the effects of artificial light pollution. Analyzing two decades of global satellite data revealed a consistent darkening pattern in the ocean, suggesting an increase in surface water opacity which affects well-connected expansive regions rather than isolated patches. About one-fifth of the world’s oceans have experienced some form of darkening.
What causes ocean darkening?
In coastal areas, river changes significantly impact ocean coloration. Alterations in land use directly influence what enters rivers, thereby transforming the optical properties of ocean water. Flood events can greatly increase the influx of suspended particulates and colored dissolved organic matter, contributing to the characteristic “steeped tea” color.
An additional driver of ocean darkening is nutrient loading, where fertilizers from agricultural runoff stimulate phytoplankton growth, reducing light penetration. Although coastal waters have been recognized as darkening for some time, the phenomenon is now extending into the open ocean.
Tim Smith studies the impact of land-use change and global warming on ocean dynamics.
Krave Getsi
What factors lead to changes in the open ocean?
These changes may correlate with the abundance of phytoplankton driven by climate change, such as rising ocean temperatures and increasing frequency of marine heatwaves. Climate alterations influence vast ocean circulation patterns significantly.
The proliferation of phytoplankton relies on a mix of light, nutrients, temperature, and water column dynamics. In winter, storms typically mix the ocean, but as spring arrives, a stable surface layer forms. These layers limit vertical mixing and enhance light and nutrient concentration, fostering phytoplankton growth.
I suspect that we’re witnessing a complex interplay between shifts in global circulation patterns and localized weather phenomena, such as clearer skies that promote phytoplankton growth. This combination may contribute to the widespread darkening of the open ocean.
What impacts does ocean darkening have on marine ecosystems?
To understand this better, consider the ocean’s food chain. Phytoplankton, the primary producers, experience the first effects of darkening. The next tier includes zooplankton, like Calanus copepods, which serve as a critical link in the food web and engage in diurnal vertical migration, moving up and down daily for feeding.
Zooplankton are a key component in the food web adversely affected by ocean darkening.
Flor Lee/Getty Images
During the day, they dive to depths of 200 to 300 meters where light is scarce, eluding visual predators. By night, they ascend in search of food. This behavior represents the largest biomass transfer on Earth, as millions of zooplankton migrate invisibly through the water, significantly outnumbering the terrestrial migrations like the Serengeti wildebeest.
What occurs when light cannot penetrate deep underwater?
The existence of dark regions in the ocean restricts the vertical habitat for species, which could lead to heightened competition for food and space. Some species may expend less energy hunting, impacting predation dynamics and thus altering food webs and global fishery productivity.
Fish species that rely on sight, including both small schooling fish and large predators like tuna, will find their hunting zones confined to the shallows. Simultaneously, phytoplankton may face altered depths for photosynthesis due to decreasing light availability.
Is nighttime ocean darkness still a concern?
Absolutely. Beyond sunlight, moonlight plays a crucial role in nocturnal migrations of many marine creatures. While the ocean appears nearly black at night to humans, the moon’s dim glow has significant implications for guiding species during foraging and return to deeper waters.
Our lunar models indicate that as ocean clarity decreases, moonlight’s penetration diminishes, which may compress the nighttime habitat, dramatically shifting ecological interactions in darkness.
What is the global impact of these changes?
Ocean darkening could profoundly affect the carbon cycle as well. If zooplankton cannot dive as deeply to evade predators due to limited light, their efficiency in pulling carbon from the atmosphere diminishes. When zooplankton perish, they normally sink and trap carbon deep in the ocean; without the ability to dive, much of this carbon may remain in the upper layers, ready to be re-released into the atmosphere.
However, assessing how carbon moves from the illuminated surface to the ocean floor remains complex. Satellite data provides a global perspective, but it offers only a glimpse into dynamics at work.
Is there a way to combat ocean darkening?
In certain areas, yes. Coastal waters are especially vulnerable to terrestrial activities, particularly agricultural runoff. By managing land better, including practices such as reducing fertilizer usage, we could restore some clarity to coastal waters. Initiatives like the AgZero+ program led by the UK Center for Ecology and Hydrology encourage collaborative efforts with farmers to develop eco-friendly farming techniques, thereby minimizing runoff and enhancing water quality. Strategies like improved fertilizer management and agroforestry could substantially mitigate the darkening of coastal waters.
Nevertheless, addressing the drivers of darkening in the open ocean is far more challenging. Even if global emissions halt immediately, ecological responses would take decades, potentially centuries.
Is there hope for the seas?
Absolutely. Evidence shows that marine environments can exhibit remarkable resilience when given a chance. Protected marine ecosystems can recover swiftly. For instance, kelp forests off California rebounded rapidly in well-managed reserves after a severe marine heatwave between 2014 and 2016.
This resilience has led to a global push to expand marine protected areas, which can act as ecological refuge zones, helping to rebuild vital marine life and restore ecological equilibrium. Such measures are crucial in the face of climate stressors like heatwaves.
There is optimistic news: the ocean exhibits extraordinary self-repair capabilities. With adequate protection and time, marine ecosystems can respond swiftly, crucial for all life on Earth. The oceans, covering about 70% of the planet, play a significant role in climate regulation and carbon absorption, underscoring the need to protect this invaluable life-support system.
Quantum computers capable of breaking internet security codes are rapidly approaching reality. Discoveries from two research teams highlight the strides being made, indicating that current quantum machines are already over halfway to the necessary scale.
Both studies focus on cryptographic methods centered around the Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem (ECDLP)—a mathematical challenge ideally suited for data encryption. ECDLP has been widely adopted for securing internet communications, including banking transactions and major cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin.
While classical computers struggle to breach elliptical curve-based codes, it has been understood since the 1990s that quantum computers possess the ability to do so. However, building a sufficiently powerful quantum computer seemed a far-off challenge due to engineering limits.
Recent advancements in both theory and engineering have drastically accelerated this timeline. Theoretical research has led to optimized quantum hacking algorithms, significantly lowering the required quantum computing power. For instance, in 2019, estimates indicated a need for 20 million qubits to crack a related encryption system called RSA-2048; by February, that figure plummeted to just 100,000 qubits.
Furthermore, while the most sophisticated quantum computers in 2019 barely exceeded 50 qubits, today’s leading machines have surpassed 1,000 qubits, with the largest unused qubit array containing 6,100 qubits.
Currently, Dorev Bruchstein and his team suggest that ECDLP could require machines with only 10,000 qubits. Though this decoding would still take years, Ryan Babush and his colleagues from Google’s Quantum Research division have shown that just 500,000 qubits could perform the task in as little as nine minutes.
“Today marks a significant moment for quantum computing and cryptography,” says Justin Drake of the Ethereum Foundation, which collaborates with researchers at Google. He shared this insight via social media.
Bruchstein’s estimates are based on qubits formed from ultracold atoms manipulated by lasers, providing increased connectivity that likely reduces the number of required qubits.
Bruchstein envisions a potential array of 10,000 ultracold qubits being realized within a year, yet controlling and operating them with precision will be a significant challenge. Proper interaction between qubits is critical, eliminating the possibility of merely linking multiple existing machines together.
Bruchstein anticipates that a fully operational quantum computer may not be available until the decade’s end. “We’re making substantial progress, but it’s beginning to feel feasible to build,” he explains.
Concerns Over Cryptocurrency Security
The Google team derived their conclusions based on a different type of quantum computer using superconducting circuits. These quantum systems are often viewed as more advanced, and Google prioritizes their development.
The researchers have refrained from commenting publicly about the study. However, the paper indicates that “resource estimations could be dramatically lowered with more aggressive hardware capabilities,” implying that the 500,000 qubit target might be conservative. Notably, they refrain from providing details about the decryption algorithm for security reasons.
They also indicate that such quantum computers could potentially intercept cryptocurrency transactions and reroute funds for a brief period before recording, effectively enabling theft.
Given the findings from both studies, it’s clear that Bitcoin may be more susceptible to quantum attacks sooner than previously understood, according to Scott Aaronson from the University of Texas at Austin.
Stefano Gozioso from the University of Oxford notes that both configurations of quantum computers encounter substantial engineering hurdles before practical application is achievable, particularly the ultracold atom method, which is still largely experimental. He emphasizes the growing urgency for security in the digital realm.
Some internet browsers already implement encryption impervious to quantum attacks, termed post-quantum cryptography (PQC). While traditional banking systems may adapt post-attack, a decentralized cryptocurrency framework might be far more vulnerable, according to Gozioso. Google suggests that organizations transition to PQC by 2029 as the need intensifies.
“This is precisely why we initiated the PQC standardization project over a decade ago,” states Dustin Moody from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). “We anticipated that advancements in quantum hardware would coincide with algorithmic progress.”
NIST has identified several PQC algorithms with the potential to become future security standards as practical quantum computers emerge, with the U.S. federal government targeting a transition by 2035. However, Moody warns that organizations should act promptly. “These studies reinforce that the window for migration is limited, making immediate action imperative,” he concludes.
Male Octopus (Amphioctopus fangsiao) with Curled Hectocotylus (Upper Left)
Photo by Keijiro Haruki
For male octopuses, protecting a specific arm is crucial. This pivotal appendage, known as the hectocotylus, has a distinct role in reproduction, which makes its preservation vital.
Recent research led by marine biologist Keijiro Haruki from Nagasaki University sheds light on the lengths male octopuses go to safeguard this indispensable limb from damage or predation.
Haruki initiated the study by gently prodding a male octopus’s arms. He observed significant resistance from the octopus whenever he touched its hectocotylus: “This reaction indicated how much this arm matters to male octopuses, akin to how human males react when threatened.”
The hectocotylus (designated R3) of male octopuses is anatomically unique compared to the other seven arms, specifically designed for sperm transfer during mating.
Male octopuses possess a single testicle situated within the mantle (the bulbous part at the rear of the head), where sperm are produced and stored in structures called spermatophores.
During mating, the male octopus inserts the tip of his hectocotylus into the female. Before ejaculation, the hectocotylus is rolled into a tubular shape, allowing the male to force water through it and push the spermatophore into the female.
To understand how octopuses safeguard their essential third arm, Haruki’s team studied 32 male and 41 female pygmy octopuses (Octopus Parvas).
Among the sample, 13 females were missing their R3 arm, but only one male lacked this vital appendage. Various experiments compared the usage of R3 between genders.
Male Octopus Parvus Exploring During Experiment (Lower Right)
Photo by Keijiro Haruki
The first experiment involved placing a lead weight in the center of an aquarium to observe how the octopuses used their limbs to investigate. It was found that significantly more females than males employed their R3 arm to explore the novel object.
In a subsequent test, frozen shrimp were presented in a box within the tank. Males exhibited a tendency to explore with their other seven arms far longer before risking the use of their hectocotylus.
Haruki concludes that this elaborate arm usage system likely evolved because safeguarding one specialized arm is less costly than enlarging the male’s penis.
When a male loses R3, his mating activity halts until a new one regenerates, which can take several months. Nevertheless, Haruki notes that such losses are rare, indicating that males effectively protect this crucial arm from harm.
Easily Installed Plug-in Solar Panels for Your Balcony
Image Credit: imageBROKER.com / Alamy Stock Photo
The global growth of solar energy generation is remarkable. In just 15 years, the costs associated with solar power installations have plummeted by 90%, now comprising over 90% of the costs for setting up solar systems. This surge now represents around 80% of the world’s new power capacity each year. As oil and gas prices surged due to conflicts in the Middle East, solar power emerged as a logical alternative for numerous countries.
In the UK, instead of sticking to the old methods, the government plans to legalize a previously banned form of solar energy generation. “This will be available within months.” Through local shops and supermarkets.
These plug-in solar systems are user-friendly: bring the panel home, place it in a sunny location, and simply plug it in. There’s no installation cost and you can immediately start generating solar energy for your home. If you relocate, just take the panels with you, making solar energy increasingly affordable and accessible.
Many nations have already adopted plug-in solar technology with high expectations for its global impact. However, critical questions remain: Will it actually reduce energy costs? How affordable is it? Is it safe?
Plug-in solar is a more straightforward solution. With smaller kits, you can acquire an 800-watt system for roughly £400, which could supply about 20% of the average UK household’s energy needs. Installation is quick and easy—you attach the panels to a balcony railing or garage roof and plug it into an outlet to start generating energy.
While excess energy returns to the grid, without professional installation, you won’t earn from it. As noted by Mark Golding, a British solar panel installer at Spirit Energy, “essentially that energy just benefits the neighbor.”
Plug-in solar technology has already made inroads outside the UK, with over 1 million systems installed in countries like Germany , where as of July last year, it had a total capacity of 1.6 to 2.4 gigawatts—enough to boil 500,000 kettles all at once.
Germany is currently the only country effectively tracking plug-in solar systems, making statistical information scarce. However, estimates suggest up to 5 million kits are in use across Europe . Though small in the overall energy mix, these systems can lower individual energy bills and cumulatively boost renewable energy output countrywide.
Jan Rosenau , a researcher from Oxford University, believes adoption rates could increase if governments continue to allow personal installations. He asserts, “Though each system is small, their collective impact on distributed generation and public involvement in the energy transition is significant.”
Currently, many plug-in panels remain illegal in the U.S., but Utah has become the first state to legalize their use. Numerous other states are following suit. A similar bill is underway. According to Cola Stryker from BrightSaver, a U.S. solar non-profit, individuals outside Utah face excessive bureaucratic hurdles to install a few panels compared to those developing large-scale solar farms, marking a dubious situation.
Stryker anticipates that plug-in solar could alleviate financial stress, contribute to climate change mitigation, and pave the way for significantly wider adoption of renewable electricity across the U.S. “This could mark a critical turning point, allowing the benefits of renewable energy costs to be accessible to consumers,” she predicts. BrightSaver estimates that by 2035, 24 million U.S. households could utilize plug-in solar solutions.
Is Plug-in Solar Safe?
Despite its widespread use, safety experts express concerns over plug-in solar kits. Mark Coles from the Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET) suggests that consumers check their home’s wiring before purchasing a system. Moreover, several areas of concern have been noted.
One issue is the potential ineffectiveness of residual current devices (RCDs). RCDs, which help prevent electric shocks and short circuits, may not be equipped for split current flows. In the U.S., there are similar concerns. Germany’s rapid advancements were aided by the standardization of two-way RCDs in the 1980s.
Another concern raised by the IET is related to systems that operate multiple kits during a power outage. Plug-in setups should ideally shut down; however, if they continue generating energy, this may confuse devices into thinking that grid power is still available, posing risks for electrical workers during repairs due to potential electrocution.
“This places maintenance personnel at risk,” Coles comments. “This contradicts the ‘just buy and plug in’ idea, but the reality is that public safety risks are present.”
While Coles acknowledges the advantages of plug-in solar, he emphasizes the necessity for manufacturers to demonstrate the safety of their products in unusual circumstances.
New Scientist reported that the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero maintains that their testing shows plug-in solar systems can be safely used with domestic circuits within the UK. All products must align with UK product safety regulations, and an independent review is underway to determine further guidelines before sales commence.
Stryker asserts that the greatest risk lies in the decision to do nothing amid the escalating effects of climate change and rising energy costs affecting many households. She believes public adoption of this technology will occur regardless of formal approval, stressing that the priority should be ensuring public safety. “Solar energy is the most affordable energy available globally, and it’s the cheapest energy ever produced by humanity,” she concludes.
Topics:
solar power/
renewable energy
This optimized HTML maintains your original structure while enhancing the content for better SEO performance by utilizing relevant keywords and improving clarity.
A virus traditionally affecting marine life is causing glaucoma-like symptoms in humans.
Virginie Vaes/Getty Images
A newly identified virus typically affecting marine animals has led to alarming glaucoma-like symptoms, including irreversible vision loss, in a handful of individuals in China. This marks the first documented instance of an aquatic virus infecting humans and resulting in serious health complications. The infections are believed to have occurred through consumption of raw seafood or handling aquatic creatures, with some evidence suggesting possible human-to-human transmission.
“It’s astonishing that this virus is capable of infecting invertebrates, fish, and mammals,” says Edward Holmes, a researcher at the University of Sydney. “I cannot recall any virus exhibiting such a broad host range.”
Cases of persistent ocular hypertension viral anterior uveitis (POH-VAU), characterized by inflammation and increased eye pressure leading to optic nerve damage, are escalating in China. To delve into the triggers behind this spike, researchers from the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences in Qingdao evaluated 70 patients diagnosed with the condition between January 2022 and April 2025.
The research team tested these individuals for the latent and lethal nodavirus, which commonly infects various marine species; remarkably, all 70 tests returned positive. “Up to this point, viruses from aquatic animals have not been shown to cause illness in humans directly,” the researchers stated, though they declined to provide further commentary. Despite treatment aimed at reducing inflammation, a significant portion of subjects required surgical intervention, with one case resulting in irreversible vision loss.
In an effort to better understand the virus, the research team infected mice, which exhibited marked pathological changes in the cornea, iris, and retina within a month. They also observed that the virus could spread among mice sharing water.
Of those studied, more than half owned aquatic animals, highlighting a potential source for the infection. However, approximately 16% reported consuming raw seafood or had close ties with high-risk groups.
While there is no definitive proof of human-to-human transmission, an epidemiological study revealed a distinct subgroup of urban POH-VAU patients with no direct contact with aquatic animals or other risk factors, apart from close interactions with family members. These relatives, who are at a heightened risk for the latent nodavirus, have experienced hand injuries during handling of aquatic animals, implying that the virus may transmit within households, potentially via shared utensils.
To gauge the virus’s prevalence, researchers evaluated 523 captive and wild aquatic animals across Asia, the Americas, Europe, Antarctica, and Africa, concluding the global presence of this hidden and deadly nodavirus. They identified it in 49 species, including shrimp, crabs, fish, and barnacles, resulting in symptoms like lethargy and color loss; yet the reasons behind its ocular effects in humans remain unclear.
Holmes emphasized the potential ubiquity of this pathogen: “I suspect it is much more prevalent than currently recognized. I wouldn’t discount the possibility it first passed through another species, possibly a mammal.”
The virus may also propagate among marine organisms consuming infected animals. For instance, researchers found that farmed shrimp often consume frozen brine shrimp or Antarctic krill, potentially resulting in infections. Moreover, the introduction of this virus into warmer waters has led to increased infections in marine life, suggesting that Antarctic species may serve as reservoirs for pathogens without displaying illness themselves.
Researchers warn that the transmission of this elusive and deadly nodavirus from marine life to humans presents new biosecurity threats. Nonetheless, Holmes reiterates the absence of clear evidence for human-to-human transmission, stating, “This is not regarded as a contagious disease.”
Topics:
This rewritten content integrates relevant keywords while retaining essential information and HTML tags, optimizing it for better search engine visibility.
Recent studies are sparking debate among researchers regarding whether droughts in late Roman Britain triggered conflicts. While climatologists present evidence linking droughts to civil unrest and violence, historians challenge the accuracy of this interpretation, citing misinterpretations of vital historical documents.
This ongoing debate underscores the complex challenge of integrating historical climate data into the broader historical narrative. “This is a recurring theme,” notes Dagomar DeGroot, a climate historian at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.
In a recent study, Wolf Bungen and geographers from the University of Cambridge examined tree-ring data from oak trees across southern England and northern France, reconstructing climatic conditions from 288 AD to 2009.
They identified a sequence of intense summer droughts in southern England between 364 and 366 AD, correlating this period with the “Barbarian Conspiracy” of 367 AD—a series of military defeats inflicted on the Roman Empire by British and Irish warriors, including the abduction of high-ranking commanders. Although the Empire eventually reestablished its dominance, it gradually retreated from Britain over the subsequent fifty years. Bungen and his team argue that these droughts caused food shortages, prompting revolts against Roman rule.
Moreover, they extended these findings across the Roman Empire, analyzing 106 battles alongside tree-ring data from Europe, revealing that battles were more frequent following dry summers and extremely hot years.
However, a contrasting perspective emerged from another research team in a critical response published in the journal Climate Change. “We believe the issues within this study warrant scrutiny,” remarks Helen Foxhall Forbes, a historian at the Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy.
While acknowledging the intrigue of climate data on historical events, Forbes critiques the interpretations of historical and archaeological references in Bungen’s team’s work.
According to Forbes, the only contemporary account of these conflicts comes from the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who documented Roman history from 330 to 400 AD, and whose writings on the barbarian uprisings remain fragmented. Her examination of Ammianus’s work concludes that his references to the “barbarica conspiracy” could imply an organized rebellion or simply conflict and unrest.
Furthermore, Forbes points out Ammianus’s description of the British as being in an “Ultimum…Inopium” state—interpreted as complete helplessness—which might allude to starvation or other crises. She argues that Ammianus’s reference to this state is a result rather than a cause of the conspiracy.
Bungen’s team has defended their position in a follow-up publication in Climate Change, highlighting previous research interpretations of Ammianus’s terminology, such as Inopium and barbarica conspiracy.
Another concern raised by critics pertains to the lack of consistency in their battle database, wherein varying types of conflict—from formal battles to civil disturbances—are represented. According to Dan Lawrence, an archaeologist at Durham University, the implications of drought-induced food shortages might incite riots, but solid evidence to support such a narrative is needed.
“The research team lacked a historian on their roster,” states Foxhall-Forbes. Although Bungen’s team included archaeologists, expertise in late Roman Britain was absent.
Bungen has emphasized his commitment to interdisciplinary work, incorporating input from archaeologists specializing in the Roman Empire. He expressed a desire for constructive dialogue and collaboration with researchers who can reinterpret or expand upon their findings. He also noted that frequent research on climate change and history tends to overlook ecologists, who play a pivotal role in understanding agricultural responses to climatic shifts. “This is often where research remains ambiguous,” he remarks.
DeGroot, who did not participate in this review, acknowledges the absence of historical context in this study as a significant shortcoming but maintains that the core findings related to tree-ring data remain valuable for historical inquiries. “We know that the drought likely occurred,” he states. “We can further investigate whether droughts indeed influenced societal violence through case studies.”
DeGroot reflects on the tension between “minimalist” and “maximalist” historical interpretations. Minimalists focus primarily on specific events, often reluctant to generalize, while maximalists strive to identify overarching trends in fragmented data sets. “While they can reveal previously unconsidered forces, often their conclusions may stem from shaky foundations,” he observes.
Walking Through Hadrian’s Wall: Discover Roman Innovations in England
Embark on an immersive walking tour along Hadrian’s Wall, one of Britain’s most iconic ancient landmarks and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, tracing the footsteps of the Romans.
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
